IGCSE Chemistry

Topic 7: Acids, Bases & Salts

Acids

 Acids: compounds that dissolves in water to give hydrogen ions (H+). This gives a
solution that turns blue litmus red (change in colour is due to H+ ions)
 Hydrogen ions are also known as proton, that's why acids are called proton donors.
 Acids are neutralized by bases to form salts.
 Acids in food give it a sour taste, they are colourless, they conduct electricity.

Common acids

Acid Formula Ions present * Basicity Strength

Hydrochloric acd HCl Chloride Cl- H+ Monobasic
Nitric acid HNO3 Nitrate NO3- H+ Monobasic
Strong
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Sulfate SO42- 2H+ Dibasic
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Phosphate PO43- 3H+ Tribasic
Ethanoic (acetic) Ethanoate
CH3COOH H+ Monobasic Weak
acid or vingar) CH3COO-
 Basicity is the number of hydrogen ions that can be donated to a base. Acid of the
formula HX is monobasic while acid of the formula H2Y is dibasic.
 Other notable acids are hydrofluoric acid (HF), Hydroiodic acid (HI), Hydrobromic acid
(HBr) and carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Weak & Strong acids:

Strong Weak
Completely ionized in solution to give Partially ionized in solution to give low
Define
high concentration of hydrogen ions concentration of hydrogen ions
 Hydrochloric acid  Organic acids like Ethanoic
Examples  Sulfuric acid acid & Citric acid
 Nitric acid  Carbonic acid – H2CO3

Note about hydrochloric acid

 Hydrochloric acid is a solution of hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in water.

𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
HCl (g) HCl (aq) H+ + Cl-
Covalent Ionic Completely ionized to hydrogen ions &
chloride ions in solution

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Reactions of acids:
1) Acid + Reactive metal Salt + Hydrogen [Displacement]

 Only reactive metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace the
hydrogen from with dilute acids to form salt & hydrogen.
 The reaction is a displacement, exothermic & redox reaction
 Magnesium + Sulfuric acid Magnesium sulfate + Hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mg (s) + 2 H+ (aq) Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

2) Acid + Base (metal oxide / hydroxide) Salt + Water (Neutralization)

 Neutralization is a reaction in which acid react with a base forming salt.

 Most neutralization reactions are exothermic.
 It's NOT a redox reaction. No electrons are lost or gained
 Copper oxide + Sulfuric acid Copper sulfate + Water
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (I)
2-
O (aq) + 2 H+ (aq) H2O (I)

 Sodium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + Water

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (I)
- +
OH (aq) + H (aq) H2O (I)

3) Acid + Metal Carbonates Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water

 Effervescence (rapid bubbling of gas during reaction) of carbon dioxide is

observed.
 Metal hydrogen carbonate also neutralizes acids, giving the same 3 products.
 Calcium carbonate + Nitric acid Calcium nitrate + Carbon dioxide +
Water
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HNO3 (aq) Ca (NO3)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (I)

4) Acid + Ammonia Ammonium Salt (only)

 Acids neutralizes ammonia (aqueous or gaseous) to form ammonium salt only.

 Hydrochloric acid + Ammonia Ammnium chloride
HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) NH4Cl (aq)

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Q: How to differentiate between a strong acid & a weak acid?

 Bring 2 samples of the same volume and same concentration for fair comparison.

Method Strong acid Weak acid

Reaction with metal carbonate Vigorous effervescence Weak effervescence
Electric Conductivity Excellent / better good
Using a pH meter (?) Lower pH (below 7) Higher pH (below 7)

N.B: Concentrated acid means little solvent/water used (topic 2) and does not
necessarily mean strong acid; completely ionized (topic 7)

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Bases

 Bases: compounds that accept hydrogen ions from acids and neutralize them to form
salts. They are called proton acceptor.
 Bases are either metal oxides or metal hydroxides.
 Bases are solids that are insoluble in water. Bases that are soluble in water are called
alkalis.
 Alkalis: Basic compounds that dissolves in water to give hydroxide ions (OH-). This
gives a solution that turns red litmus to blue (change in colour is due to OH- ions).
 Insoluble bases have no effect on litmus paper/solution.
 Pure alkalis are all solid except ammonia (NH3) which is the only alkaline gas. They all
dissolve to make alkaline solution.
 Bases feel soapy to touch due to reaction with fats/oils in the skin (see Organic topic)

Common bases/alkalis

Base Formula Ions present Strength

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ OH- Strong
Potassium hydroxide KOH K+ OH- Strong
Alkalis
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Ca+ 2 OH- Strong
(soluble)
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH
NH4+ OH- Weak
(aqueous ammonia) NH3 (aq)
Bases Magnesium oxide MgO Strong
Doesn't ionize
(insoluble) Copper oxide CuO Strong

Weak & Strong alkalis

Strong Weak
Completely ionized in solution to give Partially ionized in solution to give low
Define
high concentration of hydroxide ions concentration of hydroxide ions

Examples  Group I metal hydroxide  Ammonia (Aqueous ammonia)

 Calcium hydroxide

Note about Ammonia

 Ammonia is a weak alkaline gas (pH:10). It dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia;
also known as ammonium hydroxide; which partially ionizes to NH4+ & OH+ ions.
NH3 (g) + H2O (I) NH3 (aq) = NH4OH (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

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Reactions of bases/alkalis:
1) Base (metal oxide / hydroxide) + Acid Salt + Water [Neutralization]

 See reactions of acids – No. 2

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕
2) Alkali + Ammonium Salts Salt + Water + Ammonia

 Alkalis release ammonia when heated/warmed with ammonium salts.

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
 Sodium hydroxide + Ammonium Chloride Sodium chloride + Water +
Ammonia
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (s) NaCl (aq) + H2O (I) + NH3 (g)

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pH Scale & indicators:

 The strength of aqueous solutions of acids & alkalis can be measured using a 14-point
scale called the pH scale. The scale runs from 0 to 14.
 Acidic solution = pH less than 7. The stronger the acid, the lower the pH
 Alkaline solution = pH more than 7. The stronger the alkali, the higher the pH
 Neutral Solution = pH is exactly 7
 Indicators: they are substances that change colour according to the pH of the solution,
indicating if the solution is acidic, alkaline or neutral, it was first discovered from fruit
extracts like berries  (paper 6)

Common indicators used in chemistry

Indicator Acidic Alkaline

Methyl orange Red Yellow

Litmus Paper / solution Red Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

 Universal indicator: It's a mixture of indicators/dyes that changes to a different colour for
every pH unit. Like litmus, it can be used as a solution or as a universal indicator paper.
 pH meter: An instrument that can measure the exact pH of a solution  most accurate

N.B:

 Adding water to an acidic solution  dilute it  increase the pH (becomes less acidic).
 Heating an acidic solution  evaporate some water  concentrate it  decrease the
pH (becomes more acidic).
 Indicators can only tell if you have an acidic, alkaline or neutral solution, while universal
indicator can tell if you have a strong acid or alkali  strength of acids / alkalis
 Starch acts as an indicator for iodine, it gives dark blue colour  (paper 6)
 Strong acids & strong alkalis are highly corrosive.

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Environmental problems involving acids:

Acidity of Soil
 For crops to grow healthy, the pH of soil must be near 7. Plants grow best in neutral soil.
 Basic chemicals are added to treat / neutralize acidic soil. Liming is adding Limestone
CaCO3, QuickTime CaO or Slaked time Ca(OH)2 to the soil  (see carbonates topic)

Finding the acidity of the soil (paper 6):

1) Samples are taken from different areas of the field.

2) Water is added to the soil samples in a beaker and stirred.
3) Barium sulfate (insoluble in water) is added to the mixture to help soil particles settle
at the bottom and to clear the liquid.
4) The clear liquid is tested with the universal indicator to find the pH.

Acid Rain (pH=4)

1ry cause of acid rain 2ry cause of acid rain

SO2, from burning fossil Oxides of nitrogen – NO &
Acidic gas formation fuels containing sulfur NO2, when N2 & O2 react
(like coal in power station) together at high temperature

How it is converted to Dissolves in water/clouds, fall Dissolve in water/clouds, fall

acid rain down as sulphuric acid down as nitric acid

Effects of acid rain:

1) Buildings made from limestone, concrete and cement are attacked chemically.
2) Metal structures like bridges & cars are attacked chemically (speeds up corrosion)
3) Acidity the soil affecting the growth of crops, kill trees & plants.
4) Acidity lakes; killing fish life.

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Salts

 Salts: Compounds formed when a metal or NH4+ the hydrogen in the acids.
 Salts made depend on the acid used:

Acid used Type of salt

Hydrochloric acid Chlorides
Nitric acid Nitrates
Sulfuric acid Sulfates
Ethanoic acid Ethanoates

 Some salts are found in the hydrated form (bounded to water of crystallization molecules)
 Salts are either soluble or insoluble in water.

Solubility of salts:

 Soluble salts can be made from

their parent acid using any of the
three characteristic reactions of
acids studied earlier.
 Any salt inside the grey circle is
soluble; any salt outside the grey
circle is insoluble.
 All group I metals, Ammonium &
Nitrate salts are soluble.

Preparation of soluble salts:

Excess insoluble solid method Titration Method

metal Metal Alkaline solution (soluble base /
Chemical 1 metal
carbonate oxide soluble metal carbonate)
Chemical 2 Acid (aq) Acid (aq)
Until
Keep Until bubbles of visible
The drop of acid/alkali that changes the colour
adding unit hydrogen/carbon solid is left
of the indicator = end point
… dioxide stops at the
bottom

 Excess means more than enough/required to react

 Adding excess solid ensures that all the acid is used up in the reactions.

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Excess Insoluble Solid method

Example: Making zinc sulfate from zinc & dilute sulfuric acid

1) Excess solid (zinc metal) is added to the dilute acid (sulfuric acid) in a beaker until the
reaction stops fizzing and excess zinc can be seen visible at the bottom of the beaker.
2) Filter the mixture to remove the unreacted/excess zinc (residue). The filtrate is an
aqueous solution of zinc sulfate.
3) The filtrate is evaporated in an evaporating dish/basin till crystallization point.
4) Concentrated solution is left to cool at room temperature; crystals of zinc sulfate are
formed.
5) Crystals of zinc sulfate are filtered off, washed to remove soluble impurities & dried
carefully between 2 filter papers.

 Zinc sulfate could also be prepared by reacting dilute sulfuric acid with either zinc
carbonate or zinc oxide

Zinc or Zinc Carbonate Zinc Oxide

Fizzing / bubbling Yes No

Heating the acid No Yes (to speed up rx)

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Method B: Titration method

Example: Making sodium sulfate from sodium hydroxide & dilute aulfuric acid

1) 25 cm3 (or any known volume) of dilute alkali (sodium hydroxide or carbonate) is
put into a conical flask with a pipette (never with a measuring cylinder)
2) 3 drops of suitable indicator such as phenolphthalein (ph.ph.) are put into the alkali.
It turns pink (alkaline).
3) A burette is filled to the zero mark with dilute sulfuric acid. The acid from the
burette is titrated = runs drop wise into the alkali until the indicator changes colour
from pink to colourless, the solution is now neutral = end point

Volume of acid from burette is noted

(Volume of acid needed to completely neutralize the alkali)
Experiment is repeated without using then indicator

4) Repeat the experiment again using the same volume of alkali and the same volume
of acid that has been added, but without using the indicator.
5) Finally, the salt solution is evaporated to the crystallization point, allowed to cool;
crystals are formed, separate the crystals by filtration, wash and dry them between
two filter papers or in a warm oven for 3 minutes.

Using titration to determine which acid/base is more concentrated (paper 6 + moles)

 We can calculate the concentration of an acid using titration; by using a solution of

alkali of known concentration (called standard solution) and titrate the acid against it.
 Example: 19 ml of acid from burette completely neutralized 25 ml of alkali in conical
flask. Which reagent has the higher concentration? Explain you answer.
………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………

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Preparation of insoluble salts:

 Precipitation: the formation of an insoluble salt by mixing two aqueous solutions.

Solution 1 (aq) + Solution 2 (aq) Insoluble Salt (s) + Solution 3 (aq)

XNO3 (aq) + HY or NaY (aq) XY (s) + HNO3 or NaNO3 (aq)

 Precipitate (ppt): An insoluble solid produced during a precipitation reaction. The

precipitate makes the liquid cloudy/turbid. The precipitate is removed by filtration &
washed to remove traces of any soluble substances.
 Precipitation is a type of double displacement reaction.

Example 1: Making barium sulfate from barium chloride & potassium sulfate

Word equation: Barium chloride + Potassium sulfate Barium sulfate + Potassium

chloride

Symbol equation: BaCl2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2 KCl (aq)

Ionic equation: Ba2+ (aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)

White ppt

Example 2: Making lead iodide from lead nitrate & potassium iodide

Word equation: Lead nitrate + Potassium iodide Lead iodide + Potassium nitrate

Symbol equation: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 Kl (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2 KNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation: Pb2+ (aq) + 2 I-(aq) PbI2 (s)

Yellow ppt

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Example 3: Making silver chloride from silver nitrate & sodium chloride

Word equation: Silver nitrate + Soldium chloride Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate

Symbol equation: AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl (s)

White ppt

Water of crystallization:
 Crystal of many salts may contain water molecules combined to it in their crystal lattice.
o These salts are called hydrated salts
o These combined water molecules are called water of crystallization; which gives
the crystals their distinctive shape and sometimes colour.
 The number of water of crystallization molecules is included in the formula of the slat.

Examples of hydrated salts:

Name Formula Number of water molecules

Hydrated copper (II) sulfate CuSO4.5H2O 5
Hydrated cobalt chloride CoCl2.6H2O 6
Hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO4.2H2O 2

 When the hydrated salt is heated, it loses its water molecules in the form of steam &
changes to the anhydrous salt  Dehydration: which is an endothermic change.
 The anhydrous form can change back to the hydrated form by simply adding water 
Hydration: which is an exothermic change.
 The hydrated and the anhydrous forms of the same salt are usually different in colour.
 A reaction that can change direction (go forward or backward) if the conditions of the
reaction are changed is called a reversible reaction. ( )

Examples of heating hydrated salts:

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(1) Heating hydrated copper (II) sulfate crystals to give the anhydrous form

Heat (endo)
CuSO4.5H2O (s) CuSO4 (s) + 5 H2O (g)
Hydrated Add water (Exo) Anhydrous
Blue White

(2) Heating hydrated cobalt (II) chloride crystals to give the anhydrous form

Heat (endo)
CoCl2.6H2O (s) CoCl2 (s) + 6 H2O (g)
Hydrated Add water (Exo) Anhydrous
Pink Blue

N.B: The anhydrous forms of copper (II) sulfate & cobalt (II) chloride can be used to
chemically test for water. The only physical test for pure water is measuring its b.p.

Types of Oxides:
 When an element reacts with oxygen, it forms an oxide.
 There are 4 main types of oxides listed below
1) Acidic Oxides 2) Basic Oxides
 Most non-metal oxides  Most metal oxides
 They are covalent compounds  They are ionic compounds
 some dissolve in water  acidic solution  some dissolve in water  alkaline
ex: CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 solution
 react with alkalis forming salt & water ex: Na2O + H2O  2 NaOH
ex: CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + H2O  react with acids forming salts & water
ex: Na2O + 2 HCl  2 NaCl + H2O
Examples Solubility Examples Solubility
CO2, SO2, SO3, NO2 Yes K2O, Na2O, CaO Yes
SiO2, P2O5 No MgO, CuO, Fe2O3 … etc No

3) Amphoteric oxides:
 Some metal oxides & hydroxides – like aluminium & zinc – can react with both
acids & alkalis to give salt & water. In other words, they show properties of both a
base & an acid.
 Amphoteric oxides are insoluble in water.

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Examples: Al2O3, Al2(OH)3, ZnO, Zn(OH)2

Aluminium oxide + Hydrochloric acid Aluminium chloride + Water

Al2O3 (s) + 6 HCl (aq) 2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

Aluminium oxide + Sodium hydroxide Sodium aluminate + Water

Al2O3 (s) + 2 NaOH (aq) 2 NaAlO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Zinc oxide + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Water

ZnO (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Zinc oxide + Sodium hydroxide Sodium Zincate + Water

ZnO (s) + 2 NaOH (aq) Na2ZnO2 (aq) + H2O (l)

4) Neutral oxides
 Some non-metal oxides which do not react/dissolve with either acids or alkalis.
 Examples: CO, NO, H2O

Q: How can you to test for the type of oxide?

Type of oxide pH of oxide solution Reaction with acid (HCl) Reaction with alkali (NaOH)
Acidic oxide <7 No Yes
Basic oxide >7 Yes No
Amphoteric Yes Yes
Neutral =7 No No

Q: How could you prove that the percentage of water in hydrated nickel sulfate is 41%?

1. Put 100 grams of hydrated NiSO4 in evaporating dish, evaporate till complete
dryness
2. Reweigh the salt using balance  59 grams (of anhydrous nickel sulfate) are present

Now, predict the formula of hydrated nickel sulfate? NiSO4.?H2O

1. Mr of NiSO4 in hydrated NiSO4 = 59 + 32 + (16 x 4) = 155  59%

2. % of water in hydrated in NiSO4  41%
3. Mass of water in hydrated NiSO4  41 x 155 / 59 = 107.7
4. Mr of 1 molecule of H2O = (1 x 2) + 16 = 18
5. No. of water molecules in hydrated NiSO4 = 107.7/18 = 5.98 = almost 6
6. Hydrated nickel sulfate formula = NiSO4.6H2O

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Identification of Ions: (all of the following reactions are precipitation reactions)

Anion Test Product

Carbonate – CO3-2 Effervescence of CO2 that
Add dilute acid (ex: dil. HCl)
(test on solid) turns limewater milky

Chloride – Cl- White ppt of silver chloride

(in solution) Ag+ + Cl-  AgCl

1- Acidify Cream (yellowish white) ppt of

Bromide – Br-
silver bromide
(in solution) 2- Add silver nitrate or lead nitrate Ag+ + Br-  AgBr
Yellow ppt of Silver iodide
Iodide – I-
Ag+ + I-  AgI

Sulfate – SO4-2 1- Acidify White ppt of barium sulfate

2- Add barium chloride or barium
(in solution) nitrate Ba2+ + SO42-  BaSO4

Nitrate – NO3- 1- Add aq. Sodium hydroxide Ammonia gas (pungent) is

2- Add little aluminium powder/foil produced which turns damp
(in solution) 3- Warm/heat red litmus paper blue
* acidify: add few drops of dilute nitric acid * ppt: precipitate

Result of adding aqueous Sodium Result of adding aqueous

Cation
hydroxide Ammonia
Blue ppt of Cu(OH)2 Blue ppt. soluble in excess
Copper II (Cu2+)
Insoluble in excess giving deep blue solution

Dirty green ppt of Fe(OH)2 Dirty green ppt.

Iron II (Fe2+)
Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess
Red-brown ppt of Fe(OH)3 Red-brown ppt
Iron III (Fe3+)
Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess
White ppt of Zn(OH)2
Zinc (Zn2+)
Soluble in excess  colourless solution
White ppt of Al(OH)3 White ppt of Al(OH)3
Aluminium (Al3+) Soluble in excess  colourless
solution Insoluble in excess

White ppt of Ca(OH)2

Calcium (Ca2+) No ppt / very faint white ppt
Insoluble in excess
Ammonium (NH4+) Ammonia is produced on warming

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