KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND BUILDING ENGINEEERING

TCBE 4203: TRAFFIC ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

LECTURER: MR. ZZIGWA MARVIN

YEAR FOUR: CONTINUEOUS ASSESSMENT Dated: 17/ 02/ 2022

SUBMITTED BY:

N0. NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

1. WALUFU TITUS 17/U/16131/ECD/PD
2. WAMALA DANIEL 17/U/167/ECD/GV
3. NABWIRE CHRISTINE 17/U/16105/ECD/PD
4. AYUGI PATRICIA 17/U/8315/ECE/PE
5. NAMUKASA JUDITH 17/U/161/ECD/GV
6. SSENSUKUSA ISAAC 17/U/165/ECD/GV
7. KANYESIGYE HILLARY 17/U/158/ECD/GV
8. MUGUME CALEB 17/U/8354/ECE/PE
9. GONAHASA FRED 17/U/8327/ECE/PE
10. AMPAIRE BONUS 18//U/ECD/21387/PD
11. ACANA JORAM EDWARDU 17/U8268/ECD/PD
12. AKORAGYE OSCAR 17/U/17514/ECD/GV
13. MUSOMBA JOHNATHAN JACOB 17/U/160/ECE/GV
QUESTION (A)

Write detailed notes on five objectives of transportation planning countries.

Transportation planning
This is the Study of present transportation patterns in relation to present population, economy and
land use of area; Estimation of future transportation patterns related to prediction of future
population, land use and economy; Development of alternatives/measures/strategies; Adoption of
a transportation plan with proposals for its implementation and financing (Nestrans, 2007).
The main Five Objectives of transportation planning include;
Environmental Protection
This objective involves the reduction of potential negative impacts of transportation on
environment that is to say reduction in use of transportation entities or facilities and formulating
alternative safe ways of usages.
The transportation planning objectives relating to environmental protection are as follows:
 To reduce noise

 To improve local air quality

 To reduce greenhouse gases

 To protect and enhance the landscape

 To protect and enhance the townscape

 To protect the heritage of historic resources

 To support biodiversity

 To protect water environment

 To encourage physical fitness

 To improve journey ambience

Economic efficiency
This takes in all measures for which the willingness to pay of the beneficiaries exceeds the required
compensation for the losers.
In transport the efficiency objective is concerned primarily with maximizing the net benefits of the
provision of transport.
The transportation planning objectives relating to economy efficiency are as follows:
 To get good value of money in relation to impacts on public accounts

 To improve transport economic efficiency for business users and transport providers

 To improve transport economic efficiency for consumer users

 To improve reliability

 To provide beneficial wider economic impacts

Safety
It is common practice to place money values on accidents and to include these within a social cost
benefit analysis.
The transportation planning objectives relating to safety are as follows:
 To reduce accidents

 To improve security

Integration
The term integration can specifically mean the following:
 Integration within and between different types of transport, so that each contributes its full
potential and people can move easily between them;
 Integration with the environment, so that the transport choices available support a better
environment;
 Integration with land use planning, at national, regional and local level, so that transport
and planning work together to support more sustainable travel choices and reduce the need
for travel;
 Integration with policies for education, health and wealth creation, so that transport helps
make a fairer, more inclusive society.
The transportation planning objectives relating to integration are as follows:
 To improve transport interchange

 To integrate transport policy with land use policy

 To integrate transport policy with other government policies

Accessibility and social inclusion

The transportation planning objectives relating to accessibility and social inclusion are as follows:
  Measurement of ease of access to the transport system itself in terms of, for example the
proportion of homes within X minutes of a bus stop or the proportion of buses which may
be boarded by a wheel-chair user;
 Measurement of ease of access to facilities, with the emphasis being on the provision of
the facilities necessary to meet people’s needs within a certain minimum travel times,
distance or costs;

 Measurement of the value which people place on having an option available which they
might use only under unusual circumstances (such as when the car breaks down);

 Measurement of ease of participation in activities (for personal travel) or delivery of goods

to their final destination (for goods travel), provided by interaction of the transport system,
the geographical pattern of economic activities and the pattern of land use as a whole.

The four uses of the term accessibility and social inclusion have in the past overlapped but can be
expressed more simply as;
 To increase option values

 To reduce severance

 To improve access to the transport system (Nestrans, 2007).

QUESTION (B)

Pricing is one of the ways through which objectives of transportation planning can be
achieved. Describe how pricing achieves the objectives of transportation planning.

Provision for the Car

i. Vehicle ownership taxes
Include vehicle licensing fees, taxes on car purchase and there is little evidence that they have a
significant impact on car ownership. However, they are a major source of revenue which
potentially can be used to finance the transport investment (O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).
For example, in Hong Kong when the car purchase tax was doubled and annual car tax tripled in
1982, car ownership fell dramatically, but car use fell in low-income areas but rose where it was
most congested.

ii. Fuel taxes

These taxes have more direct effect on vehicle usage. The studies in the 1970’s fuel crisis
suggested a short run elasticity of around -0.2 to fuel price, suggesting a 2% reduction in car use
in response to a 10% increase in price. However, more recent research suggests that around half
the response in terms of increased fuel efficiency; short-run mileage elasticities are nearer to -0.1.
Moreover, it appears that most reductions occur in evenings and weekend leisure travel. The
impact on congestion would thus be small. Moreover, in the longer term. Drivers are more likely
to switch to fuel-efficient vehicles. This would still contribute to fuel savings and hence to the
efficiency, environmental and sustainability objectives, but would have little effect on congestion
or safety.

Fuel taxes bare most heavily on low-income drivers and rural residents, whose accessibility they
may adversely affect. Fuel taxes are a major source of revenue (O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

iii. Parking charges

Charging for Parking is one of the most widely used forms of parking control. Uniquely among
parking control measure, they enable demand to be kept below the supply of parking space, thus
reducing time spent searching, elasticity with respect to parking charges vary depending upon the
availability of alternatives, but figures in the range -0.2 to -0.4 have been quoted. The wider
impacts depend on the alternative used by the car driver; parking on the fringes of controlled area,
or in private parking spaces, will inevitably have less impact on efficiency and the environment
than switching to public transport.
A recurring concern with the introduction, or increasing, of parking charges is that it will
encourage drivers, and particularly those shopping, to go elsewhere, thus adversely affecting the
urban economy. There is some evidence that this may happen, although it has proved difficult to
collect reliable data. They may as a result have some minor effects on accessibility. They are a
source of finance, although the potential for profits is usually small. As with parking controls,
parking charges can readily be applied to publicly controlled parking space. Parking charges
cannot be imposed at private cars and, by definition, do not apply to through traffic. As noted
earlier, these represent major loopholes in effectiveness of any form of parking control (O'Flaherty,
et al., 2003).

iv. Congestion charges

Charging for road has been proposed in a number of forms. Most envisage charging to cross screen
lines or cordons, using paper license, toll gates or automated electronic charging. Systems which
charge continuously in a defined area, based on time taken, distance travelled or time spent in
congestion, have also been proposed. The only direct evidence of impact of such schemes comes
from Singapore and Norway. However, the latter schemes were designed to raise revenue rather
than to control traffic levels. Other results are available from the large number of desk studies
conducted in UK and elsewhere.

It is clear that congestion charging could significantly reduce car use in the charged area, and hence
reduce environmental impact and accidents. Traffic would divert to boundary routes, other times
of day and other modes; much of the transfer would be to bus, which would benefit from the
reduced congestion. Careful design is needed to ensure that these alternatives do not themselves
become congested. Subject to this, congestion charging can achieve significant efficiency,
environmental and safety benefits; it should also increase accessibility, although the time and the
money costs of private travelers will increase. It will also generate substantial revenue, which can
potentially be used to finance other elements of a transport strategy.
The equity impacts are more uncertain. Bus users, pedestrians and cyclists benefit; rail users will
be little affected except, perhaps, by increasing crowding; car users, and particularly those on low
incomes, will suffer. This is one of the major concerns with congesting charging. A second is the
potentially adverse impact on the economy of the charged rea if charging encourages drivers to
travel elsewhere, on which there is little or no evidence. A third concern relates to the practicability
of the technology, which is largely untested, and the enforcement procedures. The underlying
barrier to progress, however, is that new legislation is needed to permit congestion charging
(O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

Provision for Public Transport

i. Fare levels
Fares can be adjusted on all public transport services, and will have direct effect on patronage and
on car use. Evidence suggests a fares elasticity of around -0.3 for buses and slightly higher for
rail. Cross-elasticity for car use are around +0.05. Thus a 10% reduction in bus fares could increase
patronage by around 3%, but would only reduce car use by 0.5%. However, unlike service level
changes, fare changes apply throughout an urban area, and may thus have a greater absolute impact
on car use. The ‘fares fair’ campaign in London in the early 1980’s, which reduced fares by 32%,
was estimated to have reduced cars entering central London by 6%. Fares reductions can, therefore,
contribute to efficiency and environmental objectives, as well as improving accessibility for public
transport users and hence equity. There is also some evidence that they can reduce accidents. Their
major drawback is their cost. There is also some evidence that low fares may encourage longer
distance travel, and hence land use patterns which in the longer term less conducive to
sustainability (O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

ii. Fares structures

Variations in fare structure include the introduction of flat and zonal fares as alternatives to
conventional graduated fares; lower off-peak fares; and travel cards and season tickets which allow
unlimited travel within a defined area. There is some evidence that simplification of fares may do
more than fares reductions to increase patronage. Changes in structure may thus also contribute
positively to efficiency, environmental and safety objectives, as well as improving accessibility by
reducing the cost of marginal journeys. If appropriately designed, they may not impose a
significant additional financial burden. However, many such structures rely on the ability to offer
a common set of charges, and free interchange, to all services in an area (O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

iii. Concessionary fares

Theses provide lower fares or free travel to identifiable categories of passenger with special needs.
These may include schoolchildren, elderly people and people with disabilities. Their main
objective is equity-related, in enabling people who would otherwise find public transport too
expensive, or who cannot use cars, to travel. They probably have no significant efficiency or
environmental benefits, but they do improve accessibility for the target population. They do,
however, impose a substantial financial burden on the local authorities which support them
(O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

1. Provision for cyclists and pedestrians

Pricing is rarely an issue for cyclists (except, possibly, for secure cycle parking) or pedestrians
(O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).

2. Provision for freight

The fiscal measure described for cars are relevant for freight as well. Current UK government
policy involves charging higher vehicle ownership taxes for larger vehicles to reflect the additional
costs which they impose, particularly on road maintenance. There is, however, some evidence that
the higher license charges fail to do this. Fuel taxes cannot readily distinguish between types of
vehicles, but parking charges typically vary with vehicle type, and some congestion charging
proposals have also envisage doing this (O'Flaherty, et al., 2003).
QUESTION (B’)

Define the term transportation system?

These are optimum combinations of flow entities, operational plants, storage facilities, fixed
facilities, and control systems that permit people and goods to overcome friction from geographical
spaces in the most efficient manner i.e. most safe, fast, convenient, comfortable, economical and
environmentally compatible manner in order to achieve time and place utility for a desired activity
(Rodrigue, 2020).

 Flow entities: These include Vehicles (cars, Lorries, tracks, motorcycles), Ships, Train
locomotives and air craft.
 Operational plant: These include plants used in the manufacture of flow entities in the
manufacture phase and also installed plant to provide locomotive force to the entities to
move from place to place.
 Fixed facilities: These are facilities that aid movement of flow entities and they include;
Roads, and Railway train tracks.
 Storage facilities: These are facilities offered by the flow entities to transport desired
commodities from one place to another these include but not limited to; car trunk spaces,
Trailer containers, and cargo ship containers.
 Control systems: These are integrated information systems used to direct vehicular, air,
water, railway and pedestrian traffic on the usages of both fixed and non-fixed facilities.
These systems include the use of road markings such as stop lines, lane markers, and turn
lane arrows. The use of intelligent Traffic light control technologies and the use of traffic
control devices such as traffic signs that are either mandatory, Informative, warning or
regulatory signs.
QUESTION C

Write short notes on five examples of transportation systems in developing countries.

A developing country is one having a low gross domestic product (GDP) per person and
comparatively low economic output (Kuepper, 2021). Uganda is one of the many developing
countries in the world. It is often said that public transportation is the blood of urban life.
Inadequate transport can undermine the capacity of cities to fulfill their functions and negate the
advantage that densely populated areas enjoy by virtue of their concentration of skills and
purchasing power (Werlin, 1983). Paved roads occupy a smaller share of urban land in Africa than
elsewhere in the world and usually drop off abruptly beyond the city center (WORLD INSTITUTE
RESOURCES, 2016). Poor transportation and poverty are interrelated; in many countries, roads
often are poorly located, built and maintained (Werlin, 1983).

Transportation systems can be categorized in several ways. For example, they may be classified
according to the types of technology they employ, the function or type of service they provide,
who owns or is responsible for their implementation and operation, and so forth (Prevedouros,
2009). Transportation systems use transportation modes including roads, water, air, rails, and
pipelines for fluids, conveyor belts, cable cars and mono-rails (O'Flaherty et al, 2006).

The following are some of the examples of transportation systems used in developing
countries;
  Freight transportation system

This refers to the movement of good/ commodities, cargo and products from a shipper to a
receiver. This may be by land that is to say Road and railway transportation, water
transportation or by air transportation.

Adopted from (Rodrigue, 2020): Freight transportation system

Benefits of freight transportation include;

Economical and less subject to fuel surcharges

Rail freight transport is especially efficient for long distances, as one driver can move more
containers with comparatively fewer rest stops. Rail freight transport is often electrically powered,
which avoids fuel surcharges and oil price fluctuations.

More environmentally sustainable

Because rail freight transport is often electrically powered, and also because of the high volumes
which a single train can transport, rail freight is a much greener form of transport, emitting much
lower volumes of CO2.

Punctual
Transportation by road is more flexible and efficient but unlike road freight, train water and air
freight do not get stuck in traffic jams, and while there may occasionally be delays.
  Passenger transportation system

The passenger transportation system is an interconnected network of highways, railroads, airports,

public transit systems, and waterways (Statistics, 2014).

Adopted from (Statistics, 2014): Passenger transportation system

 Intermodal transportation

Intermodal (shipping) transportation refers to moving freight or humans by two or more modes of
transportation. It is sub-divided into other systems like piggy back (railways and roadways), fishy
back (roads and water modes), trans-ship (railways and waterways) and Air Track (air and
roadways). For example the omnichannel retail market.

Intermodal (shipping) transportation offers a multitude of benefits, including:

 Cost effectiveness
 Fuel efficiency.
 Available capacity; that is to say this transportation system has no limit to commodities
quantities they can carry.
 Sustainability compared to long-haul trucking.
 Consistent, reliable services provided.
Adopted from (Phil, 2020): An intermodal container is transferred from truck to train

Adopted from (Phil, 2020): Intermodal (shipping) transportation of cargo

  Multimodal transportation

Multimodal Transport is the combination of different means of transport, in order to facilitate the
movement of cargo and people, i.e. making it faster and more efficient.

When it comes to this mode of transportation, there is more than one kind of vehicle necessary to
take the goods to their final destination, by the use of trucks, trains, ships, airplanes or some other
mean of transport for the delivery.

Adopted from (Yi-Kuei Lin et al, 2019): Multimodal transportation

Advantages of Multimodal Transportation:

 Centralization of responsibility in one transport operator;

 Cutting back on inventory costs, therefore keeping the costs of the merchandise under
control.
 Also results in high environmental sustainability, since Multimodal Transport reduces the
environmental footprint of transportation.
 Use of international experience, in transportation as well as in the field of bureaucracy
and commerce;
 Economies of scale in transport negotiations;
o Better use of available infrastructure and more efficient means of transport,
focused on cost reduction;
o Reduction of indirect costs (e.g. human resources).
  Trans-modal transportation

Trans-modalism or Trans-modal transportation involves connecting different segments of the

same mode between an origin and a destination. For example ship to dockside to ship. I.e. the
purpose is to ensure continuity within the same modal network.

Trans-modal transportation reconciles different modal services on the same network. There is no
specific term if trans-modalism takes place as a single or separate ticket or contract. Trans-
modalism is common for air transportation since passengers can easily book a ticket between two
locations, even if it involves transiting through an intermediary airport and using separate carriers.

Advantages of Trans-modal transportation include but not limited to:

Ease of Management

Management of container cargo or FCL (Full Container Load) is easier than handling other
methods of transporting goods such as by less-than Container Loads (LCL).

Shipping containers are indivisible units and each registered container has a unique identification
number making it easy to track and trace it during a voyage. This unique number called the
container number is given to it following specifications of the Bureau International des Containers
(BIC). The BIC is an organization based in Paris that ‘oversees standards for intermodal
containers’. The container number is used in the verification of cargo by various parties such as
the shipper, the receiver, ports and customs authorities, etc. (Menon, 2021)

Speed of Transportation

With bigger and more powerful cargo ships and modern container handling equipment, trans-
shipment times have reduced drastically. Loading and unloading are faster these days, at ports as
well as at modern warehouses.

Standardized MHE (Material Handling Equipment) makes it easier to handle shipping containers
coming from and going to different parts of the world (Menon, 2021).

Economies of Scale
The cost of transporting goods by containers is said to be 20 to 25 times less than the cost of
transporting the same goods as loose bulk or LCL. Containerization has drastically brought down
the transport cost element in the pricing of goods.

Economies of scale is a major factor here. In general, economies of scale is the advantage
companies get as a result of producing or dealing in bulk (Menon, 2021).

Durability

Depending on the usage, a shipping container can last for 10 to 25 years. Once they are condemned
after it is no longer usable, containers are often used for storage or converted as living quarters
(Menon, 2021).

Empty containers are used as temporary storage space by warehouses and distributers especially
when their storage facility has reached its capacity. Containers can be placed in any convenient
location in the warehouse yard. It provides temporary and flexible storage for companies when
required.

The practice of refurbishing and using old containers as living quarters is gaining popularity the
world over. It is inexpensive to set up while at the same time they look stylish when done properly
and aesthetically (Menon, 2021).

Safety and Security

Intermodal containers are safe and secure. These heavy-duty boxes are walled on all five sides
except one end where the double doors are located. These double doors have double lock-rods
each, that are used to lock and seal the container making it safe and tamper-proof (Menon, 2021).
Standardization

Since ISO-certified containers are of standard size and dimensions they can be handled
universally by any standard transport and MHE. This makes it easier to use, transport, and
store the containers (Menon, 2021).

Adopted from (Rodrigue, 2020): Difference between Inter-modal, Multimodal, and Trans-
modal transportation systems.
QUESTION (E)

(i) Elements used to convey messages to Road users.

Color
It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usage of different colors for
different signs are important. The most commonly used colors are red, green, yellow, black, blue,
and brown. These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce specific messages. Consistent
use of colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of signboard ahead.
Shape
It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device. The categories of
shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond shape. Two exceptional
shapes used in traffic signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign and use of inverted triangle for
GIVE WAY (YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not generally used in India.
Legend
This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This is an important aspect in the
case of traffic signs. For the easy understanding by the driver, the legend should be short, simple
and specific so that it does not divert the attention of the driver. Symbols are normally used as
legends so that even a person unable to read the language will be able to understand that. There is
no need of it in the case of traffic signals and road markings.
Pattern
It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing traffic signs. Generally
solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each pattern conveys different type of meaning. The
frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information is recommended so that the drivers
get accustomed to the different types of markings and can instantly recognize them.
 (ii) Categories of road signs
1. Regulatory signs
These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road users. These signs are
also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey these signs. If the
driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action against the driver.
These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These signs have generally black
legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red borders. The regulatory signs
can be further classified into:
Right of way series
These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected approaches of an
intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign for example, when one minor road and
major road meets at an intersection, preference should be given to the vehicles passing through the
major road. Hence, the give way signboard will be placed on the minor road to inform the driver
on the minor road that he should give way for the vehicles on the major road. In case two major
roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which approach the
signboard has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that comes in right of
way series, which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
Speed series
Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road. They include
typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs are placed to
limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons. Separate truck speed limits
are applied on high-speed roadways where heavy commercial vehicles must be limited to slower
speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high speed
roads like expressways, freeways etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow
vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
Movement series
They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers. These include turn signs,
alignment signs, exclusion signs, one-way signs etc. Turn signs include turn prohibitions and lane
use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the movements, which all vehicles
in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate turns in an un-signalized
intersections.
Parking series
They include parking signs that indicate not only parking prohibitions or restrictions, but also
indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked, duration for parking
etc.
Pedestrian series
They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the safety of pedestrians
and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.
Miscellaneous
Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are a "KEEP OF MEDIAN" sign, signs
indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances, signs
indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown below. They include a stop sign, give way sign,
signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, and speed
limit sign etc.

Speed limit sign Stop sign

 2. Warning signs
These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road users.
Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advise the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of
drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for this
type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape used is
upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders (Tom, 2006).

3. Informative signs
These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available ahead, and the route
and distance to reach the specific destinations.
Informative signs also called guide signs are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place. The
guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these types of signs are route markers, destination signs, mileposts,
service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are used to
identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are written
black letters on yellow background.
Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to the critical destination points, and to mark
Important intersections. Distance in kilometers is sometimes marked to the right side of the
destination. They are, in general, rectangular with the long dimension in the horizontal direction.
They are color coded as white letters with green background.
Mileposts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his destination
Service assistance etc.
They are written with white letters on blue background. Information on historic, recreational and
other cultural area is given on white letters with brown background.
4. Work zone signs.
These types of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some construction work is
going on the road. They are placed only for short duration and will be removed soon after the work
is over and when the road is brought back to its normal condition (Tom, 2006).
 A
Combination of the regulatory, warning and informative signs.

Source: (https://www.google.com/search?q=regulatory%20signs&hl=en&tbm=isch).
(iii) With illustrations / sketches, deliberate on the different types of longitudinal marking
explaining clearly where they are applied

Different types of longitudinal markings are center line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning
lines, border or edge lines, bus lane markings, cycle lane markings.
Centre line
Centre line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their movements. Usually, no
Centre line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more than four
lanes. The center line may be marked with either single solid line, single broken line, double
broken line or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements. On urban roads
with less than four lanes, the center line may be single broken line 150 mm wide of 3 m segments
and 4.5 m gaps. This is shown below.

On curves and near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 meters. On undivided urban roads with
at least two traffic lanes in each direction, the center line marking may be a single solid line 150
mm wide as in Error! Reference source not found., or double solid line 100 mm wide separated
by a space of 100 mm as in the figure below.
The center barrier line marking for four lane road is shown below

Traffic lane lines

The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way helps
the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections etc.,
these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements. Thus, they help
in increasing the capacity of the road.
Also, they ensure more safety. The traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm
width. Some examples are shown below
No passing zones
No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and three
lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited because of low sight distance. It may
be marked by a solid yellow line along the center or a double yellow line. In the case of a double
yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be either a broken
line or a solid line. These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid line is to the right
of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the opposing traffic. Some typical
examples are shown below
Warning lines
They are broken lines with line segments as long as the normal gaps and vice-versa. They warn
the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on horizontal and vertical curves
where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for no overtaking zones. A
minimum of seven line segments should be there. An example is shown below

Edge lines
These indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits up to which the
driver can safely venture. They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the pavement.
They are painted in yellow or white.
REFERENCES
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Available at: https://www.marineinsight.com/maritime-law/advantage-and-
disadvantages-of-containerization/
[Accessed 29 01 2022].

Nestrans, H. &., 2007. Local Transport Strategy, Orkey Island: ORKNEY ISLANDS
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O'Flaherty et al, 2006. Transport Planning. 6th ed. Oxford, UK:: ELSEVIER L.t.d.

O'Flaherty, C. A. et al., 2003. Transport planning and Traffic Engineering. Oxford:

Arnold.

Phil, Y., 2020. What Is Intermodal Shipping...and Why Should Shippers Care?. [Online]
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