Ultraviolet Light and its Use with Fluorescent Minerals

Alan Wilkins M.D.

It is interesting to consider that while man has sought color in minerals for tens of
thousands of years, one of the most brilliant and dramatic color phenomena in minerals has
been unknown until recently. This is the phenomenon of fluorescence. Of the roughly
4,200 mineral species thus far identified, 566 of them (from more than 6,500 localities) are
reported as fluorescent in The Henkel Glossary of Fluorescent Minerals, published in 1989.
Some of these fluorescent species (e.g., calcite, hyalite opal) are widespread, while others
(e.g., agrellite, benitoite, esperite, tugtupite) are found in only one or a few places in the
world.
Fluorescence is the visible light produced by certain minerals when they are
illuminated by the invisible light rays of an ultraviolet (UV) light source. The term was
coined in 1852 by Sir George Stokes (1820-1903) after observations on fluorite from
Alston Moor, Cumberland, England, by analogy with the term “opalescence” already
attributed to opal. Fluorescence occurs as “activator” atoms in the fluorescing mineral
absorb UV, thereby transferring an electron from a lower vibration band to a less-stable
upper (i.e., higher-energy) vibration band. As a result, the electron is thrown into increased
vibration which, in turn, transfers energy to neighboring atoms. Thus, the energized
electron gradually gives up much of its new-found energy as heat and gradually slips down
to the lower edge of the upper vibration band. Next, the electron gives up all, or nearly all,
of its remaining surplus energy derived from UV radiation in one burst, in the form of
visible light, while returning to its original “ground state.” This, then, is fluorescence. In
accordance with Stokes’ law of fluorescence, the light produced must be of lower energy
(i.e., longer wavelength) than that taken in earlier from the absorbed UV, with the
remainder of the energy dissipated as heat. Stokes’ law, then, allows a blue light to
produce a red fluorescence, but not vice-versa. Some minerals fluoresce with such
intensity that the effect is noticeable in sunlight. The fluorescent green of some willemites,
the blue of some fluorites, and the red of some rubies in daylight is related to excitation by
solar UV.
Phosphorescence is the afterglow produced when a UV lamp is held over a
fluorescent mineral and is then turned off or moved away. Phosphorescence results from
atomic processes that prevent electrons energized by UV from rapidly discharging their
energy, usually involving “traps” of their energized electrons at some location from
whence they cannot return quickly to their low-energy state. This can happen as a result of
crystal defects, missing atoms, or substitution of foreign “impurity” atoms in the crystal of
the mineral. A dark-adapted eye has been shown to be able to detect phosphorescence in
fluorite from Trumbull, Connecticut for an amazing 36,000 hours after exposure.
Phosphorescence is generally more prominent under SW than LW.
To understand fluorescence, it is useful to review the electromagnetic spectrum.
Visible light, containing all of the colors of the rainbow, extends from violet at a

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wavelength of 400 nm to red at 750 nm. Light with wavelengths longer than 750 nm is
termed infrared light. We cannot see this light, but we can sense it as heat, and we
generally seek shade in the hot summer sun to avoid over-exposure to it. Light with
wavelengths shorter than 400 nm is termed ultraviolet (UV) light. We can not see (NOTE:
while normal vision extends down to about 380 nm, the seeing capabilities of some
individuals, mostly youngsters, have been reported to extend down to almost 310 nm) nor
feel this light, but it may have biologic effects, depending on its wavelength. Light with
wavelengths between 350 nm and 400 nm is termed long wave (LW) UV light; it is
commonly called “black light” after the readily available “black-light-blue” (BLB) tubes
and bulbs popular with kids who use them to illuminate fluorescent “pop art” posters as
well as teeth, fingernails, many paints, and some fabrics. LW UV light has no known
deleterious effects on either the skin or eyes. Light with wavelengths between 300 and 350
nm is termed mid wave UV light. Light with wavelengths shorter than 300 nm is termed
shortwave (SW) UV light. UV-A refers to wavelengths from 315 to 400 nm, while UV-B
refers to wavelengths from 280-315 nm, and UV-C refers to wavelengths from 200 to 280
nm. SW UV in modest amounts can assist the body in absorbing Vitamin D and promoting
suntan (UV-A), and can also help to create a sterile environment by killing bacteria (UV-
C). However, overexposure can cause nuclear cataracts (UV-A), painful sunburn (UV-B),
and increase the risk of skin cancer (UV-B>UV-A). One should never look directly at the
SW UV light, and should also be aware that some specimens, particularly polished or
metallic ones, may reflect UV light back at the collector, even with the lamp pointed away.
With prolonged, unprotected exposure of the eyes to SW UV light, temporary sunburn of
the eyes can result 6 to 8 hours after exposure, generally manifesting as weepy eyes with a
sensation of sand in them on blinking. Fortunately, eyeglasses and goggles provide
complete protection from SW UV on direct viewing; LW UV, in contrast, can pass easily
through most glass and plastics.
Fluorescent mineral enthusiasts are generally concerned with two UV wavelengths:
SW and LW. SW lamps produce UV radiation at 253.7 nm, while radiation from LW
lamps has two different wavelengths one that peaks about 351 nm (called long wave three
fifty, LW350) and the other at about 368 nm (called long wave three seventy, LW370).
Some minerals fluoresce only under SW or one of the LW wavelengths, but not both, SW
and LW350 or LW370. For example, most scheelite fluoresces only under SW light; while
most ruby corundum fluoresces only under one of the LW wavelengths (it usually is
brighter under LW370). More commonly, minerals will fluoresce under both SW and LW,
usually in the same color or nearly so, though a very high percentage of them fluoresce
brighter under SW. Less commonly, minerals may fluoresce different colors under SW
and LW light. Examples of the latter include: calcite from the mercury mines of Terlingua,
Brewster County, Texas (fl. blue, SW & fl. pink, LW); sodalite, var. hackmanite, from
Bancroft, Ontario, Canada (fl. red, SW & fl. orange, LW); tugtupite from Ilimaussaq,
Greenland (fl. cherry red, SW & fl. deep orange, LW); and yttrofluorite from the Globe
pegmatite in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico (fl. bright lemon yellow, SW & fl. blue,
LW).
The newest UV wavelength is Medium Wave (MW) sometimes called Middle
Wave. It has a peak wavelength at about 312 nm. Many calcites will fluoresce brighter

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under MW and a few minerals will only fluoresce under MW (e.g., minehillite from
Franklin, NJ and calcite from the Cadman Quarry in Monroe, WA).
The earliest source of SW and, to a lesser extent, LW UV was the iron arc, or iron
spark gap machine, used as early as 1903. Subsequently, numerous innovations in the
production of UV tubes and filters have produced stronger and more efficient equipment.
Production has been spearheaded by Ultra-Violet Products, Inc., of San Gabriel, California,
(now UVP, Inc. in Upland, CA) and Raytech Industries of Middletown, Connecticut.
Currently, the strongest portable lamps, the SuperBright II 3000 series models, weigh less
than 2 pounds each and are produced by UV SYSTEMS, Inc. of Renton, Washington (see
their website: www.uvsystems.com These lights feature “U”-shaped hot-cathode quartz
bulbs and high-efficiency reflectors and currently retail for about $449.00 depending on the
model (plus S & H). Portable UV lights in the past have utilized lantern batteries for
power; newer models like the SuperBright IIs are offered with rechargeable 12V lead-acid
“fanny pack” batteries which can be worn around the waist.
Since most fluorescent minerals are white or light in color, they might be expected
to reflect appreciable amounts of the visible light produced by the lamp. By contrast, the
conversion of UV to visible light by fluorescent minerals is very inefficient, resulting in
only a low-output intensity. Thus, without a suitable filter, reflected light would
overwhelm the visible light produced by fluorescence in all but the most intensely
fluorescent minerals. The production of such a filter, particularly for the SW lamp,
requires a meticulous balance of metal oxides. The BLB LW UV tubes are made of glass
which is colored purple to act as a built-in filter, albeit an inefficient one, emitting a
significant amount of visible blue light along with the UV.
SW filters are prone to a process called “solarization,” which gradually reduces the
light transmitted through the filter at a given wavelength, and should generally be replaced
after about 6,000 hours of use (about 5 years of heavy use, 3 years of medium use, and 1
years of heavy use), or sooner in areas of high humidity. Hoya Optics U-325C filters have
the lowest solarization rates of any SW filter tested in a 1990 study. With LW filters,
solarization is negligible, but the special phosphor in LW lamps deteriorates over time in a
process called “lumen depreciation,” and these lamps gradually lose their effectiveness
long before they burn out. Although SW and LW lamps are generally rated by the
manufacturer to last 4,000 to 10,000 hours, their useful life spans are probably
considerably less, and it is recommended that they be replaced every 7-8 years with
infrequent use, every 5-6 years with medium use, and every 3-4 years with heavy use.
“Dual-band” UV lamps containing both a SW and a LW tube are generally preferred
for field use and for reviewing dealers’ stock in stores and at mineral shows. A single SW
filter is satisfactory for both bands. Most of these lamps allow for either band to be used
separately, or for both to be used simultaneously. However, if investigation is to be
confined to an area in which either SW- or LW-fluorescing minerals predominate, a single-
band portable may be preferable.
Generally, pure minerals do not fluoresce. Exceptions include the uranyl (UO2)2+
group which accounts for the characteristic yellow-green fluorescence of autunite and other
secondary uranium minerals; the tungstate (WO4)2- group which accounts for the bluish
fluorescence in scheelite; the molybdate (MoO4)2- ion accounting for the pale yellow

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fluorescence in powellite; and the lead (Pb2+) ion supplying the yellow fluorescence in
cerussite and anglesite; such minerals are said to be “self-activated.” Most often, though,
fluorescence is made possible by an activator—a “foreign” element that introduces the
necessary energy levels into the mineral to allow fluorescence. The most important
activators are manganese (Mg2+) and lead (supplying red or orange fluorescence to
anthophyllite, apatite, axinite, benstonite, calcite, clinohedrite, halite, margarosanite,
pectolite, sphalerite, svabite, tirodite, tremolite, walstromite, and wollastonite, as well as
yellow fluorescence to esperite, and green fluorescence to willemite), uranium (supplying
green fluorescence to adamite, apophyllite, aragonite, calcite, gyrolite, hyalite, and quartz,
var. chalcedony), and the rare-earth (RE) elements, especially europium (supplying blue to
violet fluorescence to apatite, calcite, danburite, microcline, and especially fluorite). Other
activators include trivalent chromium (Cr3+, which supplies deep red LW fluorescence to
corundum, var. ruby, spinel, uvarovite, and kyanite); the disulfide ion (S2-, supplying
yellow fluorescence to scapolite and orange fluorescence to sodalite); mercury, supplying
orange fluorescence to calomel; and probably copper and silver (with “co-activators”—see
below). The presence of activators helps to explain why a single mineral, especially when
found in different locations, can fluoresce in different colors; fluorite is a good example of
this. Specimens of fluorite from the Weardale mining district in Durham, England are
famous for their bright, violet-blue fluorescence. Blocky fluorite crystals from Clay
Center, Ohio fluoresce yellow, while lumpy masses of the mineral from Fremont County,
Colorado fluoresce deep green, and masses from the Ojuela mine in Mapimi, Durango,
Mexico fluoresce a deep red color. Other naturally occurring fluorites are reported to
fluoresce white, cream, pink, and orange (under either SW or LW), probably related to the
wide variety of RE activators in fluorites. Similarly, specimens of sphalerite have been
reported to fluoresce blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. This inconsistency of
fluorescent response in a given mineral undoubtedly helps to explain why the property of
fluorescence has not become as important to mineralogists as other more intrinsic
identifying properties such as hardness, cleavage, and specific gravity.
Occasionally, a “flash” of initial color can be produced by rapidly passing a UV
lamp over a specimen, subsequently overwhelmed by the more sustained fluorescent color
usually associated with that mineral. The presence of flash indicates two distinctive
fluorescences, each usually due to a separate activator. This effect is seen particularly well
in agrellite from the Kipawa River in Quebec, Canada and in various calcites, most notably
those from Terlingua, Texas. An orange flash generally denotes the existence of
manganese acting as an activator.
The presence of a potent activator such as Mg2+ may not be sufficient to induce
fluorescence, however. A second impurity, one that can absorb UV radiation and transfer
some of the absorbed energy to the activator ions to optimize their performance, may be
necessary. Such additional impurities are called coactivators, or sensitizers. In the case of
manganese, the coactivator is usually lead (Pb2+). As with activators, the list of known and
potential coactivators is a long one, including aluminum, antimony, arsenic, bismuth,
copper, gallium, indium, lead, manganese, thallium, tin, and various RE elements.
Other elements effectively prohibit fluorescence in the minerals that contain them,
even in minute amounts. The most prominent “quenchers” of fluorescence are divalent

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iron (Fe2+), cobalt, and nickel, and to a lesser extent, copper. Of the 566 mineral species
reported as fluorescent in the Henkel Glossary of Fluorescent Minerals, only four contain
nickel or cobalt in their chemical formulas. Nickel, in concentrations of only 1 part per
million in sphalerite results in a marked decrease in brightness, and at slightly higher
concentrations quenches the fluorescence of willemite. UV can stimulate charge-transfer
transitions, movements of electrons from one ion to like or unlike neighboring ions. In the
process, the majority of the absorbed energy is converted into heat, leaving insufficient
energy available to the activator to allow fluorescence to take place. However, the
condition of quenching is really quite complex. Copper, for example, quenches
fluorescence in most minerals, including several of the uranium-based minerals, yet it can
cause fluorescence in sphalerite, and the mineral marshite (CuI) fluoresces bright red under
LW, despite containing 1/3 copper by weight. In addition, trivalent chromium (Cr3+) and
RE ions, frequently effective activators are prone to self-quenching, also known as
concentration quenching. Thus, light emitted by some of these ions is partially reabsorbed
by other like ions in the mineral, thereby limiting the overall intensity of the fluorescence.
Thresholds for concentration quenching are <1% for most Cr3+-activated minerals and on
the order of only a few tens of a percent for minerals activated by RE ions. Finally,
thermal quenching occurs in all fluorescent systems; if ambient temperature is raised high
enough, fluorescence will disappear. This occurs as a result of increased molecular
vibrations in the mineral structure interacting with the activator and carrying off some of
the excitation energy as heat. Thus, titanium (Ti4+)-activated fluorescence is usually
thermally quenched at room temperature, with fresnoite and benitoite representing
exceptions to this generality.
Another common cause of fluorescence is distortions in the ideal crystal structure of
various minerals, known collectively as point defects. Among these are Frenkel defects,
which are ions in abnormal locations in the crystal structure; Schottky defects, which are
vacancies due to missing ions, and interstitial defects, which are impurity ions in crystal
lattice sites not normally occupied. Such defects alter the normal absorption and
dissipation of light energy within and near the structurally imperfect parts of the crystal.
Such point defects, commonly causes of daylight color in minerals that would otherwise be
colorless or white, are also associated with yellow-green fluorescence in diamond, blue
fluorescence in sphalerite, many cases of white fluorescence in calcite, and with
fluorescence in some fluorite and in various sulfate minerals.
Fluorescent mineral collecting is most effectively done in the dark. Under optimal
conditions, the most intensely fluorescent minerals, such as autunite, scheelite, hyalite
opal, and hydrozincite, may be visible 40 to as far as 75 feet away with the most powerful
modern UV lamps. In fact, Robbins reports some green fluorescence in Franklin willemite
at a distance of 130 feet! However, given the absence of light on moonless nights, special
precautions must be observed. Collecting should generally be confined to areas which
have been thoroughly scouted by daylight, and important landmarks should be committed
to memory. The locations of any mine shafts or air shafts are particularly important; the
location of large cacti and quarry benches and ledges should also be noted. Beware that
scorpions fluoresce—usually green, occasionally white. It’s a good idea to wear heavy
gloves as a beginning collector, or at least to be very wary of what you’re about to pick up.

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The buddy system is particularly important in night-collecting. A good flashlight and a
compass or GPS locator are very handy. It is a good idea to mark all tools and collecting
bags/buckets with fluorescent tape so that they can be easily spotted with the help of the
UV lamp.
Measurements on certain specimens of blue-fluorescing fluorite, yellow-fluorescing
meionite (marketed as “wernerite”), orange-fluorescing tremolite and wollastonite, and
red-fluorescing halite, calcite, axinite, and ruby reveal their colors of fluorescence to be
nearly “saturated,” i.e., pure. Similarly, the green fluorescence of some willemite and
various uranium minerals is more pure than many commonly used green inks and dyes.
The common practice of viewing fluorescent minerals in pitch-darkness furthers the
suggestion (probably false) that the fluorescent minerals are, as a group, somehow brighter
and more intense than ordinary colors. The brightest of the fluorescent minerals are
generally said to be willemite from Franklin, New Jersey; hyalite opal; and meionite, var.
“wernerite,” from southern Quebec, Canada.
After observing a collection of numerous fluorescent minerals, one might be tempted
to ask, “Why don’t all minerals fluoresce?” Actually, there are several explanations for
this. First, UV does not penetrate into some minerals, such as the native metals and many
of the sulfides and oxides with a metallic luster in visible light. Secondly, light absorption
in other minerals causes the excited electron to drop from the upper band to the lower band
and give up all its surplus energy in collisions with neighboring atoms, i.e., heat, without
being available to the activator to radiate visible light. Occasionally this occurs as a result
of “quenchers” of fluorescence, described above. Thirdly, still other minerals are
“transparent” to UV light, to the extent that even UV cannot provide the necessary energy
to raise the mineral’s electrons from the lower band to the upper band; this applies
particularly to transparent or very light-colored minerals. Finally, some minerals may
fluoresce to produce light in the infrared or UV portions of the electromagnetic spectrum,
both of which are invisible to the human eye.
Many mines in the U.S., including the Franklin, NJ workings of the New Jersey Zinc
Company and various tungsten workings, have employed powerful UV lamps over their
“picking tables” in the past to permit hand-sorting of willemite and scheelite ores,
respectively, in order to upgrade returns and save time, water, reagents, and wear on
milling machinery. Freshly drilled core samples have been examined for UV fluorescence
and phosphorescence, to aid in the identification of the various layers sampled; this
practice has been particularly helpful in identifying borates in core samples at Searles
Lake, California. Oil companies have also lamped the cores of drilling wells, looking for
the bluish fluorescent glow emanating from petroleum or asphalt deposits.
Ultraviolet testing of gemstones under SW and LW has been one of the classical
tests performed by gemologists, along with the determination of refractive index and
specific gravity. In fact, the classification of diamonds into Types Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb was
originally based on their transparency under UV; today, this classification is based on
infrared absorption, which provides more details about the type of impurity present.
Fluorescence testing can help to identify the gem species to which a particular stone
belongs, e.g., to differentiate rubies from garnets and tourmaline. UV response can also
help to distinguish natural diamonds, rubies, and emeralds from their synthetic

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counterparts. To help separate Ramaura synthetic rubies from natural stones, their
inventor, Judith Osmer, has doped them with a RE element that shifts their fluorescence
from red to orange. Many assembled stones, i.e., those composed of several materials put
together to simulate the appearance of a more valuable stone, are effectively detected using
UV light. In addition, UV examination can help to identify oils or resins used to hide
surface-reaching fractures in natural emeralds, as well as organic dyes used to imitate
lavender jadeite. UV response has also been used occasionally as an indication of a
gemstone’s geographical origin; hence, an apricot fluorescence under LW is characteristic
of blue and yellow sapphires originating in Sri Lanka. Similarly, some colorless diamonds
show a strong blue fluorescence in visible light and are called “Jagers,” because they have
been found preferentially in the Jagersfontein mine in South Africa. Finally, fluorescence
in visible light can substantially increase the value of some rare diamonds. Such is the case
with the previously described “Jagers” and with another group called the “green
transmitters” or “chartreuse diamonds,” which are colored green by their green
fluorescence excited by visible light.
Fluorescent mineral collecting has enjoyed two commercial booms in recent history.
The first occurred in late 1941 when the U.S. found itself embroiled in World War II and
cut off from tungsten supplies in China, theretofore the primary source of that metal used
to toughen gun barrels and armor plate for war. Many of the gold mines in the western
U.S. were rich in scheelite, but the latter mineral was not sought during the Gold Rush
days. With the use of UV lights, old gold mines and dumps were re-examined by
recreational prospectors, and many small- and large-scale scheelite deposits were located.
As scheelite in its common granular form generally has no identifying characteristics to set
it apart from quartz, feldspar, or carbonate rock (unless it is present in concentrations
sufficient that its considerable weight becomes evident), many of the large deposits were
worked at night, including the famous Yellow Pine mine in Idaho, with powerful UV lights
mounted on bulldozers and other heavy equipment. In 1946, there was a resurgence in UV
lights when the newly created Atomic Energy Commission announced bounties for the
discovery of new sources of uranium needed to fuel reactors for the production of nuclear
energy. By the 1950s, UV lights, along with Geiger counters and later scintillation
counters, were again all the rage. These spurts in commercial activity, along with research
and development into more efficient phosphors for color TV screens, computer monitors,
and optical lasers, have aided the understanding of fluorescence and have resulted in
stronger and more durable lamps, filters, and power sources for fluorescent mineral
collecting.
Franklin, Sussex County, New Jersey was given the designation of “The Fluorescent
Mineral Capital of the World” by the New Jersey State Legislature in 1968, and few would
argue this title. The Franklin mine, along with the Sterling Hill mine in neighboring
Ogdensburg, is the source of at least 340 minerals, of which at least 82 are fluorescent and
at least 10 are uncommonly bright. The five-color fluorescent combinations of calcite
(red), willemite (green), hardystonite (purple), esperite (yellow), and clinohedrite (orange)
from Franklin are coveted by collectors all over the world. Sadly, the Franklin mine,
operational since about 1810, closed in 1954 after having removed over 22 million tons of
the world’s richest zinc ore (typically ~20% zinc), but the town is still home of the

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Franklin Mineral Museum, dedicated in 1965 and boasting a 32-foot-long fluorescent
mineral display. Similarly, the Sterling Hill mine closed in 1986, after having yielded
about half as much ore as the Franklin mine. Though the deep levels of the Sterling Hill
mine have been flooded, the mine reopened to the public on August 4, 1990 as the Sterling
Hill Mining Museum, home of an underground tour which includes the impressive
“Rainbow Room” and the Landmesser Tunnel, both impressive in situ fluorescent mineral
displays, lit by SW fluorescent lights from above; several mining dioramas, with authentic
mining equipment; and a detailed setup of a working stope, incorporating zinc ore in place.
A carefully graded Rock Discovery Center opened in the spring of 1996 at Sterling Hill as
a collecting dump for kids. In 1999, the “Thomas S. Warren Museum of Fluorescence”
was inaugurated at Sterling Hill, and the Sterling Hill Mining Museum was the recipient of
the prestigious Carnegie Mineralogical Award for the same year. Both the Franklin Hill
and Sterling Hill museums are open daily from April 1 through November 30, with group
visits by appointment in March and December. Two or three public tours, generally taking
1 -2 hours each, run daily at Sterling Hill, with the cost ranging from $7.50 for children
under 12, $8.50 for seniors to $10 for other adults. Call ahead for details and current rates:
(973) 209-7212. The best time to visit the area is the last Saturday and Sunday of
September, when the Franklin-Sterling Gem and Mineral Show, an annual event since
1956, takes place.
Fluorescent minerals come in an immense array of shapes, sizes, species, colors,
prices, and localities from all over the world. Collecting them can be a source of endless
fascination and delight, but no one can expect to collect them all. Examples of specialty
collections within the hobby include:
- Specimens with two or more fluorescent minerals.
- Fluorescent mineral spheres.
- Fluorescent gemstones.
- Fluorescent ore minerals.
- Crystals of fluorescent minerals.
- Phosphorescent minerals.
- Minerals fluorescing more than one color in a single specimen.
- Rare fluorescent minerals, known from only one or a few localities in the world
(see above).
- All fluorescent varieties of a particular mineral species, group, or chemical class,
e.g., calcite, fluorite; pyroxenes; carbonates.
- All fluorescent minerals containing a certain element (e.g., uranium) in their
chemical formulas.
- All fluorescent minerals from a particular locality, e.g., Franklin-Sterling Hill, NJ;
Långban, Sweden; Mont St. Hilaire, Quebec, Canada; Tsumeb, Namibia.
The Fluorescent Mineral Society (FMS) was founded in 1971, incorporated in 1993,
and currently boasts about 510 members in at least 47 U.S. states and 20 foreign countries.
The 1996 Tucson Gem and Mineral Show featured 3,200 square feet—76 display cases—
of world-class fluorescent specimens, to help mark the 25th anniversary of the FMS. The
FMS has regional vice-presidents in the New England, Northeast, Southeast, South
Central, Midwest, Rocky Mountain, Northwest, Desert (Southwest), Northern California,

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and Southern California sections of the U.S., as well as in Canada, Europe, and Africa. Its
purpose is to share knowledge and experience in the collection, identification, display, and
photography of fluorescent minerals, and to encourage research into the ultraviolet
spectrum, activators, and the use of ultraviolet lamps and filters. The FMS publishes a
newsletter, U.V. Waves (containing a list of other members, offers to trade, notices of FMS
activities, and articles of both local and widespread interest), six times yearly and a
technical publication, the Journal of the Fluorescent Mineral Society, annually or
biennially. The FMS maintains an e-mail list, currently subscribed to by 175 of its
members, and has an internet website: http://www.uvminerals.org The registration fee for
new FMS members is $5.00 for U.S. residents, and annual dues are $20.00 for U.S.
residents and $23 for those living outside the U.S.. To become a member or to obtain
further information about the FMS, check out the above website, contact FMS President
Jan Wittenberg P.O. Box 572694, Tarzana, CA 91357-2694, or e-mail Jan Wittenberg at
[email protected]

List of References:
Downs, S. 1997. The museum’s fluorescent tour is better than ever. Rock & Gem. 27(1):
21-24.
Henkel, G. 1989. The Henkel Glossary of Fluorescent Minerals. Tarzana, CA: The
Fluorescent Mineral Society.
Kraissl, F. 1972. The Franklin mineral museum. Gems and Minerals. 415: 26-29.
Gleason, S. 1960. Ultraviolet Guide to Minerals. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Co.
Newsome, D. 2008. Advertising brochures for UV SYSTEMS, Inc and the SuperBright
II 3000 series. Renton, WA: UV SYSTEMS, Inc.
Robbins, M.A. 1983. The Collector’s Book of Fluorescent Minerals. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co.
Robbins, M. 1994. Fluorescence: Gems and Minerals Under Ultraviolet Light. Phoenix:
Geoscience Press.
Warren, T. S., Gleason, S., Bostwick, R. C., and Verbeek, E. R. 1995. Ultraviolet Light
and Fluorescent Minerals. Sterling Hill Mining Museum, Ogdensburg, NJ

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