Main Goals of research Post-test only

 To test hypotheses Quasi-experimental research design

 Explore causal relationships
-
 Make predictions
experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not
 Generalize findings within a given population
the same. The difference between the two is the
assignment of a control group. In this research, an
independent variable is manipulated, but the participants
Characterization of research includes: of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-research is
 Empirical used in field settings where random assignment is either
based on observations and experimentation on irrelevant or not required.
theories Non-equivalent Control Group Design - The nonequivalent
 Systematic control group design is perhaps the most popular quasi-
follows orderly and sequential procedure experimental design. The nonequivalent control group
 Controlled design is effective at researching groups that already
all variables except those that are tested upon are exist in the population. Randomization occurs at the
kept constant intervention level. Study groups are randomly assigned to
either receive the treatment or receive a control
 Employs Hypothesis
treatment.
guide the investigation process
 Analytical Time Series Design a subcategory of longitudinal
there is critical analysis of all data used so that
there is no error in their interpretation of observations made on the same variable consecutively
over time
 Objective, Unbiased, and Logical
all finding are logically based on empirical Interrupted Time Series Design - employs multiple
 Employs quantitative or statistical methods measures before and after the experimental
data are transformed into numerical measures intervention. It differs from the single-group pre-
and are treated statistically experiment that has only one pre-test and post-test.
Users of the design assume that the time threats such
as history or maturation appear as regular changes
True experimental research
in the measures prior to the intervention
relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research. Pre-Experimental
Of the types of experimental design, only true design can A group, or various groups, are kept under
establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. In a observation after implementing factors of cause and
true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:
further investigation is necessary for these particular
a.
groups.
b. Experimental Group, which will experience the
changed variables One Shot Case Study a research design in which a single
c. A variable which can be manipulated by the group is observed on a single occasion after experiencing
researcher some event, treatment, or intervention. Because there is no
control group against which to make comparisons, it is a
Pre-test assessment measure given to the participants
weak design; any changes noted are merely presumed to
before they have undergone some type of treatment as
have been caused by the event. One Group
part of a research study
Pre-Test Post-Test Design must provide participants with
Post-Test assessment measure given to the participants
the same assessment measures before and after
after they have received treatment as part of a research
treatment in order to determine if any changes can be
study
connected to the treatment.
Descriptive Research  They are the outcomes or results of the influence of
the IV
 Survey - to provide a quantitative or numeric  Variable examined for changes
description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a  Considered the presumed effect in experimental
population by studying a sample of that population research
(Creswell, 2003)
 Correlational - tests for the relationship between two
variables Extraneous Variable
a. Prediction Studies
 any variable not categorized as a DV or IV in a study
b. Bivariate Correlational Studies
 undesired variable that can influence the results of an
c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies
experiment
 Evaluative - seeks to assess or judge in some way,
providing information about something other than Confounding Variable - researchers fail to control and
might be gleaned in mere observation or investigation ; it is
of relationships possible that the confounding variable has a relationship
 Comparative - involves comparing and contrasting with the dependent variable and not with the independent
two or more samples of study subjects on one or more variable
variables, often at a single point of time
Moderating Variable - The presence of third variable
 Methodological - the implementation of a variety of
modifies the original relationship between the IV and the
methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the
DV.
goal of developing a scale-matched approach, where
data from different disciplines can be integrated Intervening Variables - Variable that explains a relation or
 Ex Post Facto - these are nonexperimental research provides a causal link between other variables
design that are used to investigate causal
relationships; Examines whether one or more pre-
existing conditions could have caused subsequent
differences in groups of subjects

Fundamental Concept of Research

 Measurement
 Validity
 Reliability
 Cause and effect
 Theory
 Variable

Kinds of Variables according to Purpose

Independent Variable

 Those that probably cause, influence, or affect

outcomes. Called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent, experimental or predictor variables.
 Presumed cause in experimental research

Control Variable - Special type of IV that are measured

in a study because they potentially influence the DV.
Researchers use statistical procedures to control these
variables.

Dependent Variable
 HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILL  Data analysis using statistical software is faster
such as but not limited to SPSS, SAS & MS Excel (Add
 Inferential
ins)
 Analytical
 Data gathering techniques are typically less
 Critical
demanding compared with those in qualitative
 Creative
research
 Appreciative Thinking
 Has a low degree of subjectivity
EDUCATION  Its validity and reliability can be measured

 Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

transfer of knowledge
  Cannot adequately provide in-depth information
knowledge acquisition necessary for describing and explaining a complex
phenomenon
 Lacks the ability to provide comprehensive textual
Figures, tables, or graphs
description of human experiences
showcase summarized data collected in order to  Has less flexibility in terms of study design
show trends, relationships, or differences among  Responses of participants are limited to what has
variables been asked
 Numerical data may be insufficient in analyzing
charts and tables
intangible factors, such as gender roles,
allow you to see the evidence collected. socioeconomic status, and social norms of given
population
 Self-reported data may not be very accurate as
7 Discrete Characteristics of Research (Leedy, 1974) respondents may have the tendency to
underestimate or overestimate their skills and
1. Research begins with a question in the mind of the behavior during self-assessment tasks
researcher

2. Research requires a plan

Kinds of Quantitative Research Designs
3. Research demands a clear statement of the
problem

4. Research deals with the main problem through

sub-problems

5. Research seeks direction through appropriate

hypotheses

6. Research deals with facts and their meaning

7. Research is circular

5 KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Strengths of Quantitative Research ACCORDING TO BARROT (2017)
 Can be replicated or repeated in other contexts
1. Descriptive
 Provides findings that are generalizable to a large
2. Correlational
population;
3. Ex Post Facto
 Can establish causality more conclusively
4. Quasi-experimental
 Can make predictions based on numerical,
5. Experimental
quantifiable data
 Types of Descriptive Research Design a. Measurement
1. Survey b. Validity
2. Correlational Studies c. Reliability
a. Bivariate Correlational Studies d. Cause and Effect
b. Prediction Studies e. Theory
c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies  Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something
3. Ex-post Facto that can take more than one value, and values can
4. Comparative Design be words or numbers.
5. Methodological  Attribute is a specific value on a variable
6. Evaluative Research
2 General Types of Variables

Another Research Design: Quantitative Variables

Causal-Comparative Research
a. Discrete (whole and positive numbers)
b. Continuous (interval variables)
Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
- Ratio (cannot be a negative value)
Natural Science Qualitative Variables
concerned with the description, prediction, and
understanding of natural phenomena, based on Also referred to categorical variables
observational and empirical evidence
a. Dichotomous - two
Mathematical Sciences b. Nominal more than 2
areas of study that includes mathematics as a main field
or sub-field
Ordinal Variables
Social Sciences  exhibit the characteristics of both qualitative
quantitative research is widely used in Psychology, and quantitative types.
Economics, Marketing, etc.  can be ranked or ordered.

Why do these fields use Quantitative Research? Kinds of Variables according to Purpose

1. More reliable and objective Independent Variable

2. Can use statistics to generalize findings  Those that probably cause, influence, or affect
outcomes.
3. Often reduces and restructures a complex problem
 Called:
to a limited number of variables
1. Treatment
4. Looks at relationships between variables and can 2. Manipulated
establish cause and effect in highly controlled 3. Antecedent
circumstances 4. Experimental
5. Predictor variables
5. Tests theories or hypotheses
 Variable that is being manipulated in an
6. Assumes sample is representative of the population experiment in order to examine the effect it has
on DV
7. Subjectivity of the researcher in methodology is  Presumed cause in experimental research
recognized less
Control Variable jjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjj
8. Less detailed than qualitative Data
 Special type of IV that are measured in a study
Variable because they potentially influence the DV
 Researchers use statistical procedures to control
 From the root word vary or simply can change
these variables
 Fundamental concept of research, alongside with:
  They may be demographic or personal variables
that need to be controlled so that the true
influence of the IV on the DV can be determined
 Some books say that it is an extraneous variable.

Dependent Variable

 Simply a variable that is dependent on an IVs

 They are the outcomes or results of the influence
of the IV
 Variable examined for changes
 Considered the presumed effect in experimental
research

Extraneous Variable

 any variable not categorized as a DV or IV in a

study
 undesired variable that can influence the results
of an experiment
 by knowing the extraneous variables, you will be
able to lessen the adverse effects on your study

a. Confounding Variable - has a relationship with the

dependent variable and not with the independent
variable
b. Modifying Variable - modifies the original relationship
between the IV and the DV
c. Intervening Variable - explains a relation or provides
a causal link between other variables

 Job Interview = Prediction studies

 Researchers = Most important research instrument
Lesson 1: Designing a Research Useful in Daily Life
 Approaching problem from the interdisciplinary
Examine the Literature
point of view and sharing knowledge gathered in
different areas has remained the big challenge to  Published articles are an excellent source of
researchers ideas for research questions

 Innovative  Usually an appropriate level of specificity and

suggest research questions that focus on the
 No organization will approve or implement any
following:
program or action without a well-done research
1. Replicate
backed up by valid and reliable findings
2. Explore
Interdisciplinary approach 3. Follow
4. Extend
 Ability to combine different ideas from different 5. Challenge
disciplines to form a general one, 6. Specify
 Example: Entrepreneurship & PE
 Not an example: FABM Talk over Ideas with Others

 Ask people who are knowledgeable about the

topic for questions about it that they have
Lesson 2: Writing a Research Title thought of
 Research title or project is a product of real world  Seek out those who hold opinions that differ
observations, dilemmas, wide reading, selective from yours on the topic and discuss possible
viewing, meaningful interactions with significant research questions with them
others, and deep reflection
 Title of the research = research problem or Apply to a Specific Context
inquiry in capsule form  Focus the topic on a specific historical period or
 Research Topic = Research Questions time period

 Narrow the topic to a specific society

1. SPECIFIC  Consider which subgroups or categories of
2. ORIGINAL people/units are involved and whether there are
3. CONCISE differences among them
4. CLEAR
Define the Aim or Desired Outcome of the Study

 Will the research question be for an exploratory,

explanatory or descriptive study?
1. Relevance  Will the study involve applied or basic research?
2. Interest
3. Manageability (doable)
4. Available Resources
Lesson 3: Describing Background of the Study
 Contextualize apply what is happening around Background of the Study
you or to yourself
 An overview of the research study and explains
 Empathy put yourself on the situation of
why you, as researcher, are doing the study
others
 Introduces important facets that establish the
general context where the study revolves
 Important component of the background of the
study is the establishment of the research gap
 • Can begin with phrases such as how often, how
frequently, how many, how much, what is/are, to
what extent, what proportion, and what
1. Current state of the field percentage
2. Current and conventional practices in addressing Correlational Research
the issue
• Interested in finding out the relationship among
3. Research gap
two or more variables. However, it only establishes
4. Contribution of the present study in identifying
mere association and not causal relationships
research gap.
• What is the relationship? Is there a relationship?

Ex Post Facto Research

 Asks an update
 1 component = 1 paragraph • Attempts to discover the cause/s of the
phenomenon which has already occurred or taken
1. Trends effect
2. Issues
• Causal relationship is not as strong as the one
3. Contributions
established in quasi and experimental
4. Significance of the study
• Presumed cause exists even before the study must
TIOCS = BOS = Research Gap be incorporated in the RQ

EX POST FACTO = AFTER FACTS

Lesson 4: Stating Research Questions Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research

• Suggest a stronger causal relationship among the
Research Question = Direction of the study
variables in the study which is linked to the
manipulation of a certain variable during the
study itself
1. Problem Questions
• first 2 questions = Quanti, next question SHOULD BE
 general and explanatory and have a crucial quali to provide meaning to the numbers that will
influence on the form and content of topic be analyzed
questions
 broad

2. Topic Questions • Statement that defines the testable relationship

you expect to see from examining the variables
 specific and descriptive
 narrowed down •

• Descriptive Research no hypotheses

1. Design hinges development and honing of Null Hypothesis

research questions, good amount of time and
there is no relationship between variables.
offer should be given.
2. Identify the data sample needed. • Correlational Research relationship is absent
3. Choose the methods and strategies of data
collections. • Experimental, Quasi, and Ex Post Facto, states the
4. Choose the best way of data analysis. IV has no effect on the DV

Alternative Hypothesis
there is a relationship between variables

Descriptive Research • Correlational Research merely express the

existence of this relationship
• Focus is to observe and report on the measurable
aspects of a phenomenon
 • Experimental, Quasi, and Ex Post Facto, states the • When you mull over who/what benefit from your
IV has an effect on the DV study, focus on your problem which will guide you
in identifying specific contribution of your study
Directional Hypothesis
both value of the variables either increase or decrease

• Hypothesis is according to one specific direction =

one-tailed test 1. Alphabetical order
2. According to weight of benefits
Non-Directional Hypothesis
does not specify a particular direction; there is a
relationship but not specified as negative or positive
Lesson 7: Presenting Written Statement of the Problem
• No particular direction = two-tailed test
Introduction
• States briefly the background of the study and
identifies the rationale of the research problem
Lesson 5: Indicating Scope and Delimitation
• Begins with general statement of the problem
Scope then specific problem, framing said problem
• domain of your research, what is in and what is within the existing literature, pointing out
not deficiencies in the literature and targeting the
• inclusion criteria study for evidence of proof

statement of the problem

• States clearly the purpose or interest of the
• Topic of the study
study
• Objectives of the study and the issues it will
• Poses specific questions about the research
address
problem
• Time frame in which the study will be conducted
scope and delimitation
• Characteristics of the participants in the study
• Sets the boundaries and parameters of the study

• Narrows the scope of the inquiry and clarifies or

• defines terms used

• significance of the study

• • Shows the benefits of the study in addressing

special problems, improving economic and health
• This study is limit conditions, or even finding solutions
•

Delimitation

Lesson 6: Citing Benefits and Beneficiaries of the

Research Study
• This part informs the reader on how the study
will contribute to the well-being of a person and
progress of a group or society in general