LOGIC AND

SEQUENTIAL CIRCUIT
DESIGN
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA & LOGIC GATES

2
 BASIC DEFINITION

 Closure
A set S is closed w.r.t. a binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S, the binary
operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.

◼ Example

Set of Natural numbers N={1,2,3,…….}

Closed w.r.t. Addition
NOT closed w.r.t. Subtraction

3
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

◼ Associative Law
 A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative whenever:

(x*y) * z = x* (y*z) for all x,y,z  S

◼ Commutative Law
 A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative whenever:

x*y=y*x for all x,y  S

4
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

◼ Identity Element
 A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary
operation * on S if there exist an element e S with the property
e * x = x * e = x for every x  S

With respect to operator +, the set I has identity element 0

Example: The element 0 is an identity element with

respect to the binary operator + on the set of integers
I = {c, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,c}, since
x + 0 = 0 + x = x for any x  I

With respect to operator *, the set I has identity element 1

5
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

QUESTION

With respect to operator +, what is the identity element for the set of natural numbers
NONE
With respect to operator +, what is the identity element for the set of whole numbers
ZERO

6
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

 Inverse
 A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary
operator * is said to have an inverse whenever, for every x 
S, there exist an element y  S such that

x * y = e for every x  S

◼ Example
For set of integers I and operator +, e=0
Inverse of a = -a

a+ (-a) = 0 = e 7
 BASIC DEFINITIONS

 Distributive Law
 If ‘*’ and ‘.’ are two binary operators on S, ‘*’ is said to be
distributive over ‘.’ whenever
 The only distributive law applicable is that of * over +:
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c)

8
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean Algebra developed by

George Boole (1815-1864)

9
POSTULATES & THEOREMS

Postulate (a fact)

❑ A basic assumption that is accepted without proof

❑ Accepted as true in order to provide a basis for
logical reasoning

Theorem
❑ A statement which can be proved to be true
using logical (deductive) reasoning
❑ A proposition deducible from basic postulates
10
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

“plus” / ”OR” “times” / ”AND”

A (two-valued) Boolean Algebra is a 3-tuple {B , + , · }, where

• B is a set of at least 2 elements
• ( + ) and ( · ) are binary operations

There are 6 fundamental laws, or axioms that these operators

satisfy

11
POSTULATE 1
A1. Closure: For every a, b  B
I. a + b is in B; Closure with respect to ‘+’
II. a · b is in B; Closure with respect to ‘.’

(1,0)
(1,0) (1,0)

(1,0)
(1,0) (1,0)

12
POSTULATE 2

A2. Existence of identity elements: The set B has two distinct identity
elements, denoted as 0 and 1, such that for every element a  B
additive identity element
I. a+0=0+a=a
II. a·1=1·a= a

multiplicative identity element

a a
a 1 a
0
OR operation AND operation 13
POSTULATE 3
A3. Commutative laws: For every a, b  B
I. a+b=b+a
II. a·b=b·a

a
F=a+b a F = a.b
b b
b
F=b+a b F = b.a
a a
14
POSTULATE 4
A4. Distributive laws: For every a, b, c  B
a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c)
a·+(b . c) = (a·+ b) . (a + c)

15
POSTULATES 5 & 6
A5. Existence of a complement: For every element a  B there exists an
element a’ such that
I. a + a’ = 1
II. a · a’ = 0
the complement of a

A6. There exist at least two elements a,b  B such that

a≠b

16
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Closure➔ x + y is in B and x . y is in B
 Obvious as result either 0 or 1

 Identity➔ (1. x = x) and (0 + x = x)

 Commutative ➔x + y = y + x and x.y=y.x
 Can be checked from the Truth Table

 Distributive ➔ x + (y. z) = (x + y) (x + z) and x. (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z)

 Can be checked from the Truth Table
 Can be checked from the Truth Table

 Complement➔ x + x’ = 1 and x.x’=0

 X+X’=1➔ 0 +0’=0+1=1 and 1+1’=1+0=1
 X.X’=0 ➔ 0.0’ = 0.1 =0 and 1.1’ =1.0=0
 THE DUALITY PRINCIPLE

 Each postulate of Boolean algebra contains a pair of

expressions or equations such that one is
transformed into the other and vice-versa by
interchanging the operators, + ↔ ·, and identity
elements, 0 ↔ 1.
 The two expressions are called the duals of each
other.
 EXAMPLES OF DUALS

Duals
Postulate
Expression 1 Expression 2

1 a, b, a + b ε B a, b, a · b ε B

2 a+0=a a·1=a

3 a+b=b+a a·b=b·a

4 a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c

5 a + (b · c)=(a + b) · (a + c) a · (b + c)=(a · b)+(a · c)

6 a+a =1 a•a = 0
PROPERTIES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

 The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and need no proof.
 The theorems must be proven from the postulates.

21
 Identity a) x + 0 = x
b) x .1 = x
Commutative a) x + y = y + x
b) x .y = y.x
THEOREM 1: Distributive a) x.(y + z) = (x .y) + (x.z)
b) x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z)
IDEMPOTENCY Complement a) x + x’ = 1
b) x.x’ = 0

 For all elements a in B:

 a+a=a
 aa=a
 Proof
a + a= (a + a).1
= (a + a).(a + ā)
= a + a.ā
= a+0
= a

22
 Identity a) x + 0 = x
b) x .1 = x
Commutative a) x + y = y + x
b) x .y = y.x
THEOREM 1: Distributive a) x.(y + z) = (x .y) + (x.z)
b) x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z)
IDEMPOTENCY Complement a) x + x’ = 1
b) x.x’ = 0

 For all elements a in B:

 a+a=a
 aa=a
 Proof
a.a = (a.a) + 0
= (a.a) + (a.ā)
= a.(a + ā)
= a .1
= a

23
 Identity a) x + 0 = x
b) x .1 = x
THEOREM 2 Commutative a) x + y = y + x
b) x .y = y.x
Distributive a) x.(y + z) = (x .y) + (x.z)
 a + 1 = 1, for + operator b) x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z)
Complement a) x + x’ = 1
 a · 0 = 0, for · operator b) x.x’ = 0

 Proof:
a+1 = (a + 1).1

= 1.(a + 1)
= (a + ā).(a + 1)
= a + ā.1
= a+ā
= 1
a · 0 = 0 (By Duality) 24
 Identity a) x + 0 = x
b) x .1 = x
Commutative a) x + y = y + x
b) x .y = y.x
Distributive a) x.(y + z) = (x .y) + (x.z)
b) x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z)
THEOREM 2 Complement a) x + x’ = 1
b) x.x’ = 0

 a + 1 = 1, for + operator
 a · 0 = 0, for · operator
 Proof:
a.0 = (a.0) + 0
= 0 + (a.0)
= (a.ā) + (a.0)
= a.(ā + 0)
= a.ā

= 0

25
THEOREM 3 - INVOLUTION

 a=a
 Proof:

a + ā = 1 and a ā = 0, (complements)
or ā + a = 1 and ā a = 0, (commutativity)
i.e., a is complement of ā
Therefore, a = a

26
THEOREM 4 - ABSORPTION
Identity a) x + 0 = x
b) x .1 = x
Commutative a) x + y = y + x
b) x .y = y.x
Distributive a) x.(y + z) = (x .y) + (x.z)
b) x + (y.z) = (x+y).(x+z)
 a+ab=a Complement a) x + x’ = 1
 a (a + b) = a b) x.x’ = 0

 Proof:
a + a.b = a.1 + a b
= a.(1 + b)
= a .1
= a

Similar proof for a.(a + b) = a (By Duality)

27
THEOREM 5 – DEMORGAN

(a+b)’ = a’.b’
(a.b)’ = a’+ b’
a b a+b (a+b) a’ b’ a’b’
’ 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0

28
THEOREM 6 - ASSOCIATIVITY

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
a.(b.c) = (a.b).c

29
 BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
 Boolean functions, truth tables or logic diagrams can be generated from
each other

 Designers try to reduce complexity and number of gates to reduce circuit

cost

 Two different boolean functions may represent the same logic and truth
table

 A single variable in a boolean function is called literal

 Group of literals which forming an input to a gate are together called a

term
IMPLEMENTATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Draw the logic diagram for the following function: F = (a.b)+(b.c)

a
b
F

31
 IMPLEMENTATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

F1 = x + y ' z
Boolean Function expresses logical relationship between
binary variables

Boolean Function can be represented by a Truth Table

x
F1

y
z
IMPLEMENTATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS

Example 2: F2 = x' y ' z + x' yz + xy '

x

F2
z
 IMPLEMENTATION OF BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
▪ Try another implementation using a simplified F2:

F2 = x' y ' z + x' yz + xy '

= x' z ( y '+ y ) + xy ' Distributive Pos

= x' z (1) + xy ' Complement Pos

= x' z + xy '
x
y
F2

This implementation has fewer gates and fewer inputs to the gates (or wires) than the previous one.
SIMPLIFYING BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
F3 = xy + x' z + yz
= xy + x' z + yz ( x + x' ) Identity .1 is same & Complement Pos (x.x’)=1

= xy + x' z + xyz + x' yz Distributed Pos

= xy + xyz + x' z + x' yz Rearrange order

= xy (1 + z ) + x' z (1 + y ) Distributed Pos

= xy + x' z Theorem 2 (X+1 =1)

x
y
F3

z
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
 DeMorgan’s Theorem

(x+y)’ = x.’y’
(x.y)’=x’+y’

(A+B+C+D+…+F)’= A’B’C’D’…. F’
(ABCD…F)’ = A’+B’+C’+D’+… + F’

The complement of a function can be obtained by interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION

 Example: Find the complement of:

F = x’yz’+x’y’z

F’ = (x’yz’+x’y’z)’
= (x’yz’)’.(x’y’z)’
=(x+y’+z).(x+y+z’)
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION

 Example: Find the complement of F by taking its dual and complementing each
literal
F = x’yz’+x’y’z

Dual of F
= (x’+y+z’).(x’+y’+z)
Complement each literal
=(x+y’+z).(x+y+z’) = F’
 COMPLEMENT OF A FUNCTION
 Example: Find the Complement of

F = ( AB '+C ) D '+ E
F ' = [( AB '+C ) D '+ E ]'
= [( AB '+C ) D ' ]' E '
= [( AB '+C )'+ D ' ' ]E '
= [( AB ' )' C '+ D ]E '
= ( A'+ B )C ' E '+ DE '
DEFINITIONS

 Product terms – AND → ĀBZ

 Sum terms – OR → X + Ā
MINTERMS AND
MAXTERMS

 n binary variables can be combined to form 2n terms (AND terms), called

Minterms or standard products.
 In a similar fashion, n binary variables can be combined to form 2n terms (OR
terms), called Maxterms or standard sums.

 Boolean Functions expressed in Sum of MinTerms or Product of MaxTerms are

said to be in Canonical Form
MINTERMS AND MAXTERMS
• Each Minterm is obtained from an AND term. Variable primed if
corresponding bit 0, vice versa
• Each Maxterm is obtained from an OR term. Variable primed if
corresponding bit 1, vice versa
x y z minterm maxterm
0 0 0 x’.y’.z’ x+y+z
0 0 1 x’.y’.z x+y+z’
0 1 0 x’.y.z’ x+y’+z
0 1 1 x’.y.z x+y’+z’
1 0 0 x.y’.z’ x’+y+z
1 0 1 x.y’.z x’+y+z’
1 1 0 x.y.z’ x’+y’+z
1 1 1 x.y.z x’+y’+z’
MINTERMS AND MAXTERMS

x y z minterm designation maxterm designation

0 0 0 x’.y’.z’ m0 x+y+z M0
0 0 1 x’.y’.z m1 x+y+z’ M1

0 1 0 x’.y.z’ m2 x+y’+z M2

0 1 1 x’.y.z m3 x+y’+z’ M3

1 0 0 x.y’.z’ m4 x’+y+z M4

1 0 1 x.y’.z m5 x’+y+z’ M5

1 1 0 x.y.z’ m6 x’+y’+z M6

1 1 1 x.y.z m7 x’+y’+z’ M7
 MINTERMS AND MAXTERMS

 Each minterm can also be called a Standard Product

 Each maxterm can also be called a Standard Sum

 For n variables there are 2n minterms and maxterms

 Each maxterm is the complement of corresponding minterm and vice versa

mj = M j

m3 = XYZ = X + Y + Z = M 3
REPRESENTATION OF FUNCTIONS
Representation of Function in minterms m x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0 0
F1 = x’y’z+x’yz+xyz = m1 + m4 + m7
1 0 0 1 1 0
F2 = x’yz+xy’z+xyz’+xyz = m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
2 0 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 0 1
Representation of Function in maxterms 4 1 0 0 1 0
F1 = (x+y+z).(x+y’+z).(x+y’+z’).(x’+y+z’).(x’+y’+z) 5 1 0 1 0 1
= M0 . M2 . M3 . M5 . M6
6 1 1 0 0 1
F2 = (x+y+z).(x+y+z’).(x+y’+z).(x’+y+z)
= M0 . M1 . M2 . M4 7 1 1 1 1 1

Boolean expression represented as sum of minterms or product of maxterms

are said to be in Canonical Form
SUM OF MINTERMS
x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0

 Given the truth table, express F1 in sum of minterms

F1 ( x, y, z ) = (1,4,7) = m1 + m4 + m7
= ( x' y ' z ) + ( xy ' z ' ) + ( xyz )
 PRODUCT OF MAXTERMS
x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0

 Given the truth table, express F1 in Product of Maxterms

F1 ( x, y, z ) = (0,2,3) = M 0  M 2  M 3
= ( x + y + z )( x + y '+ z )( x + y '+ z ' )
Example: Sum of Minterms

Express the Boolean function F = x + y' z in a sum of

minterms.
AIM: Convert it to 3 variable AND Terms and take their SUM

x = x( y + y ' ) = xy + xy '
xy = xy ( z + z ' ) = xyz + xyz '
xy ' = xy ' ( z + z ' ) = xy ' z + xy ' z '
y ' z = y ' z ( x + x' ) = xy ' z + x' y ' z
Adding all terms and excluding recurring terms:

F ( x, y, z ) = x' y ' z + xy ' z '+ xy ' z + xyz '+ xyz

F ( x, y, z ) = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7 = (1,4,5,6,7)
Example: Product of Maxterms

Express the Boolean function F = xy + x' z in a Product of

product of Maxterms.

AIM: Convert it to 3 variable OR Terms and take their Product

F = xy + x ' z = ( xy + x ')( xy + z ) (Distributive law)

( xy + x ') = ( x + x ')( y + x ')

( xy + z ) = ( x + z )( y + z )

x'+ y + zz ' = ( x'+ y + z )( x'+ y + z ' )

x + z + yy ' = ( x + z + y )( x + z + y ' )
y + z + xx' = ( y + z + x)( y + z + x' ) (Remove any recurring terms)

F = ( x + y + z )( x + y '+ z )( x'+ y + z )( x'+ y + z ' )

M0M2M4M5 = F(x,y,z)=Π(0,2,4,5)
 USING TRUTH TABLE
 Find Sum of Minterms and Product of MaxTerms of F=
xy+x’z
 Find Sum of Minterms & Product of Maxterms from truth
table
 F(x,y,z)= ∑(1,3,6,7)
 F(x,y,z)= П (0,2,4,5)
 CONVERSION B/W CANONICAL FORMS

 Complement of a function expressed as sum of minterms equals sum of minterms

missing from the original function

F(A,B,C) = ∑(1,4,5,6,7)= m1+m4+m5+ m6+m7

 Complement is

F’(A,B,C)= ∑(0,2,3) = m0+m2+m3

 Complement of F’ is F

F = (m0+m2+m3)’ = = m’0. m’2 . m’3 = = M0.M2.M3= П(0,2,3)

STANDARD FORMS

 Sum of Products (SOP)

 F= y’ + xy+ x’yz’

 Sum denotes OR of these terms

 Product of Sums (POS)

 F= x(y’+z)(x+’y+z’)

 Product denotes AND of these terms

 SUM OF PRODUCTS
F= y’ + xy+ x’yz’

x’
y
z’

y’
F

x
y
 PRODUCT OF SUMS
F= x(y’+z)(x’y+z’)

x’
y
z’

x
F

y’
z

BE-26 C
 NON STANDARD BOOLEAN FUNCTION
 Boolean Expression in non standard form F=AB+C(D+E)
 Neither SOP or POS
 Implemented in 3 levels
 NON STANDARD BOOLEAN FUNCTION
 F=AB+C(D+E)
 Convert to Standard Form by distributive law
 F=AB+C(D+E) = AB+CD+CE
 Draw 2 Level Standard Sum of Product Circuit
 TRUTH TABLE FOR 2 VARIABLES
2 = 1622

One can have 16 functions of two variables

f0 to f15

x y f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 f15

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
 TRUTH TABLE FOR 2 VARIABLES
x y f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 f15
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

x.y x y x+y xy + x’y x+y’ x’+ y 1

0 x.y’ x’.y xy’+x’y (x+y)’ y’ x’ (xy)’

BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS FOR THE 16 FUNCTIONS OF
TWO VARIABLES
DIGITAL LOGIC GATE
DIGITAL LOGIC GATE
DIGITAL LOGIC GATE