Introduction to Flight

Seventh Edition

John D. Anderson, Jr.

Curator for Aerodynamics, National Air and Space Museum
Smithsonian Institution

Professor Emeritus
University of Maryland

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 CONTENTS

About the Author iii 2.1.2 59

Density
2.1.3 Temperature 60
Preface to the Seventh Edition xiii
2.1.4 Flow Velocity and Streamlines 61
Preface to the First Edition xvii
2.2 The Source of All Aerodynamic
Forces 63

Chapter 1 2.3 Equation of State for a Perfect Gas 65

The First Aeronautical Engineers 1 2.4 Discussion of Units 67

2.5 Specific Volume 72

1.1 Introduction 1
2.6 Anatomy of the Airplane 83
1.2 Very Early Developments 3
2.7 Anatomy of a Space Vehicle 93
1.3 SirGeorge Cayley (1773-1857)—
The True Inventor of the Airplane 6 2.8 Historical Note: The NACA and
NASA 102
1.4 The Interregnum—From 1853 to 1891 13
2.9 Summary and Review 105
1.5 Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896)—The Glider
Man 17 Bibliography 106

1.6 Problems 107

Percy Pilcher (1867-1899)—Extending
The Glider Tradition 19

1.7 Aeronautics Comes to America 20

1.8 Wilbur (1867-1912) and Orville (1871-

Chapter 3
1948) Wright—Inventors of the First The Standard 110
Atmosphere
Practical Airplane 27
3.1 Definition of Altitude 112
1.9 The Aeronautical Triangle—Langley,
The Wrights, and Glenn Curtiss 36 3.2 Hydrostatic Equation 113

1.10 The Problem of Propulsion 45 3.3 Relation Between Geopotential

and Geometric Altitudes 115
1.11 Faster and Higher 46
3.4 Definition of the Standard
1.12 Summary and Review 49
Atmosphere 116
Bibliography 52
3.5 Pressure, Temperature, and Density
Altitudes 125

Chapter 2 3.6 Historical Note: The Standard

Fundamental Thoughts 54 Atmosphere 128

3.7 Summary and Review 130

2.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities
Bibliography 132
of a Flowing Gas 58
2.1.1 Pressure 58 Problems 132

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 4 4.25 Historical Note: Osborne Reynolds and his

Basic Number 268

Aerodynamics 134
4.26 Historical Note: Prandtl and the
4.1 Continuity Equation 138
Development of the Boundary Layer
4.2 Incompressible and Compressible Concept 272
Flow 139
4.27 Summary and Review 275
4.3 Momentum Equation 142
Bibliography 280
4.4 A Comment 146
Problems 280
4.5 Elementary Thermodynamics 153
4.6 Isentropic Flow 160
4.7
Chapter 5
Energy Equation 166
Airfoils, Wings, and Other
4.8 Summary of Equations 173
Aerodynamic Shapes 288
4.9 Speed of Sound 174
5.1 Introduction 288
4.10 Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels 182
5.2 Airfoil Nomenclature 290
4.11 Measurement of Airspeed 188
4.11.1
5.3 Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients 294
Incompressible Flow 191

4.11.2 Subsonic Flow 197 5.4 Airfoil Data 300

Compressible
4.11.3 Supersonic Flow 205 5.5 Infinite versus Finite Wings 315
4.11.4 Summary 211 5.6 Pressure Coefficient 316

4.12 Some Additional Considerations 211 5.7 Obtaining Lift Coefficient from CP 322
4.12.1 More about Compressible Flow 211 5.8 Compressibility Correction for Lift
4.12.2 More about Equivalent Airspeed 214 Coefficient 326

4.13 Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket 5.9 Critical Mach Number and Critical

Engines 215 Pressure Coefficient 327

4.14 Discussion of Compressibility 227 5.10 Drag-Divergence Mach Number 339
4.15 Introduction to Viscous Flow 228 5.11 Wave Drag (At Supersonic Speeds) 347
4.16 Results for a Laminar Boundary 5.12 Summary of Airfoil Drag 357
Layer 237 5.13 Finite Wings 359
4.17 Results for Turbulent Boundary 5.14 Calculation of Induced
a
Drag 363
Layer 242
5.15 Change in the Lift Slope 372
4.18 Compressibility Effects on Skin
5.16 Swept Wings 381
Friction 245
5.17 Flaps—A Mechanism for High Lift 394
4.19 Transition 248
5.18 Aerodynamics of Cylinders
4.20 Flow Separation 251
and Spheres 400
4.21 Summary of Viscous Effects
5.19 How Lift is Produced—Some Alternative
onDrag 256
Explanations 405
4.22 Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler 258 5.20 Historical Note: Airfoils and Wings 415
4.23 Historical Note: The Pitot Tube 259 5.20.1 The Wright Brothers 416
4.24 Historical Note: The First Wind 5.20.2 British and U.S. Airfoils
Tunnels 262 (1910-1920) 417
 Contents ix

5.20.3 1920-1930 418 6.12.2 Quantitative Formulation 500

5.20.4 Early NACA Four-Digit Airfoils 418 6.12.3 Breguet Formulas (Propeller-Driven
5.20.5 Later NACA Airfoils 419 Airplane) 502

5.20.6 Modern Airfoil Work 419 6.13 Range and Endurance: Jet Airplane 506
5.20.7 Finite Wings 420 6.13.1 Physical Considerations 507

5.21 Historical Note: Ernst Mach 6.13.2 Quantitative Formulation 508

and his Number 422 6.14 Relations Between CA0 and CDJ 512
5.22 Historical Note: The First Manned 6.15 Takeoff Performance 520
Supersonic Flight 426 6.16 Landing Performance 526
5.23 Historical Note: The X-l 5—First Manned 6.17 Turning Flight and the V~n Diagram 529
Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping-Stone 6.18 Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy
to the Space Shuttle 430
Method) 538
5.24 Summary and Review 432
6.19 Special Considerations for Supersonic
Bibliography 434
Airplanes 545
Problems 435 6.20 Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 549
6.21 Micro Air Vehicles 559

Chapter 6 6.22 A Philosophy of Conceptual Airplane

Elements of Airplane Performance 440 Design 562
6.23 A Comment 565
6.1 Introduction: The Drag Polar 440
6.24 Historical Note: Drag Reduction—The
6.2 Equations of Motion 447
NACA Cowling and the Fillet 565
6.3 Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated
6.25 Historical Note: Early Predictions
Flight 449
of Airplane Performance 568
6.4 Thrust Available and Maximum
6.26 Historical Note: Breguet and the Range
Velocity 457
Formula 571
6.5 Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated 6.27 Historical Note: Aircraft Design—
Flight 460
Evolution and Revolution 572
6.6 Power Available and Maximum
6.28 Summary and Review 577
Velocity 465
Bibliography 581
6.6.7 Reciprocating Engine-Propeller
Problems 581
Combination 465

6.6.2 Jet Engine 467

6.7 Altitude Effects on Power Required and

Available 469 Chapter 7
6.8 Rate of Climb 478 Principles of Stability and Control 586

6.9 Gliding Flight 487 7.1 Introduction 586

6.10 Absolute and Service Ceilings 490 7.2 Definition of Stability and Control 592

6.11 Time to Climb 497 7.2.7 Static Stability 593

6.12 and Endurance: 7.2.2 Dynamic Stability 594

Range Propeller-Driven
Airplane 498 7.2.3 Control 596

6.12.1 Physical Considerations 499 7.2.4 Partial Derivative 596

X Contents

7.3 Moments on the Airplane 597 8.3 Lagrange's Equation 655

7.4 Absolute Angle of Attack 598 8.4 Orbit Equation 658

7.5 Criteria for Longitudinal Static 8.4. J Force and Energy 658

Stability 600 8.4.2 Equation of Motion 660

7.6 Quantitative Discussion: Contribution 8.5 Space Vehicle Trajectories—Some Basic

of the Wing to
Mcg 605 Aspects 664
7.7 Contribution of the Tail 609 8.6 Kepler's Laws 671
to
Mcg
7.8 Total Pitching Moment About the Center 8.7 The VIS-VIVA (Energy) Equation 675
of Gravity 612 8.8 Some Orbital Maneuvers 681
7.9 Equations for Longitudinal Static 8.8.1 Plane Changes 681

Stability 614 8.8.2 Orbital Transfers: Single-Impulse

7.10 Neutral Point 616 and Hohmann Transfers 686

7.11 Static Margin 617 8.9 Interplanetary Trajectories 694

7.12 8.9.1 Hyperbolic Trajectories 695

Concept of Static Longitudinal
Control 621 8.9.2 Sphere of Influence 697

7.13 Calculation of Elevator Angle to Trim 626 8.9.3 Heliocentric Trajectories 697

8.9.4 Method of Patched Conies 698

7.14 Stick-Fixed Versus Stick-Free Static
8.9.5 Gravity-Assist Trajectories 699
Stability 628

7.15 Elevator 629 8.10 Lunar Transfer 706

Hinge Moment
7.16 Stick-Free Static 8.11 Spacecraft Attitude Control 707
Longitudinal
Stability 631 8.12 Introduction to Earth and Planetary
7.17 Directional Static Stability 635 Entry 708

7.18 Lateral Static 636 8.13 Exponential Atmosphere 711

Stability
7.19 A Comment 638 8.14 General Equations of Motion for

7.20 Historical Note: The Wright Brothers Atmospheric Entry 711

Versus the European Philosophy 8.15 Application to Ballistic Entry 715

of Stability and Control 639 8.16 Entry Heating 721
7.21 Historical Note: The Development 8.17 Lifting Entry, with Application
of Flight Controls 640 to the Space Shuttle 729
7.22 Historical Note: The "Tuck-Under" 8.18 Historical Note: Kepler 733
Problem 642 8.19 Historical Note: Newton and the Law
7.23 Summary and Review 643 of Gravitation 735

Bibliography 645 8.20 Historical Note: Lagrange 737

Problems 645 8.21 Historical Note: Unmanned space
Flight 737
8.22 Historical Note: Manned Space
Chapter 8
Flight 742
Space Flight (Astronautics) 647
8.23 Summary and Review 744
8.1 Introduction 647
Bibliography 746
8.2 Differential Equations 654 Problems 747
 Contents xi

Chapter 9 9.18 Summary and Review 826

Propulsion 750 Bibliography 828

Problems 828
9.1 Introduction 750
9.2 Propeller 753
9.3 Reciprocating Engine 761 Chapter 10
9.4 Jet Propulsion—The Thrust Equation 771 Hypersonic Vehicles 832
9.5 Turbojet Engine 774
10.1 Introduction 832
9.5.1 Thrust Buildup for a Turbojet
10.2 Physical Aspects of Hypersonic
Engine 779
Flow 836
9.6 Turbofan Engine 781
10.2.1 Thin Shock Layers 836
9.7 Ramjet Engine 784
10.2.2 Entropy Layer 837
9.8 Rocket Engine 788
10.2.3 Viscous Interaction 838
9.9 Rocket Propellants—Some 10.2.4 High-Temperature Effects 839
Considerations 795
10.2.5 Low-Density Flow 840
9.9.1 Liquid Propellants 795
10.2.6 Recapitulation 844
9.9.2 Solid Propellants 798
10.3 Newtonian Law for Hypersonic
9.9.3 A Comment 800
Flow 844
9.10 Rocket Equation 801
10.4 Some Comments About Hypersonic-
9.11 Rocket Staging 802 850
Airplanes
9.12 Propellant Requirements for Spacecraft 10.5 and Review
Summary 859
Trajectory Maneuvers 806 Bibliography 859
9.13 Electric Propulsion 809
Problems 860
9.13.1 Electron-Ion Thruster 810

9.13.2 Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster 811

9.13.3 Arc-Jet Thruster 81.1

Appendix A Standard Atmosphere,
9.13.4 A Comment 811 SI Units 861
9.14 Historical Note: Early Propeller
Appendix B Standard Atmosphere, English
Development 812
Engineering Units 871
9.15 Historical Note: Early Development of the
Internal Combustion Engine for Appendix C Symbols and Conversion
Aviation 815 Factors 879

9.16 Historical Note: Inventors of Early Jet

Appendix D Airfoil Data 880
Engines 817
Answer Key 909
9.17 Historical Note: Early History of Rocket

Engines 820 Index 913