New Developments in Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering

Product Generation Development –

Importance and Challenges from a Design
Research Perspective
Albert Albers, Nikola Bursac, Eike Wintergerst

variations. These variation activities are mostly combined to

Abstract – This article presents a new model explaining product develop partial systems of a product. An empirical study
development from the perspective of product generation reveals the importance of product generation development in
development. It is understood to be the development of a new practice. The need for future in-depth studies of this process
generation of technical products by both specific carryover as well as by new construction methodology research approaches will be
significant new development of partial systems. New development
shares may be based on shape variation as well as on a variation of outlined.
the solution principle (principle variation). New product generations
are always based on a reference product giving the basic structure. II. ESTABLISHED PERSPECTIVES OF DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The reference product is understood to be a precursory or competing AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT
product, on the basis of which a new product generation is to be
developed. This article presents examples of development practice A. Types of product development from the classical design
and additional results of surveys that empirically support the methodology point of view
explanation model. It is aimed at defining a systematic approach to The classic design methodology distinguishes between a
supporting the characterization of development projects for new generating and a corrective approach. For corrective approach
product generations.
carrying over of parts or only minor changes to existing
solution principles are typical. In order to minimize efforts due
Keywords – Product generation development, reference product,
new development share to changes with a generating approach new solutions are
initiated by means of “abstraction and subsequent
I. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION concretization process. [2]
In addition to this characterization Pahl and Beitz [3]
A few days ago, Google stopped the test phase of “Google
differentiate product development projects in three categories:
Glass” and its further development. According to reports of
new construction, adjustment and variant construction. For
the media, acceptance problems and technical deficiencies
their differentiation the degree of novelty, uncertainty with
caused the project to fail. The development of Google Glass
regard to prevailing conditions and possibility of using
doubtlessly was a project that differed from many other
familiar and dominating solution principles are used [3]:
development projects. But what type of project was it? Was it
• A new construction results from the use of new solution
a new construction, a modular innovation project, or how can
principles or new combinations of known principles
the project be classified? According to Schumpeter [1], an
under changed framework conditions, with the
innovation would have required success on the market. And it
development team having a large freedom of selection
was no new construction, because reference products, such as of means to implement the development objectives.
“glasses” or the “android software” in smartphones did • An adjustment construction requires the existence and
already exist. The solution principles and major subsystems of use of already known and implemented solution
the reference products were directly transferred to the new principles under new framework conditions. The
project. However, these highly creative development activities development objective is reached by using known
do not represent a classical adaptation construction. In the means to solve new problems. In case of complex
opinion of the authors, classical development methodology is construction problems, a partial new construction or an
still lacking appropriate explanation models to correctly integration of individual partial systems may be
describe the above-mentioned challenges associated with the included.
development of technical products.
• A variant construction is based on the reuse of known
The following chapters will first highlight major research
and implemented solution principles under comparable
relating to classical development methodology and innovation
framework conditions and their adaptation to the
management. The explanation model of product generation
defined development objective. A variant construction
development given below represents a further development of
in mechanics is characterized by a variation of
these classical approaches. The synthesis project will be
individual parameters, such as dimensions or
characterized by the basic activities of principle and shape
arrangements of components and assemblies. The
objective is to meet quantitatively modified

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requirements with minimum construction expenditure. The problematic of such classification of innovations lies in
Based on this perspective, the DIN standard 6789-3 the fact that it can only be retrospectively assessed whether a
distinguishes between a technical product modification and a product was successful on a market and represents an
new construction as soon as a component or partial system of innovation. Hence, the numerous failures in product
the product is exchanged to meet specific requirements. development are not considered. Failure is not an exception,
In contrast to these classical categories of development but the rule.
projects, recent literature increasingly pointed out that hardly Companies have to consider customer needs and
any products are completely newly developed today. For requirements in many (partially conflicting) dimensions
economic and risk analysis reasons, it is aimed at reaching the already in the development and validation phases of product
development due to innovation pressure on a market.
desired functions and properties of a new product by minimum
Examples of dimensions are functionality and cost-benefit
modifications of established solutions [4], [5]. Eckert points
aspects. According to the Kano Model [7] basic as well as
out that the improvement of existing products is the most
performance and fascination requirements of the above named
frequent type of product development. Most products result dimensions should be posed. These are modified in the course
from modifications. Reliably working components and partial of product development cycle [8] and adapted to each product
systems of complex products are carried over to the largest generation depending on current requirements and constraints
possible extent in order to reduce the degree of technical of the market. The Kano model (Figure 1) and the model of
novelty, potential risks, and required investments e.g. in the product life cycles (Figure 2) are demonstrated below.
production facilities. Based on Kano model new products need new fascination
The degree of novelty of a product, hence, is defined not attributes because with time they degrade to basic and
only by the number of newly developed partial systems, but performance attributes (for ex. across multiple product
also by an improvement of functions and properties of existing generations) [9].
components and assemblies or an extension of their scope of
application.
B. Product Development from the Innovation Management
Point of View
Innovations are of decisive importance to companies for being
permanently successful in competition. According to
Schumpeter [1], an innovation is the successful establishment
of an invention on the market.
Henderson and Clark [6] distinguish four types of product
innovation:
• Incremental innovations from constructive
modifications of components and their relationships Fig. 1 Kano model [9];
to each other. Due to the limited scope of
modification, the technical and economic risks are
rather low. However, the economic potential also is
rather limited. Incremental innovations can be
planned and controlled well.
• Architectural innovations are based on a new
configuration of already known and established
functional units. They often force companies to
restructure their knowledge. Another way of fulfilling
the function, however, is also associated with
economic potentials at moderate technical risks.
• Modular innovations are characterized by an
Fig. 2 Product lifecycle of product generations [8]
exchange of individual functional units, while the
basic system structure is maintained. They are
The defined objective is to establish a largely innovative
associated with increased potentials of economic
product on the market and, at the same time, to newly develop
competitiveness, but also with accordingly increased
risks. certain partial systems only. As a) non-compliance with basic
• Radical innovations are not only characterized by an requirements results in the dissatisfaction of the customer and
exchange of individual functional units, but also by a b) the risk associated with the variation of a solution principle
new configuration of the system structure. The often is much higher, it is recommended to meet basic
development processes and market potentials are requirements with minimum shape variations and, hence,
subject to high uncertainties. A considerable amount minimum risk and to change the product structure slightly
of new knowledge has to be newly generated or only, if possible. At the same time, the available resources are
acquired. to be concentrated on the development of performance and

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 New Developments in Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering

attractiveness features (for differentiation) in order to enhance also lead to innovative solutions, i.e. solutions that are
the innovation potential of a product and to extend the lifetime successful on the market. Hence, several new development
of innovations on the market. This can be achieved by a shares of partial systems of a product can be distinguished in a
specific focus on selected partial systems in the planning new product generation:
phase of the product generation development already. • New development of a partial system of a product
generation by principle variation (PV), e.g. by
III. PRODUCT GENERATION DEVELOPMENT AS A NEW adaptation from products having similar functions
PERSPECTIVE FOR DESIGN RESEARCH and properties in other contexts or by the systematic
search for alternative solution principles using e.g.
A. Definitions and distinction to the existing state of the art
construction catalogs or creativity techniques.
Pahl and Beitz [3] as important representatives of classical • New development of a partial system by shape
design research acknowledge that product development variation (SV), with a known (and established)
projects usually cannot be classified as new design, variant- or solution principle being carried over from a reference
adjusted constructions. product or the general state of the art and the
The authors of this article are convinced that the most function-determining properties being varied to
development projects can be described as product generation enhance the competitiveness, performance, and/or
development projects in practice. Hence, they propose to use quality of fulfilling the function. Shape variation
this term. An explanation model will be developed and represents the most frequent activity of product
explained below. The present article is not intended to present development and a highly creative and complex
an entirely new observation, but to combine the (so far process. An example is the enormous increase in the
fragmented) elements of current research in a new explanation power density of gear drives by an optimization of
model that reflects the “natural” conditions of development flank geometry, material, state of the material,
practice and enables research to develop useful methods and production process, and lubrication.
processes to master the challenges of product development. • Carryover of partial systems, i.e. existing solutions of
On the other hand, the explanation model is to serve as a basis reference products or component suppliers are
of qualitative and quantitative planning, classification, transferred to new product generations. This activity
shall hereinafter be referred to as carryover (CO) and
description, and management of a project development task.
also has to be planned and controlled. Constructive
The focus lies on the development practice of companies.
adaptations are to be minimized, if possible.
Product generation development is understood to be the In the explanation presented above, the term "new
development of a new generation of technical products by development" plays a central role - not least because it is also
both a specific carryover (CO) and new development of partial often used in the development practice. In contrast to a "new
systems. The shapes of new technical developments of construction" [3] in a new development, the matter is in the
individual functional units result from the activity of shape project, whose result (a technical construct, often a technical
variation (SV) and the variation of solution principles, system consisting of several subsystems) in most cases
hereinafter referred to as the activity of principle variation includes a variety of constructive adjustments and variants of
(PV). New product generations are always based on a already known solution principles- and only few (or no) real
reference product that defines large parts of the basic new constructions with new solution principles in the sense of
structure. A reference product is understood to be a precursory its classical definition.
or competing product, on the basis of which a new product In the following sections the most important relationships of
generation is to be developed. The new development shares of product generation development will be represented by
a new product generation are to result in features for mathematical models. Modeling is intended to facilitate
distinction of the new product from the reference product. planning and execution of development projects by estimating
From the above perspective, a distinction of new, and planning a) the shares of carryover from reference
adjustment, and variant constructions is hardly reasonable. products, b) the shares of new developments by shape
Instead, the shares of the different types of constructions have variation, and c) the shares of new developments by a
to be evaluated. While certain functional units are developed significant principle variation. Depending on the situation (on
the market or at the company), an individual product
by means of a new solution principle (principle variation),
development process can be planned and executed by
other partial systems can be redesigned using existing solution
selecting the respective types of modifications after assessing
principles (shape variation). Shape variation is based on using their risks and importance.
an existing solution principle of a reference product, while A new product generation (Gn+1) consists of a set of partial
function-determining properties are varied. This existing systems (PS) that are carried over (CO), a set of newly
solution principle may be the result of a technology or pre- developed partial systems by shape variation (SV), and a set of
development project or it may be derived from products, in newly developed partial systems by principle variation (PV):
which similar partial functions were implemented efficiently.
In a product generation development process the share of a
(1)
new development of solution principles often is far smaller
than that of new developments by shape variation, which may (2)

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quite often succeeded in significantly improving its

(3) performance characteristics (e. g. torque, fuel consumption) by
shape variation. As a result, product innovations are generated.
This way a new Generation can be described as: The objective of the development of a new product
generation is to obtain a sufficient number of features to
distinguish new products (from the existing product generation
and from competing or expected products on the market) and
(4) to profitably commercialize the new product generation for a
period envisaged. These features should be perceivable by the
The share of carry over parts (δCO n+1) of a product generation customers (on the same market) and allow for a clear
is defined as: distinction from reference products. Moreover, these features
should also be justified from the point of view of the
company, e.g. cheaper production due to the newly developed
partial systems. Improved functions for the customer and a
simultaneous decrease in the cost of production are no conflict
in principle, but a development challenge [10 & 11].
(5)
Very early in the product generation development process,
important decisions have to be made, which will largely
Analogiously, the parts of newly developed subsystems
determine the innovation potential of the product on the
through shape variation (δGV n+1) and newly developed
market. The paradox of construction holds: At an early stage,
subsystems through principle variation (δPV n+1) can be
much can be done, but the consequences are hardly known.
calculated as follows:
Later on, it is easy to assess, but changes can hardly be made
[12]. A strictly methodological and model-based product
generation development process may help to overcome this
paradox or at least to reduce its risk. The methods, processes,
(6) and tools required for this purpose should be in the focus of
future research into development methodology.

(7) IV. REFLECTION OF THE CLARIFICATION MODEL IN

DEVELOPMENT PRACTICE
The entire new development share (δN n + 1) is, thus, For a detailed analysis of product generation development, a
calculated as sum of the individual new development parts systemic approach is chosen with a vehicle being used as an
from shape variation (δGV n + 1) and prociple variation (δPV n+1). example. Such a technical product may be understood to be
The values δ selected in the projecting phase already are the sum of its elements or partial systems and their
important parameters for planning a product development interactions [13]. Now, the results of an empirical study shall
process. The actually realized values for δ, which may differ be presented. They reflect the relevance of the explanation
from the planned values, are important parameters for risk model outlined in Chapter 3.
analysis and the validation of a product generation. The
authors intend to develop methods to determine and plan the A. Examples of typical product generation developments
shares in the future. Product generation development shall now be illustrated
with the development of the iPhone, of printing machines by
B. Challenges in the development of new product generations
Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG or of the Porsche 911
The solution space for improving a new product generation being used as examples (cf. Figure 3).
compared to reference products is often limited to a variation
of the relevant shape and process parameters. Hence, it is a
special challenge to creatively generate features in which new
products differ from products already available on the market.
On the (often prevailing) buyers’ market, a new product has to
meet the customers’ requirements and to be easy to produce
for being competitive. Again, the best solution is the simplest
solution that works. System engineers are forced to creatively
explore the solution space given by technical and economic
objectives and framework conditions. The creativity of system
engineers does not only consist in the development of new
solution principles, but especially in the specific variation of
the shape of a reference product or a partial system to ensure
the best possible use of the potentials of the carried-over
solution principles. For instance, the principle of the Otto
Fig. 3 Product generation developments of G1 (left) to GN (right)
engine has been known for a long time. Nevertheless, it is

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using the example of products from Porsche (a), Apple (b) and online survey, development engineers of various companies
Heidelberger-Druck (c) and branches were asked to assess the development focus of
their companies. Using a scroll bar, the respondents were to
For 50 years now, the Porsche 911 follows a similar basic indicate whether the focus of their development activities lay
concept (rear engine, 2+2 seats, etc.). In every generation, on classical adaptation development (1), completely new
however, it is extended specifically by differentiation features. development (100) or on mixed forms. The results of the
Examples are the adaptive front spoiler of the current survey are shown in Figure 5. In total, 247 development
generation (type 991), variable turbine geometry of the engineers participated in the online survey. Of these, 131
precursor generation (type 997), and the ceramic brake of its answered all 33 questions.
precursor (type 996). To reduce the expenditure, risk, and
costs, it is often reasonable to maintain the basic structure of a
reference product and to newly develop individual partial
systems. Visible partial systems of the vehicle, such as the
exterior (look-and-feel – SV), functions experienced by the
customer, such as the ACC InnoDrive (fascination attribute –
PV), and the engine (for reducing fuel consumption
(performance attribute – SV) or meeting new legal
requirements (basic attribute – PV or SV)) are newly
developed. Other partial systems, such as wheel suspension,
are carried over and integrated into the new generation. Such a Fig. 5 Company focus: adjustment development of the existing
mixed development process requires new methods and tools products (1) till new developments (100)
that have to be made subjects of research.
As pointed out in Chapter 2, it is reasonable to meet basic Although the results reflect the individual opinions of the
requirements by slight modifications of reference systems, if respondents, they also confirm the need for a definition of
possible, and, at the same time, to support the development of product generation development as a basic development
differentiation features. Attractiveness attributes degrade to concept, as only 11% focus clearly on adaptation development
performance and basic attributes with time. Hence, (1-20) and 7% on new development (81-100).
attractiveness and performance attributes have to be renewed The survey started by asking for company characteristics
or even replaced constantly in new product generations. A providing information about the area of business. The
new product generation mostly consists of unchanged (carried- companies are active mainly in the areas of mechanical
over) subsystems, subsystems, whose shape was varied, and engineering and plant construction as well as in automotive
subsystems, whose principle was varied (cf. Figure 4). In line industry. Most (46%) of the respondents work at large
with the fractal character of a development process, these enterprises (> 5000 employees). Small enterprises (< 250
subsystems may be understood to be product generation employees) have a share of nearly 25%. In Figure 6, the
development processes [14]. branches of the companies are represented.

Fig. 4 System theory analysis of a vehicle in a product generation

development process with the degree of renewal of the individual
partial systems Fig 6. Companies’ focus across different sectors

B. Empirical study about the relevance of the product Over the different branches, no significant deviations from
generation development the average values can be found. Only branches, such as
The mathematical model presented in Chapter 3 allows a information and communication technologies or electronics
continuous classification of product development. The state of and electrical engineering, tend to include companies with a
a pure adaptation construction (δN n+1 = 0%) or of a completely higher new development share than e.g. companies of
new construction according to the classical definition automotive industry. But in all branches not more than 20% of
(δN n+1 = 100%) is reached at the extreme values only. In an the answers can be assigned to the extreme cases of adaptation

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 New Developments in Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering

development and new development. These findings are also shares by principle variation (e.g. Google Glass) as well as
true for the company sizes and ages. The corresponding products with large new development shares by shape
distributions are shown in Figure 7. variation (e.g. Porsche 911).
The explanation model of product generation developments
may be applied as a framework: In this context Google Glass
may be understood to be the development of a first generation
of data glasses by using the principles of their reference
products “glasses” and “android software” and a large share of
new developments by principle variation.

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case of a consistent product generation development, these
models will be available already in the future and can be
carried over or modified slightly. This allows for an early
integration of customers to verify and validate new properties
of a future product generation. The later customers can test a
future product during its development phase in a type of “beta
version” similar to software tests. The customers’ feedback
can be incorporated directly in the further development of the
product. Product generation developments can be supported
by iPeM, the integrated product development model [16].
Based on research into product generation development, it
is possible to study new methods, processes, and tools for
product development. Companies are enabled to successfully
commercialize products with very large new development

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