Creating sustainable change through education, communication and leadership Z) GB) Z Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation First Edition IndiaCreating sustainable change through education, communication and leadership Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation global sustainable energy solutions India’ SSES First Edition India——— Authors Sustainable Energy Solutions °=y Ln SSteetie Sesmanabie Energy Pvt. Ltd. Copyright This publications for study and tinimspaaneemesante Meatacopying reproduction, storage or retrieval of the publication corneesseensg? Gist Sestairable Energy Solutions Pty. Ltd, is only permitted with the w Disclaimer White al care has been taken sesamin puiatin i free from omission and error, no responsiblity can be {aken for the use of this miornatiars -thestestam or e=tallation of any grid-connected PY system. Edition Indian Edition 12 Cover Image: PY ary. Sth GSES is = Hegemon ef Gobel Sustainable Energy Solutions Pty. Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-921932-00-7 © GSES Pty Ltd. ver. 1.2Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Contents Introduction ' Solar PV Grid-Connected System 1 How Does a Grid-Connected PV System Work? 2 Howto Use This Book 4 Chapter 1 - Occupational Health & Safety 5 11 Introduction 5 12 Onsite Risk Assessment 5 13 Safety Relating To Individual PV System Components 6 14 Hazards 7 15 Safety Equipment 8 16 Site Safety 9 17 Fist Aid 9 ‘Chapter 2 - Electrical Basics 10 21 Polarity 10 23 Voltsand Potential Difference n 24 Amperesand Current un 25 Ohmsand Resistance 2 26 Circuits 2 2.7 Ohms aw, Power and Energy 2 28 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC) 13 29 Characteristics of AC B 2.10 Licensing Requirements 15 211 Electric Shock 16 2.12 First Aid 16 Chapter 3 - Solar Radiation 19 3 Inradiance 20 32 radiation and Peak Sun Hours 2 33 Solar Radiation Data 22 3.4 Sunpath Diagram 23 35 Defining the Position ofthe Sun 2 36 Solar Alttude 2s 37 Geometric Effects 2 38 Tilting Solar Modules 28 39 Magnetic North & True North 29 Chapter 4 - Series and Parallel Circuits 32 41 Series Circuits 32 42° Parallel Circuits 34 43 Combining Series & Parallel Circuits 35 44 Understanding Cell Connection 36 45. Arrays 37 Chapter 5 - PV Cells a 5.1 Introduction a 5.2 Characteristics of a Solar Cell 41 53 Power Characteristics ofa Solar Cell 22 54 FillFactor and Equivalent Solar Cel Cicult 22 55 sTCandNOcT a 5.6 Factors Which Affect the Performance of Solar Cells 44 57 Types of Soar Cells 45 58 Manufacture of Silicon Solar Cells 50 59 Commercial Modules 52 5.10 Electrical Protection 53 5.11 Module Reliability 56 Page |iGrid-Connected 2v Systems Desier and liestallation * Chapter 6 - Inverters 68 Monarme: 69 ere Shoecy ON 6.11 Proce tar Ge Chapter 7 - tmamtting Systems 2 cao 72 | Caleta teins Ecading of the Solar Array 7 Jog Bauaet Sees 74 pRoeScacins 75 SENN = Type ‘Number of Modules That Can Fit on a Roof ‘and Inverter J] The Voltage Specifications of An Inverter i se Inverter’s Current Rating the inverter's Power Rating or Matching Array and Inverter 62 2 2 67 n 74 74 75 76 79 a1 al 81 82 92 100 100 100 103 103 103 104 109 m 4 4 6 121 126 126 126 131 132 133 138 142 142 49 150 152 152 157 187 158 159 164 167 168 169 169Grid-Connected PV Systerns Design and Installation Chapter 14 - Losses in GC PV systems 141 Lossesin a Grid-Connected PV System Chapter 15 - System Yield and Performance 15.1 What Determines the Energy Yield of a System 15.2 Calculating the Energy Yield for a PV Grid-Connected System 153 Specific Yield 15.4 Performance Ratio Chapter 16 - System Installation 16.1 Standards 16.2 Equipment Selection - Warranties 163 Installation Preparation 164 Equipment installation 165 Monitoring Equipment 166 Signage Chapter 17 - System Commissioning 17.1 Commissioning 17.2 System Documentation 17.3 System Installation & Pre-Commissioning Checklist 174 Commissioning Test Sheets Chapter 18 - Maintenance and troubleshooting 18.1 System Maintenance 182 Trouble Shooting Chapter 19 - Large PV Systems 19.1 Introduction 192 Preliminary Planning 193 Designing a Large PV Grid Connect System 19.4 What Array/Inverter Configuration Should Be Selected? 195 — Monitoring Chapter 20 - Economics of Grid Connected Systems 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Simple Payback 203 Life Cycle Costing 204 Determining Costs Associated with the Whole PV System 205 Valuing a PV System Chapter 21 - Smart Grids 21.1 What Will The Smart Grid Do? 212 SmartMeters 176 176 186 196 186 189 190 192 192 192 193 196 200 200 204 204 206 209 210 212 212 213 217 27 217 218 232 233 234 234 234 237 239 240 243 244 245 Page |vGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and installation Introduction These past two decades have seen the world has progressively come to tetms with the two major energy problems it faces, both these problems are interrelated: 1. The oll reserves that the world currently depends on are accepted as being a limited resource, and it is acknowledged that the demand will increase as countries such as India and China increase their levels of industrialisation and therefore demand on this resource 2. Climate change has been acknowledged by all levels of government in developed and developing countries as needing urgent international action to mitigate its effects resulting from the world’s consumption of fossil fuels. Solving either of the above two issues wil in part, require finding a way to convert the current fossil fuel economy into an increasing renewable energy based economy. This will go some of the way towards finding sustainable, long term solutions to these two problems. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 40% of the energy consumption in ‘OECD countries occurs in the built environment, with electricity representing an increasing proportion. To reduce the Impact of climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions, ways to decrease our overall power consumption by energy savings in cities is one key ingredient, as i the wider introduction of renewable energy technology. Solar power - which includes both photovoltaics (PV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) ~ are both renewable energy technologies. This publication focuses on photovoltaics (PV) which is suited to being used in the built environment as an alternative energy source. Worldwide, this technology is used in cities and semi-urban areas where itis installed on the roofs of buildings or ground-mounted and on building facades. ‘The cost of producing and installing PV systemsis greater than that of conventional power generation. But the volumes of solar PV product manufactured and installed across Europe, America and China has led to volume increases in production capacities and the resulting research and development have resulted in substantial price reductions for this technology. (One aim of reducing the price of solar PV installed in the built environment is to see pricing parity between conventional and solar PV power costs in the marketplace. The term used to describe this isgrid parity” One type of solar system seen in Indian cities and rural areas is the grid-connected solar PV system which is described in ‘more detail in the following section. Worldwide, innovative models are being developed by commercial and community interests to incorporate renewable energy into the overall energy mix and to give the public the opportunity to invest and own their share ofthis technology. There are various interesting models developed for this, e.g. in the US, the Federal Government allows public land to be ‘rented for the instalation of large solar systems; in certain US states, there are investment groups which buy a large solar system, use their share of power produced to offset their own power consumption, export the balance to the grid and receive a financial return for the excess power generated and exported. Solar PV Grid-Connected System Aagrid connected solar PV system uses solar modules as the power generation source. The power produced is fed into an inverter which changes the DC power output ofthe solar array to AC power compatible with Indian standard power grid Some designs for these system allows for any onsite loads to be powered by a combination of power generated by the PV system and power drawn from the mains power grid. Excess power generated by the PV system onsite will be exported to the power grid The way in which power use is monitored and electricity charges calculated will differ depending on the metering model in place. Metering is determined by the local network provider. The major components of a grid connect PV system are shown in Figure i.1 and include: 1. PVarray 2. Inverter 3. Meters Introduction Page| 1- Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation, In addition to these major components are the necessary cables, junction boxes, protection devices, switches, lightning protection and signage. ome Grid x Pv Generator one sir Figure.) Typical Small Grid Connected PY System (as setup for gross metering) How: Does a Grid-Connected PV System Work? A gric-conmertid PY system uses sunlight that strikes the solar array to generate DC power. This DC power is converted to AC pomey ws the ivwecter and the AC power is supplied (or fed) into the electricity grid. “Typically ere ae Deo general types of grid-connected PV systems, these are: L Comat 2 Dewbeced Connsal system ‘The Seating Slecmicey Sistem typically consists of central power stations using a variety of fuel sources such as coal, Ges mater Phettet or diese? thet provide power to end users via transmission lines and a distribution system. The power Stetions Geectiy consis to the transmissior/distribution system and the power produced by the power stations is onset Sy ences at their actual location such as factories, business and houses. Serre Se ‘5 conta! GhihcannennTTW Seti ccsictes in the same way. A large PV attay (see Figure 12) is directly connected to ‘he Saar Sines Grc-connected central PV systems can be as small as SOkW,, while systems as large 2 250 Se ee ie miemnsc years in the USA. At the time of writing January 2013), the state of Gujarat, in incks Nase She SentSSEESnnTnLES= = plant with a nominal capacity of 214MW, There are also companies planning 5S 120V DC «Dry insulated gloves should be worn while performing electrical work + Measure everything, electrical and dimensional! Measure the conductivity from exposed metal frames and Junetion boxes to ground. Measure voltage from all conductors to ground. Measure the operating voltage and current. «Expect the unexpected: do not assume that switches always work. that the actual configuration agrees with the electrical diagrams, that current is net flowing in the earthing circuit, et. 1.3.1 PV Modules Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity, and they should always be considered electrically “live” They generate Glectricity as long a ight falls on them. Attempting to cover them, using a blanket or cardboard for example, isnot safe practice. Light could still reach the PV module, or the covering could come off inmany PV systems, the PVarray is in excess of 120V DC. This voltage evel is dangerous and any installation or maintenance work must be undertaken with extreme care, Its recommended that the array strings are able to be isolated into sections, uhere each section has an open circuit voltage no greater than 120V DC. The array can then be made safe before any works performed. PV modules generally have aluminium frames and are mounted on metal array frames which are often located on metal oof All these metal objects can become very hot during the day and touching these could cause burns on the skin; ‘wear gloves and suitable clothing. ‘The PV array is often mounted on the roof of a building or on high structures. Ladders must be secured and safety hamesses or scaffolding should be used. It is important to refer to the relevant OH&S rules in your location of work. Figure 1.1 Working on a roof wearing harness Page |6 Chapter 1 - Occupational Health & SafetyGri ‘Connected PV Systems Design and Installation You can also take a look at the OH&S procedures of other countries such as the Australian NSW State Government's Workcover website: http://uww.workcovernsw.gov.au/formspublications/publications/Pages/W/CO132'_SafeWorkingatHeightsGuide.aspx ‘The “Safe Work on Roofs - Residential Buildings" booklet states that before starting work the contractor should: + Undertake an assessment ofthe risk involved in carrying out the work, This must include an assessment of all manual handling rsks arising when carrying out the work + Determine the most effective methods of controlling the risk of falls and injury + Provide a wnitten safe work method statement, describing how the work isto be done safely This safe work method statement should take into account + an assessment ofthe risk involved in carrying out the work + providing suitable and safe access to and from the roof + Install oof edge protection, anchor points or other fall protection measures resulting from the above + Ensure all persons carrying out the work are provided with appropriate training and instruction The code states the following with respect to prevention of falls: ‘system to control risks should be provided for persons exposed toa risk of faling: 4a. From the perimeter, including the gable end, of a new or existing roof; or 6. Through the roof where the spacing between rafters exceeds 600mm; or & Through the roof where the following material covers the roof ori being used to cover the roof: + asbestos cement sheets «fibreglass skylights other brittle or fragile materia It should be noted that the Construction Safety Regulations require that: + Safeguards or accident prevention measures be taken where necessary or advisable: and + Where persons are exposed toa risk of falling 1.8 metres or more, fencing or other safeguards be provided. The book emphasizes the level of detail that must be undertaken to ensure people work safely on roofs and similar points would be included in the general risk assessment that was discussed in the previous section, Since al roofs are above 1.8 metres some form of prevention must be implemented (e.. safety rails, scaffolding or harness). 1.3.2 Inverters In general, the greater the power (Wattage) rating of an inverter, the greater the weight. Care should be taken when carrying an inverter and installing an inverter, particularly if itis to be mounted in a high location. Two or three people might be required to safely mount the inverter in its location, ‘The outputof the inverteris230V AC, which ispotentially adeadly voltage. tis important that all electrical interconnections between the inverter and the switchboard are undertaken by a licensed electrician. 1.4 Hazards This section highlights the general hazards that occur when working with PV systems. Some of these have been mentioned in the previous section but are repeated below to emphasize the significance of the hazards related to these systems. 1.4.1 Physical (Non-Electrical, Non-Chemical) Hazards When working on a PV array, you will be working outdoors, possibly in remote areas, and using hand and power tools on ‘metal and wire equipment. Exposure When designed properly, PV arrays are installed where the sun is brightest, where no shading occurs. When working on a PV array, you should wear a hat and keep your limbs covered. Drink plenty of fluids (preferably water, and never alcohol) and take regular breaks inthe shade fora few minutes each hour. Insects, etc, Spiders and a number of insects, including wasps, often move in and inhabit junction boxes, array framing, and other enclosures of a PV system, Always be prepared for the unexpected when you open junction boxes and other enclosures. Chapter 1 - Occupational Health & Safety Page|7Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installati Cuts and Bumps Most PV arrays use metal framing, junction boxes, bolts, nuts, guy wires, and anchor bolts, etc. Many of these common items have sharp edges and can cause injury if you are not careful. You should wear gloves when handling metal, particularly ifyou are driling or sawing. Metal slivers from a drill bit often remain around the edges of @ hole, and these an cause severe cuts to a bare hand. Wear a hard-hat at all times when you are working under an array or ona system with hardware higher than your head. Falls, Sprains, Strains and Fractures ‘Some PV systems are installed in buildings located in an active building site and sometimes the ground could be rough terrain, Walking to and around the site, particularly carrying systems components and test equipment can result in falls and/or sprains, Wear comfortable shoes, preferably with soft soles. Be careful when lifting and carrying heavy equipment, particularly large inverters and large solar modules. Lift with your _ legs and not with your back to avoid back strains. If climbing is required, be sure the ladder is firmly anchored and that you have a partner available to hold the ladder and assist with handling equipment. Also, remember that a PV module can act as a wind-sail and knock you off a roof on windy days. Thermal Burns Metal left exposed to the sun can reach temperatures of 80°C. This is too hot to handle, but itis unlikely to cause burns if, you break contact quickly. To be safe, however, always wear gloves while working on PV arrays. Survey the system prior to beginning work o be aware of any elements that might become hot. 1.4.2 Electrical Hazards Many common electrical accidents result in shocks causing burns, muscle contractions and falls. These injures can occur ‘whenever electric current flows through the body. Any time a person works on an electric circuit they are in danger of Electric Shock. The “shock“is the sudden involuntary contraction of muscles caused by current flow in the body. Sufficient current will cause death by electrocution, While the skin usually has a high resistance, low voltages (e.g. 32V DC) can be fatal ifthe skin is broken by high voltages. Thus the body can act like a conductor resulting in severe internal burns. {A person may not be able to “let go’ of a live conductor due to muscle contraction, which is more pronounces in DC circuits as the current does not regularly pass through zero. The threshold current for letting go is about 9 mA in men, and 6 mA in women. The best way to avoid shock is to measure the voltage between any conductor, any other wires, and to the ground. Use a clamp ammeter to measure the current. Never disconnect a wire before you have checked the voltage and current. Do rot presume that everything is connected and working as designed. Do not trust switches to operate perfectly and do ot "believe" schematics, A digital voltmeter is a wonderful instrument, and could save your life. 1.5 Safety Equipment Following is a list of recommended safety equipment that you should have available. Check these items against a site safety plan and check to make sure all equipments in working order before beginning a job. 1.5.1 Personal Safety Resources + Awork partner (never work alone!) + An understanding of safety practices, equipment, and emergency procedures + Safety checklists + Safety helmets & eye protection + Appropriate safety harnesses, if working on roofs or other elevated sites + Proper measuring equipment: electrical and dimensional + Tape and use wire nuts or cable connectors on end of cables (never leave wire ends exposed!) Page |8 Chapter 1 - Occupational Heath & Safetyi Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation 1.5.2 Job-Site Safety Resources + Safety plan & first-aid kit; + Fire extinguisher, + Appropriate ladders; + Appropriate lifting equipment; + Suitable labels on all equipment, wiring, etc. Sometimes, safety equipment standards refer to what you do not wear. Remove all jewelry that might come in contact electrical components! Do not wear loose clothing or have loose hai 1.6 Site Safety Sometimes itis necessary to troubleshoot a PV system that is not working correctly. Safety should be the main concern both in planning, before you go to the site and during the actual testing. Before travelling tothe site, know the followin ho will assist you? Always work with a trained partner or team. Before working with any PV system, become familiar with the electrical configuration. What type of PV modules are in the system? How many modules are there? Are there multiple inverters in the system? What are the system voltages (DC and AC) and the expected current flows? How many circuits are there? How can the system be disconnected? What safety equipment is available, and what equipment will you need to bring? Atthe installation site: Remove jewelry: Walk around the system and record any apparent hazards in the system logbook or a notebook: + Check the actual system configuration against the electrical schematics; Determine where the system is earthed; Locate and inspect all disconnect switches, check any fuses, and determine if the switches are designed to interrupt both positive and negative conductors; and Disconnect the source circults and measure the open-circult voltage to v disconnected switch. Only when you are sure that you understand the circuit should you proceed the proper operation of the testing. Inaddition keep: Keep the work area clear of obstacles; particularly behind you and around the ladder base Never disconnect a wire before measuring voltages Keep your hands dry and/or wear gloves + Work with only one hand ever coming in contact with bare conductors, if possible Use circuit lockout equipment and lockout procedures to prevent inadvertent reconnection. This includes safety tagging. Where this cannot be guaranteed, have a partner or team member stationed near the disconnect, switches Once a wires disconnected, don't leave the end exposed — either tape it or use a cable connector for temporary covering. 1.7 First Aid First ad can be life-saving if someone has experienced trauma, or been involved in an accident. itis highly recommended that people working in the electrical industry have first-aid training, and ensure that their training remains current. There are many providers of frst aid training, and tefresher courses for those who wish to keep their skills up to date. Training Usually takes a short time, and can be extremely valuable in emergencies. Chapter 1 - Occupational Health & Safety Page|9Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Electrical Basics This chapter provides an introduction to the common terms and basic laws used in electrical systems. 2.1 Polarity A lack of electrons (positive charge) or an excess of electrons (negative charge) results in a material assuming a charge. When the electron distribution is equal, the material will be electrically neutral, Changing the balance of electrons produces a potential difference, which can then be applied to a circuit to do work. To do this energy Is applied to the material. This may be as simple as generating a static charge by rubbing a piece of plastic, or it may be the chemical energy stored in a battery which gives rise to positive and negative polarity Charged Discharging Discharged ai] oF | Gr Figure 2.1 A charged battery witha large potential difference discharges, until the potential difference is 2era, 2.2 Types of Materials 2.2.1 Conductors Aconductoris a materialin which electrons can move easly from oneatom to another. Generally all metalsare conductors, with silver being the best conductor and copper second. The purpose of @ conductor is to allow an electric current (electrons) to flow from a source to a load with the least amount of opposition. For example, the wires connecting a torch globe to the battery ofthe torch are conductors. Coppers generally used because it costs less than silver, although long transmission lines are now more likely tobe aluminium, which i only slightly behind copper as a conductor but is lighter and cheaper. 2.2.2 Insulators Insulators are materials in which the electrons do not move easily, ut are more tightly bound in their atomic orbits. These materials resist the flow of electric current and are used to isolate electric current from areas where itis not required or where it might prove dangerous. An example would be the coating/covering on cables. ‘An insulator is able to store an electric charge because it resists the movement of electrons within its structure, An insulator used to store a charge is called a dielectric. Dry aris a dielectric, as anyone who has received a static electricity shock can confirm. On days when the airis humid, static electricity drains away through the air to ground. 2.2.3 Semi-Conductors Materials which are neither insulators nor conductors, but exhibit some of the properties of both, are called semi- conductors. Examples of semi-conductor materials are carbon, silicon and germanium, Germanium was very popular in early transistor manufacture but now has largely been replaced by silicon. The micrachip industry, as well as the solar cell industry, is a large consumer of silicon, Page| 10 Chapter 2 - Electrical BasicsGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation 2.3 Volts and Potential Difference Potential refers to the possibility of doing work, When energy is applied to a material to cause a change in its state of charge (that i, we give it‘potential) itis given the ability to do works it attempts to return to the neutral state, One unit of charge, called a Coulomb (C) has a quantum number of 6.27 x 10" electrons. The difference between two charge states is called the Potential Difference (PD) and is measured in units called Vols ‘The Volt (V1 is the unit that measures the work needed to move one unit of charge between two points. Briefly, when 1 Joule of energy is needed to move 1 Coulomb of charge between two points, there is a potential difference between the two points of 1 Volt. Voltage is the potential diference between two points. Voltage is sometimes referred to as Electromotive Force or EMF and given the symbol (é) but the standard symbol for a potential difference is V, either for a generating source (e.g. solar cel or a voltage drop across a passive component (2.9. resistor) 2.4 Amperes and Current When a potential difference causes a charge to move between two points, the charge in motion is called an electric current. The number of electrons that can be forced to move depends on the potential difference between the two points. The greater the potential difference, the greater the current flow. Current is the flow of electrons between two points and is measured in Amperes (A). When 1 Coulomb (6.27 x 10"* electrons) flows pasta given point in 1 second itis called 1 Ampere (A) of current. The symbol for current is (this stands for ‘intensity’, which is a measure of the concentration or intensity of electron flow. All electrons move with the same speed, oniy the quantity changes. So if potential difference doubles, the quantity of electrons doubles, but the speed at ‘which they travel is the same. Electrons flow from a negative terminal to a positive terminal (Figure 2.2a). Conventional current flow, isin the direction of the positive charge, ie. the direction of current is reversed compared with the direction of flow of electrons in a conductor (Figure 2.2b}. ° ° ’ Voltage fxternal Votage I External Source Cheat sours } Creut ° NS ° NN | Foue 22a Diet ofeecvonfow Figure 2.26 Conventona caren ow The flow of electrons from negative to positive (electron flow) is equivalent to a flow of positive charges from positive to negative (conventional flow). Conventional current flow is normally used to explain the operation of electrical and electronic, devices and circuits Convent nal flow is used throughout this resource book. 2.4.1 Magnetic Effect When a current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around the wire (Figure 2.3). The magnetic field exists in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the current. This magnetic feld isthe basis for many electromagnetic applications such as speakers, electromagnets, relays, transformers, motors etc. tron ings showing _ magnet eld Figure 2.3 Magnetic effect produced by current flowin a wire. Chapter 2 Electrica Basies Page| 11Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation 2.5 Ohms and Resistance ‘A conductor carrying electric current will always provide some amount of opposition to that current. When a voltage is applied to a conductor, the temperature of the conductor will ise. This is due to the current flowing against opposition in the conductor material. This opposition is called resistance which limits the amount of current that an be made to flow through the conductor. Good condluctors have very little resistance; insulators have large values of resistance. The unit used to measure resistance is the Ohm (0). Resistance is abbreviated to R and is represented by the Greek letter, Omega (2). A good conductor such as copper wire has a typical resistance of 0.0180/mm? for a one metre length, Resistance wire such as that used as the heating element ina toaster may have a value of 240. In circuit diagrams resistance is represented by a rectangle as shown in Figure 2.4 Figure 24 Schematic representation ofesstance. 2.6 Circuits The path that current () flows from one charged point to another is called a circuit. A potential difference (V) is applied to ‘circuit to cause current to flow. Current flows through a circuit from an energy source to a [oad. The current that flows Is, referred to as load current. When any part of the current path Is broken we have an open circuit and no current can flow. If a fault should occur and current is lowing in a closed path across the terminals of a source, we have a short circuit. Current in a short circuit condition can be very high and we generally fit a fuse in the circuit to protect against this. Circuits ‘may be series or parallel, ora combination of both, and are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4. 2.6.1 Fuses and Circuit Breakers A fuse is a device fitted to protect against excessive current flows, that could damage conductors in a circuit, and to reduce the risk of fire due to overheating of conductors. This will commonly consist of a short section of conductor, ‘mounted in an insulating enclosure that is of sufficient size to carry the load current, but will open circuit under a fault condition, Fuses can be either rewirable or a cartridge style. Another alternatives the circuit breaker, which isa mechanical device that will open the circuit under fault conditions and can be reset when the fault is removed. Currents in excess of the fuse or circuit breaker rating will cause the device to operate (open). Rewirable type fuses are no longer considered sufficient to protect a wiring system, so cartridge (HRC) fuses or appropriately rated (AC or DC) circuit breakers should be used, 2.7. Ohms Law, Power and Energy There is a direct relationship between Current (1), Voltage (V) and Resistance (R). These relationships are expressed in Ohm's Law, as follows: VaIxR This can also be rewritten as: ¥ x I=R oo R=T From these formulae, given any two known parameters, itis possible to calculate the third unknown parameter, Page| 12 Chapter 2 - Electrical BasicsGrid-Connected PY Systems Design and Installation, The unit of electric power is the Watt (W). One Watt (one Joule per second) of power equal the work done in one second by one Volt (V) of potential difference in moving one Coulomb of charge. As one Coulomb per second is an Ampere (A), it follows that power in Watts is equal to the product of Volts x Amperes. Voltage (Volts) x Current (Amperes) or PaIxV Power ‘When current flows through a cable, there is resistance. Some of the electrical energy being transmitted is transformed into thermal energy, known as ‘Joule heating, The equation for this is: =PxR Poe = Power, in Watts; 1 = current, in Amps: R resistance, in Ohms, The rate of doing work Is expressed in Watts, as the unit of power. For example, the amount of energy used to walk up a set of stairs compared to walking up a ramp to the same level is equal but the rate at which the work is done varies, kilowatts are the term most commonly used for large amounts of power. i. 1000 Watts = 1kW. Energy is defined as the capacity to do work, Energy (Watt hours) = Power x time (hours) or E=Pxt Large amounts of electrical work or energy are expressed in kilowatt-hours being simply the amount of power multiplied by the time itis used for. The difference between power and energy is an important concept as eneray usage is the basis for determining the output of renewable eneray systems fora given period Example ‘A60 Watt light globe is left on for 12 hours. This light bulb will consume 720Wh or 0.720KWh: 720Wh 60 Watts x 12 hours 2.8 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC) In DC circuits, the current only flows in one direction because the polarity of the voltage source is fixed, see Figure 22b. If the direction of the current is to be changed, then the polarity of the voltage source must be changed, ‘An alternating current (AC) source regularly reverses the polarity ofits output. In India the grid supply reverses polarity 100 times per second to give us a 50-cycle (S0Hz) AC supply at 230 Volts. AC sources have the advantage of being easly converted to a different voltage by the use of a transformer. Table 2.1 Comparison of AC voltage and DC voltage pc ac Polarity fixes Polarity reverses regularly Steady or Variable Magnitude Magnitude varies constantly throughout cycle Criginally not easly stepped up or dawn but with the Easily stepped up or down via transformers development of DC-OC converters, thisis now possible 2.9 Characteristics of AC AC voltage, current and power are fundamentally different from DC. In order to quantify differences in voltage, current and power, it is necessary to look at an average value using waveform data; this is because instantaneous voltage and current in AC circuits are constantly varying. Chapter 2- Electrical Basics Page| 13,Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation ‘There are two types of averages commonly used in AC electric circuits: The first kind is the RMS or root mean squared” voltage (V,,,) which allows for the fact that the power, consumed by a resistive load, is proportional to the squate of the instantaneous voltage. The second “average" voltage isthe simple sum of the voltages divided by time. The average voltage is used to determine the magnetising behaviour of transformers and motors. Depending on the wave shape the average voltage may be above or below the “true RMS" vounce , 7 5 PEAK VOLTAGE <== RNs VOLTAGE 0.707 PEAK VOLTAGE Figure25 AC sine wave ‘Another important feature of a waveform is its peak value (Figure 2.5). A sine wave for a 230 Volt system will have a peak voltage (VP) of about 325V. The equation that relates the RMS to peak voltages is: V, vy, ‘m= op =0.707xV, It follows that in AC circuits, the current also has RMS and peak values related as; 2.9.1 Frequency (Hertz) The frequency of an AC waveform is defined as the number of times that the voltage cycles per second (Hertz, Hz) Frequency affects the operation of some appliances to varying extents, Many appliances with timers depend on the supply frequency and their clocks will drift unless the frequency is accurate. Major deviations will adversely affect transformers and induction motors. For example, low frequency often burns out this equipment. The standard grid or mains supply frequency in India is SOHz. 2.9.2 Harmonic Distortion Harmonic currents are also present in AC which can cause distortions in the waveform. Harmonics are generated by nonlinear loads such as switch-mode power supplies, battery chargers and fluorescent lighting, In mains power, these distortions are generally sinusoidal, and generally at a higher frequency. Inan inverter, the accuracy of a sine wave is expressed in terms of harmonic distortion; the lower the harmonic distortion, the better the inverter output. According to Central Electricity Authority (Technical Standards for Connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources) Regulations, 2013, the total harmonic current injections from a generating station shall not exceed the limits specified in IEEE S19, Page|14 Chapter 2- Electrical BasicsGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation 2.9.3 Power Factor Power Factor (PF) is the ratio between true power and apparent power. When the current and voltage of AC power are out of phase with each other (see image below), part of the energy returns to the source in each cycle, so the power delivered to the load will be a fraction of the supplied power. Figure 2.6 Out of Phase Current and Voltage True power is the portion of the power that travels in one direction and is transferred to the load. It is measured in Watts wm. The apparent power, measured in Volt-Amps (VA) is the the total power supplied to the load, and is the product of current (A) and voltage (V). The equation for relating these together is: Power Factor (PF) = true Power (W)_ ower Factor (PF) = Apparent Power (VA) The apparent power wil always be greater than or equal to the true power, given thatit includes the power returned to the source, and the power transferred to the load When the apparent power is equal to the true power, the current and voltage are in phase with each other and a system is said to have a unity power factor, or simply the power factor is 1.0. In-most AC circuits the power factor is, however, less than 1.0 due to impedances in the circuit. Some examples of power factors for common appliances are given in Table 2.2 below. Table 2.2 Examples of different types ofloads and ther corresponding power factor Load Type Appliances Power Factor Resistive Heating elements, incandescent Approximately 1.0 lamps Resistive All motors, transformers, ballast type 02-07 uorescent lamps Inductive PF Corrected) Same appliances as above Uptoase Electronics Compact fluorescent lamps (non-PF 04-07 corrected, TY, sound systems ‘Any time the power factor in a circuit is less than one it means that the current flowing though the electrical system. components is greater than is necessary to do the required work, ‘The effects of higher current and lower power factors in a circuit can be: + Excessive heat generation. + Potentially shortened life of the equipment. + Low voltage conditions; lights can dim or motor operation can be sluggish. + Refer to section 2.13 for more information about this topic. 2.10 Licensing Requirements EC 62548: Design requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) arrays, define Extra Low Voltage (ELV) as voltages not exceeding 70V ripple-free DC. Itis recommended that any work on voltages above ELV must be performed by a licensed or experienced electrical mechanicifitter/contractor. {As all grid-connected systems are connected to 230V AC (or higher), the whole system is deemed LY, even if the PV array is under 70V DC, therefore it s recommended that licensed/experienced personnel should work on grid-connected systems. Chapter 2- Electrical Basics Page |15,Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation There are also a number of mandatory Standards that people should adhere to if they are to design and install gril connected PV systems within Indi These include: + Central Electricity Authority (Technical Standards for Connectivity of the Distributed Generation Resources) Regulations, 2013 Central Electricity Authority (Grid Standards) Regulations, 2030 + 18875.3:Minimum design loads on structures - Part 2: Wind Loads + 1EC62305: Lightning Protection + (S732: Wiring Rules + IEC60364:Low voltage electrical installation + EC 62548: Design requirements for Photovoltaic (PV) arrays + 1EC 62446: Operation, maintenance and documentation In addition, different states and territories have occupational Health and Safety rules in place. Non-compliance with occupational Health and Safety recommendations leave employers and workers open to fines and possible insurance claims, apart from the obvious risk of injury. ‘Always research the requirements for your area. 2.11 Electric Shock Anytime that a person is working on an electric circuit they arein danger ofan electric shack. As litle as 10 milionths of an Amp (1OUA) is enough to produce an electric shock. The shock isthe sudden involuntary contraction of muscles caused by the current flow through the body. Sufficient current through the body will cause death by electrocution. The human body normally hasa high resistance, thanks to the skin, butf the skinis broken even very low voltages (e.g. 32V DC) can produce enough current to be fatal. High voltages may break down the skins resistance and produce sufficient current to be fatal The body can act as a conductor and severe internal burns can result. A $00 Volt potential across the body's resistance of approximately 25,0000 will produce a current of 20 mA, which can be fata Because of the contraction of the muscles, a person may not be able to let go of a live conductor. This is even more pronounced in DC circuits where the current is constant in one direction and the muscles in the hand will clamp shut on the live conductor, The threshold current for letting go in men is about 9 mA and only about 6 mA for women, Always test conductors for the presence of voltage using appropriate insulated test equipment, even if you are “sure” the power is off. 2.12 First Aid Itisadvisable that every one working in the electrical or associated trades be familiar with Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR). Also be aware that you may receive a fatal shock if you attempt to free a person from a live conductor. Switch off the power first or if that’s not possible use an insulated material to free them, Always put SAFETY FIRST! 2.13 Power Factor (Extension) This following section provides extra detail on power factor and how it relates to AC grids, Impedance in AC grids can be thought of as analogous with resistance, based on Ohm's Law applied to AC circuits. Impedance is a combination of reactance and resistance in an AC circuit, Reactance is the behaviour of inductance and capacitance to a sine wave AC ‘inductance, L, is property of inductors (e.g. acoil of conducting wire) and capacitance, C, isa property of capacitors, both of which are common components in AC powered circuits and equipment, besides the omnipresent resistance, R. Thus, for an AC circuit, itis very common that the circuit is called an RLC circuit. Reactance is either capacitive or inductive, but the effect of either type is the same, that is to cause current flow in the circuit, without doing work. However, resistance uses all of the current flow in the circuit to perform work. Thus, in this sense, for an ideal AC circuit, itis best to have the minimum reactance and the maximum resistance. Power {in Watts) in DC circuits is simply the product of voltage (in Volts) and current {in Amperes), Le. Page| 16 Chapter 2 - Electrical BasicsGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and installation Power (P) = Voltage (V) x Current (1) ‘AWattmeter averages power over a short period of time and accumulates the results to record energy (Watt-hours). In AC circuits the reactance of a load will cause a phase shift of the current waveform in relation to the applied voltage, Because of this phase shift, the energy supplied to the load is greater than the energy recorded on a Wattmeter. The measure of power supplied to an AC load is Apparent Power with units Volt-Amps (VA). Apparent Power (VA) = Voltage (V) x Current (A) Al reactive loads cause a phase shift dependant on their inductance and/or capacitance. The measure of the phase difference between voltage and curtent is called the Power Factor (PA). This is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current and is expressed as: Power Factor (PF) = cos@ Purely resistive loads (e.g, heaters, incandescent lamps) will not cause any phase difference and in this case the power Used is equal to the apparent power (Power (W) = Apparent Power (VA)). Because there is no phase difference between voltage and cutrent (ie © =0") the Power Factor is equal to 1 (cos 0°= 1). In AC circuits the power consumed by a load, measured in Watts, is called the True Power (P) and is expressed as x V,,,, x PF ‘True Power (P,) = Generally, inductive (or lagging) power factors are created in electrical systems by electric motors, transformers and ballasts. Capacitors are then installed within the system to compensate for the lagging power factors by providing capacitive (or leading) power factors, An AC motor, in particular, is able to register low true power readings (as measured on a watt meter), but at the same time cause high apparent power to flow in the AC distribution equipment such as transformers and cabling, resulting in additional heat losses. ‘To calculate the power factor for an appliance, the measurement of bath the AC RMS current and voltage are taken and the two values are multiplied together. This gives the value of the Apparent Power with the units of Volt-Amps (VA). A True Power measurement s also taken using an AC Wattmeter. ‘The power factor for the appliance is then calculated from the formula rue Power (W) Power Factor (PE) = 55 arent Power (VA) ‘The relationship between the three proceeding parameters can be illustrated in a phase diagram as shown in Figure 2.6: Note: The value of the power factor can only be between 0 and 1 Apparent Power (VA) Power Factor (cos @) True Power (W) Figure 2.7 Phase diagram. Low power factor appliances (PF < 0.7} can be a problem to electricity authorities since the high Apparent Power causes Additional losses in their distribution system. So the industrial consumers are often directed by the supply authorities to "correct" any power factor problems by installing power factor correction capacitors on site. This has the desired effect of bringing the power factor closer to the ideal value of 1. Grid interactive inverters have a power factor of 1; Le. their kVA and kW ratings are identical Chapter 2- Electrical Basics Page| 17Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation ESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1. What are conductors? Insulators? Semiconductors? 2. Silveris a good conductor. What feature makes it so? 3. Define the following terms: a. Potential difference b. Volts Current d. Resistance e. Power \ 4 What is an electromagnet? Give some examples. 5. Write the formula that relates power, voltage and current. 6 Write Ohm's law and therefore write formulas that relate power to voltage and resistance. 7. Write the formula that relates power to energy. 8. Whats the minimum fatal current for the human body? 9. State the two types of average voltages in an AC circuit. 10. Explain briefly the terms RMS voltage and peak voltage. State their relationship. 11. State what the following terms mean: a. Power Factor b. Apparent Power TruePower 12, Describe the relationship of the three terms in Question 11 above. 13. What is the equation to show "joule heating’? 14, Describe the parts of this equation. Page| 18 Chapter 2 - Electrical BasicsGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Solar Radiation ‘The sun is the source of almost all energy on our planet, either directly as sun light or indirectly as wind, waves and even coal and oll. The sun generates its energy by nuclear fusion which occurs rightin the middle of the sun. This energy is then transferred out to the edge of the star and then the rest of the solar system, ‘The energy produced by the sun is emitted to the solar system primarily as radiation. This radiation is emitted in many « forms including high energy radiation such as microwaves, visible light and infrared (or heat energy) as shown in the diagram below. For solar power generation we are most interested in the visible part of the solar spectrum, 1 SuntigheatTopofthe Atmosphere I Rasation at Sea evel — 5250°C Blackbody Spectrum as inraowance ‘wine os WAVELENGTH (nm) Figure 3.1 Solar Radiation Spectrum on Earth (Source: htp://en.wikipedia.org/wikivmage'Solar_Spectrumpng) As solar radiation reaches the top of the Earth's atmosphere, a large fraction of it is reflected by clouds and the gases in the atmosphere. The fraction of solar radiation that is reflected directly back into space fs known as the albedo of the atmosphere (Figure 3.2). * \ y ‘xFo0 Figure 3.2 Albedo, direct and alffuse radiation Chapter 3 -Solar Radiation Page| 19Grid-Connected Pv Systems Design and Installation Once the solar radiation enters Earth’s atmosphere, a large proportion of t passes directly through to the planet's surface, this radiation is known as direct radiation, However, some of the solar radiation is scattered or absorbed and re-emitted within the atmosphere, This scattered radiation is known as diffuse radiation and is not usually as intense as direct radiation. On a sunny day it will contribute only 1030 of visible light. For example, as a result of the atmosphere’s effects in scattering and absorbing radiation, the greater the amount of atmosphere that the radiation has to pass through to reach the earth, the lower the level of solar radiation will be at the earth’ surface. The radiation reaching the earth’s surface also has a different spectral composition than the radiation outside the atmosphere because of the gases through which it passes. In particular, water and CO, in the atmosphere * almost completely absorb some wavelength One indication of the relative distance that radiation must travel through in the atmosphere to reach a given location is 3 the air mass. Airmass, AM, is defined as: Where 0 is the angle between the sun and the line to a point directly overhead; see Figure 3.3, Outside the earth's atmosphere the air mass is referred to as air mass zero (AMO). AM) corresponds to the sun being directly overhead, The photovoltaic effectis the use of light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity, Solar modules (or panels) comprise silicon in wafers, cells or using a multi-layered deposition method. The silicon is electrically set up to allow the photo-electric effect to produce electricity. Solar modules are often referred to generically as’PV'(.e. photovoltaics) ‘The standard test conditions (known as STC) under which the solar modules’ output is rated are: + Airmass=1.5 + Solar Radiation = 1000W/m? + Cell Temperature = 25°C Note: The silicon wafer, cell or deposited material is subjected to test conditions which require the silicon material to reach a temperature of 25°C. Is at that cell temperature’ that the product's output is measured. Cell temperature does not refer to ambient temperature. See Chapter § for more detail * « cae | gage Figure 3.3 Example of how Air Mass I caleulated 3.1. Irradiance Energy from the sun arrives at the top of the earth’s atmosphere at a peak value of 1.367kW/mé, this is known as the solar constant. As discussed previously, this energy decreases as it passes through the atmosphere reaching approximately 1kiirn? at the sea level. The amount of solar power available per unit area is known as irradiance. A summary of these parameters s listed in Table 3.1 Table 3.1 Summary of solar parameters Parameter Symbol Quantity and unit leradiance 6 wines ime Solar constant 6.1367 kW/m? 1367 Wie? Peak value at sea level 6.0 KW/m?: 1,000 Wie? Nominal value (0.8 kW/m? 800 Wier? Note on Nominal Value: The inclusion of the term ‘nominal value'is to show the accepted value as an approximation of What would be measured in the field, as opposed to the peak value. Page |20 Chapter 3 -Solar RadiationGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and installation 3.2. Irradiation and Peak Sun Hours Irradiation is the total quantity of radiant solar energy per unit area received over a given period, e.g, daily, monthly or annually. The Systeme internationale SI) unit for energy is called joule (J)-Since this unit isa relatively small quantity, larger quantities of energy, such as solar radiation, are often expressed in terms of MegaJoule (Mi). ‘The conversion factor from solar eneray (MJ: megajoules) to irradiation (kWh: kilowatt-hours) is: IkWh = 3.6M] or iMj=> kWh ~ 3.6 Daily irradiation is commonly referted to as daily peak sun hours (PSH). The number of PSH for the day is the number of hours for which power, atthe rate of TkWW/mm?, would give an equivalent amount of energy to the total energy gained for that day. Example Ifthe solar radiation energy on a horizontal surface for the whole day is25 M./m and we want work out the number of hours for which radiation atthe rate of 1000 W/m? would result in the same overall energy gained for that day, we need to convert MUtokWh This means that 25 M/in? would be equal to: ‘MJ. 1kWh 25 * 3.6MJ 94KWh/ mn? {In 1 hour radiation at 1kW/n delivers 1kWVh of energy per meter square of surface. Therefore to produce 6.94kWh of eneray per nthe radiation would have to continue at the rate of kW/m: for 6.94 hours. Thus, the number of peak sun hours (PSH) is 6.94 Just remember: ‘To convert MJ/m to kWh/m? (or PSH), divide the number of MJ/m? by 3.6. The typical variation of irradiance during the day is illustrated in Figure 3.4. The area under the daily irradiation curve is tthe total eneray (MJ or (kWh) received over the period of the day. For the example shown below, the number of peak sun-hours per day's 4. The amount of irradiation available is the sum of all the blue parts shown, However the peak sun-hour block shown for the period 10am to 2pm (including both the blue and yellow parts) is approximately equal to this total daily radiation figure. IeRaoUNCE Vai HouroF 700 aN 10008 200m $30 Figure 3.4 Schematic representation of Peak Sun Hours Chapter 3 -Solar Radiation Page| 21Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation 3.3 Solar Radiation Data It is important to use the solar radiation data of the area where the solar system will be installed. In India the reference Is the manual on solar radiant energy over india, which Is based on data from the India Metrological departement, and is available on the MNRE website from the following link: httpy/mnre.gov.in/centers/about-sec-2/solar-resources/ ‘The National Aeronautical Space Administration (NASA) in the USA also provides world-wide data on the web: available from the following web site: http//eosweb larc.nasa.gov/sse/ (Note: There is io www in this address). Solar radiation tables are often developed based on the measurement of direct and diffuse radiation each hour, recorded as hourly irradiance (W/m), giving the total daily irradiation (kWh/m? or Mi/m*).The sum of direct and diffuse irradiation gives global irradiation, which is then used to calculate peak sun hours (PSH) as detailed above. PSH for some major ‘towns in india, on both the horizontal plane and tilted at the relevant angle from the horizon, is shown In Table 3.2. The ~ significance of the difference in these figures is explained later in this chapter. The Indian annual irradiation generally increases the closer to the equator (refer: Figure 3.6). However, note that the ‘nradiation variations across India do not strictly correlate to latitude, as other factors affecting this can be altitude, local precipitation ete. Table 3.2 Solar irradiation data for four cities in India, forthe horizontal plane and 30° tited plane, in PSH. (Source: Solar Radiant Energy Over India, MRE) ‘MONTH New Delhi 26°N, Ahemdabed 23°N Bangalore 12°N Kolkata 22°N, orri(tat) 30rTit oT a3eTiE rT a5PTIeorTit20°THE January 370 357 454 433 567 537 376 365 February 456 459 544 539 649 628 436 434 March 573 616 sae 667 658 664 528 5.48 April 669 779 695 780 657 688 585 635 May 679 834 699 824 636 oa4 573 639 June 626 14 602 698 492 521 an 528 July 530 619 431 465 464 487 419 454 August 494 558 431 455 449 461 433 462 September 5.25, 572 518 544 525 532 44 428 October 497 477 526 529 512 504 44 427 November 3.93, 381 465 447 485 465 385 375 December 331 3.16 42 399 482 456 352 339 AveragePSH 5.07 536 536 5.70 547 556 449 470 ‘There will be variations in the available irradiation directly elated to the tilt angle ofthe solar array. The following Figure 3.5 demonstrates that during the winter months a tilted plane receives much more sunlight than the horizontal plane. ee ae Figure 3.5 Comparison of the monthly average PSH for New Delhi fora horizontal plane and fora plane tited at 30° Page| 22 Chapter 3 - Solar RadiationGai ‘Connected PV Systems Design and Installation India Solar Resource Global Horizontal Solar Resource Irmnee en eo estan ae on hour emer i eo TINREL| Figure 3.6 Solar iradiation mop of nda (Source: Solar Energy Centre htip//onre goui/sec/solar-assmnthtm) 3.4 Sunpath Diagram ‘The sun’ path in the sky for any particular location can be depicted on a two-dimensional surface in a sunpath diagram (Figure 3.7). This diagram can be used to determine the position of the sun in the sky at any time of the day, for any day of the year. Two different projections exist: cylindrical projection and polar projection. The most common form used in the PV industry isthe polar projection known as the stereographic projection. The sunpath diagram is composed of: + The azimuth angles, represented on the circumference of the diagram. In some diagrams itis marked showing 0° t0 360° relative to True North while in some diagrams ust the four compass directions. + Altitude angles, represented by concentric circles; + Sun Path lines from east to west for different dates in the year: + Time of day lines crossing the sun path lines; + Location information that refers to latitude. ‘Sunpath diagrams can be used to calculate the amount of shading at a particular site, and also the time of year that this shading will occur. An example of 2 sun path diagram for latitude 30° North is given on page 24, Chapter 3 - Solar Radiation Page | 23Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation N tw we woo | soe [om | t am Sun Path Diagram ww SE (atitude 30° North i 10 s Figure 37 Example ofa sunpath diagram for New Delhi, India 3.5 Defining the Position of the Sun The location of the sun is specified by two angles: «Altitude (y) the angle between the sun and the horizon (in degrees). Azimuth (a) the angle between north and the sun's position. Similar to using compass where the direction being faced is measured as a number of degrees from north. The altitude and azimuth of the sun are constantly changing throughout the day and year as the Earth rotates on its axis (day/night) and around the sun (seasonal variation) 3.5.1 Altitude Altitude refers to the angle between the sun and horizontal (or ground), and is always an angle between 0° and 90°. The sun is higher in the sky in summer and lower in the sky in winter due to the natural tit ofthe Earth with respect to the sun as the Earth orbits the sun throughout the year (see also section 3.6 below). In general the sunisin the Southern part ofthe sky in india. The exception to this rule isin summer at dawn and dusk, and in summer in the tropics where the sun can be in the Northern part of the sky all day long due to the natural tit of Earth. 3.5.2 Azimuth The sun moves from east to west across the sky through the day. The angle between north and the point of the compass where the sun is positioned is called the azimuth angle. In general, the azimuth is measured clockwise going from 0° (true north) to 359°, East Is 90°, South is 180° and West is 270°. ‘Azimuth and altitude are important for describing where the sun Is in the sky, and to help ensure that the PV array is installed so it can produce as much electricity as possible. In the diagram on page 28 (Figure 3.8), altitude and azimuth are shown along with the points of the compass. Page |24 Chapter 3 -Solar RadiationGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation * ' Aude y we. | | psmuthe s Figure 3.8 Altitude and azimuth angles Variations in the altitude and azimuth angles are shown in Table 3.3, along with time of day and time of year for Delhi. The table also provides the time for solar noon, that is, when the sun is at the highest altitude for the day, midway between sunrise and sunset. In India this is typically between 12pm and 1pm, Table 3.3 Altitude and azimuth angles for Deih June and December. Note: All times are Indian Standard Times (IST) (Source: Courtesy of NASA Website htpy/eosweblarcnasa.gov/sse/) June (average) December (average) Solar Noon: 12:22PM IST Solar Noon: 12:15PM IST ‘Azimuth Altitude Azimuth altitude 7 oxs wv ia 702 123 ov ve 16 Fa 18 461 is 38 a 157 073 su 137 254 on ou 150 m2 No 73 166 x79 2o1 847 134 389 256 ne 201 359 2 os 26 295 a ara 7 206 280 33 By 101 21s 2a wa ve 21 887 nia va 3.6 Solar Altitude ¢ Figure 3.9 Earths rotation around the Sun Chapter 3 - Solar Radiation Page |25Tt wi Ae ns Pag Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation As 2 result of the earth rotating around the sun (Figure 29), the Sua Spee to move between the Tropic of Cancer (23.459) in the Northern Hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.45°S) in the Southern Hemisphere. When the sun i over ether of the two tropics itis known as solstice ‘and when the sun is over the equator is known as equinox. ‘The Sun reaches the Tropic of Cancer at the Norther Solstice une 21% and the Tropic of Capricorn at the Southern Soletiee (December 22%). Thesun crosses the equator at the equinox © March 21" and September 23° This means that the altitude of the sun at solar noon varies atotal 46." during the calendar year. “The formula for calculating the altitude of the sun when itis over the equator (y,) for a specified latitude is: 1, 90° ~ latitude (in degrees) ‘The formula for calculating the altitude of the sun when fs over the tropics (y), Le. either the tropic of Cancer or Capricorn, is 90° latitude (in degrees) * 23.45° Whetherto us ther -isdependent on the femisphere(Norther or Sonne) here you are located and over which opie tether Cancer or Capricorn) you want to determine the Se sititude. When applying this formula itis assumed ceeyou are facing the equates, for example, facing south nthe Northern Hemisphere. senate of thumb, when the attude isin the same hemisphere as the tropic you a8 23 45° and when the latitude isin the opposite hemisphere as the tropic you subtract 23.45" Example Hyderabad is 1736°N. Therefore the altitude ofthe sun when ts ver the we WOPIC ‘and the equator are a follows: Equator (March 21 and September 23") 90° — 17.36° (latitude) 72.64° S Tropic of Cancer (June 21”) 90° — 17.36° (latitude) + 23.45° = 96.09°S he aitude ofthe sun shouldbe expressed asa number below 90",and so should be 83.91°(180 -96.09) facing north Tropic of Capricorn (December 22") 1, = 90° ~ 17.36° (latitude) ~ 23.45° = 49.19°S ForDethi(which is outside ofthe tropics), the sun will never be directly overhead, as depicted in Figure 3.10. [tis importan ro erstand where the sun willactually bein the sky when positioning ‘polar modules, as you need to determine ifam obstacles will shade the modules. suMMeR sune23 esa j __ Wane wae December 22 Tom Figure 3.10 Solar altitude for New Delhi during the year page| 26 Chapter 3 - Solar RadiationGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation In the tropics itis important to remember that the sun can be in both the northern and the southern skies as shown in Figure 3.11. For locations on the equator, the sun spends an equal amount of time in both hemispheres. If you are in the tropics itis important to determine the amount of time, and at what time of the year, the sun is in the northern and southern directions. This is to ensure that objects like trees and buildings will not shade the solar modules. In the tropics, the sun is in the southern part of the sky at solar noon during Summer. In Mumbai for example, for the period from May 16" to July 28%, the sun will actually be in the northern part of the sky. Therefore you will need to look for potential obstacles that could cause shading in both the Southern and Northern directions. Equinox NORTHERN SOLSTICE March 2 Sune22 —_September23 SOUTHERN SOLSTICE December 22 a a | ; @ Sour = Figure 3.11 Solar altitude for Mumbal at equinox and solstices Table 3.4 provides information on altitude of the sun for various latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere tropics (Le. India). This table provides the altitude at the two equinoxes and also indicates when the sun is in the northern sky with respect to the latitude. This can help locate possible obstacles that will shade the modules at various times of the year. Table 3.4 Solar altitudes for afferent latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere Latitude Altitude of Sun at Solstices Sun in Southern Sky 20" December 22June 5N 61.55°S 7155°N Ti September to 2% April 10'N 5655S 7655°N 28° September to 16 February 18 s1ss's a1ss°N, 134 August 109" May 20°N 46.55" 5 8655°N, 198 July to 21" May 3.7 Geometric Effects Latitude, time of day and season al affect the amount of energy reaching a surface orientated horizontally on the earths surface, Imagine a flat plate collector having an area, A, of 1 mv tited at an angle, 8, from the horizontal and facing the sun perpendicularly (see Figure 3.12a). Ata time of e.g, 0900 houts, there are 12 rays ofthe sun's beam coming from an altitude angle, y, (or incidence) that strikes the collector at this position. However, if the collector is laid horizontally on the Earth's surface, ie. at angle B=0° from the horizontal, the collector only captures 9 rays. Thisidea can be seen in Figure 3.12a, econ Figure 3.12a Effect of varying tltangles on amount of solar iradiation captured Chapter 3 - Solar Radiation Page |27,Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation, Itthen becomes apparent that ifthe sun is overhead and the collector is laid flat on the horizontal, it will capture all ofthe sun's rays as shown in the following Figure 3.11b. Incoming 12 ys tom the sun Figure 3.126 Maximum capture of solar radiation when the sun is directly overhead 3.8 Tilting Solar Modules Solar modules should be placed so that the amount of radiation collected is as large as possible. To achieve this, when facing either true south or north (depending whether you ate in the northern or southern hemisphere), the solar modules should be tilted at an angle to the horizontal (B deg) such that there is a 90° angle between the sun (at solar noon) and. the solar module as shown in Figure 3.13, oor a \ — * a suns atitude Tilt angle of SS angley modules Figure 3.13 Placement of solar module in elation to Su’ altitude (at Solar Noon) ‘To point a module directly towards the sun at all times would require a solar tracking frame to be installed. This can be expensive, soit is not common practice in grid-connected PV systems, particularly on small systems. The most common approach is therefore to install the system at an angle which will provide the highest annual yield.This involves installing the module at a tilt angle that is perpendicular to the radiation at solar noon on the equinox; that is at an angle that is equal to the latitude of the site. To get the highest annual energy yield, modules should be facing south and tilted at an angle approximately ‘equal to the latitude of the site. ‘Table 3.5 shows that if the modules are tilted at approximately latitude (Delhi's latitude is 29°N) and facing South, they receive more sunlight on average throughout the year. There is some loss of irradiation in summer, however there is a much bigger gain in irradiation during the winter months. Page| 28 Chapter 3 - Solar RadiationGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Table 3.5 Solar data for New Delhi india Peak Sunhours per day for various tits (Source'Solar Radiant Energy Over India, MNRE) MonTH ur Horizontal 20° 30° 40" 50" 60" January 3.70 367 367 338 34 2285 February 456 467 438. 4a 4a7 384 February 573 61s: 618, 608 586 553 April 609 760 783 790 720 754 may 679 801 840 363 368 857 June 626 7a 780 805 816 an July 530 6.00 623 637 641 637 August 494 546 561 ser 564 533 September 525 567 573 569 554 529 October 467 a3 an 462 439 407 November 3.93, 392 3.80 361 335 303 December 331, 326 315 298 27 251 Average 507 5st 558 555 sat 518 This does not take into account the influence of any shading (Le. buildings, trees etc). Another way to calculate the ideal tilt we use the altitude of the sun and the following formula: Module Tilt (B) = 180° - 90° - Altitude of the Sun This gives an answer equal to the latitude of the location. Example ‘The average altitude of the sun in Delhi (latitude 29°N) in winter is 48.5°S. Whats the optimal module til at this location? Using the module tlt formula: 180° — 90° - 48.5° (South) 41.5° (South) Hence the optimal tilt fora PV module in Delhi is 41.5° South facing. Inthe tropics (between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn) the sun can be either north or south of the solar module. ‘Whether you point your solar module due south or due north is dependent on the exact latitude of the location. The closer to the equator you are, the more time the sun spends in the northern part of the sky. In general, installers in the Northern Hemisphere wil still point their modules South, Example: Ifthe altitude of the sun was 68°, at what angle would tlt a module o that it's pointing directly atthe sun? 180° — 90° — 68° = 22° from the horizontal (ground) 3.9 Magnetic North & True North ‘Magnetic North is the direction that a compass will point at any given location. Solar modules must be in line with true north (or Geographic North), which is the direction from a point on the earth’s surface to the North Pole along the earth's surface. Though magnetic and true north should in theory be the same direction, quite often, there isa difference between the two due to deviation in the magnetic flux lines at different places on earth. For example, in Delhi and most parts of India, the magnetic deviation is approximately 0° East. That means that True North coincides with magnetic north, Chapter 3 -Solar Radiation Page| 29Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation ses Pty Ltd. ver ‘Magnetic deviation yeti g “My, Figure 3.14 Example of magnetic declination of East “The magnetic dedtnation variation across the World is shown in Figure 3.15. From this map itis possible to see that depending on location, the magnetic declination “a uid vary. This has the potential to dramatically affect the annual system yield if not taken into account, LUSUK World Magnetic Model - Epoch 2010.0 ‘Main Field Deciination (D) Pee igure 3.15 Mop of magnetic declination variaron across the Wold (Source: NOAA/NGDC & CIRES) Chapter 3 - Solar RadiationGrid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3 1. Whatis the approximate peak value for irradiance at the earth's surface? 2. Ifthe sun's rays are impinging vertically on a plane flat on the earth’s surface, what is the effect of . tilting the plane to an angle of 60° to the horizontal? | 3. Define the two angles used to specify the position of the sun in the sky. 4. Ifa module was lying flat on the earth’s surface, at what angle would the sun's rays impinge on that module at 3.00 pm on December 22 (or June 21) in Bangalore? Define the following terms: a. Solar Constant b. Irradiance Irradiation dd. AirMass fe. Peak Sun Hour 6. What factors affect the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the earth? 7. Name the categories of solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth at sea level. 8 What would be the number of peak sun hours if the profile of the power from the sun is as follows: | mea 1700 am - 8:00am 200 800am-9.00am 250 9.00 am - 10.00 am 350 10.00 am -11.00am 450 11.00. am-12.00 noon, 600 12,00 no0n 1.00 pm 700 1.00pm 2.00 pm 650 2.00 pm -3.00 pm 500 3,00 pm 4.00 pm 400 400 pm-5.00 pm 250 (Hint: Work out the total energy forthe day in kWh’) Chapter 3 - Solar Radiation Page| 31Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Series and Parallel Circuits The components which make up an electrical circuit can be connected in o In Series Series components are connected in a continuous chain which starts ar current in the circuit must flow through each of the resistors one after the © electric Figure 41 Inseries In Parallel The current can flow along different paths in a parallel connection. Th current could flow along, In the circuit shown (Figure 4.2), the electrical ch via any of the three separate paths. Figure 4.2 In paroilel 4.1 Series Circuits ‘The path which an electric current (0) follows from one potential to a di #. When the current passes through all the components of a circuit in succession itis 2 oss R, and R, are in series with the photovoltaic (PV) module (power source). Figure 43 A series circu {Asa result, there is only one path for current to follow and therefe: he circut ‘This current will be opposed by all the individual components in th su cesisranceR, is: R,=R,+R Page |32 Chapter 4 - Series and Parallel CircuitsSts Pty Ltd. ver Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation The total voltage V, applied toa series circuit will be shared proportionally by all the components, , and V,, Thus: V,=V,+V, Example Ifthe PV module in Figure 4.3 producing 12 Volts, what isthe voltage across the two resistors if: a. They are of equal resistance 6. R,=2%R, (he. the resistance ofR, is twice that of R) Answer: a. IFR,=R, then the voltage across R, & R, will be equal at 6 Volts each 6. IFR|=R,x2, then the voltages would be 4 Volts across R, and 8 Volts across R,, To clarify this, assume R, = 4 Ohms and R= 2 Ohms and therefore the current, l, would be 12V/(41-2)=2 Amps. Sothe voltage “cross R, 152A x 40 = BV while for R, itis 2A x 20 = 4V, In Figure 4.4 the power sources, V, and V,are two PV modules (PV, and PY,) connected in series with a resistor R. Figure 44 PV modulesin series In this case, the voltages of the individual PV modules will combine to obtain a total voltage V,. Example |Feach module in Figure 44s 12V, then the potential difference applied to the resistor, R will become 24V as: V,=V,+V, If Ris constant, as we add PV modules in series, the voltage across the resistor will increase, however the current flowing through the circuit would remain the same (see Ohm's Law). R vs a —= Figure 4.5 Solar modules in series In Figure 45, ifthe solar modules PV, and PV, are nominally 12V each, with a current capability of |, = 1, =3.5A, then the ‘output voltage from both modules moving across resistance R wil be the sum of the individual voltages from the PV modules: 2+ 12 4 Chapter 4 Series and Parallel Circuits Page| 33Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation But the current I, will be as for one module, ie, 1=L=1, =3.5A [As more PV modules are added in series, the current remains the same, but the voltages continue to add. Solar modules connected in series are called a string. In Figure 4.6 following, the PV modules, while appearing to be in series, are connected in oppostion and assuming them to be equal voltages, no current will flow in the circuit. The potential difference across R will be zero. Figure 446 PV Modules in opposition Figure 4.7 depicts an open circuit condition in a series citcut. An open circuit may result from a switch being opened or a fuse opening under a fault condition. Open Circuit Voltage (V.,) is read when there is no extemal load (e.g. an inverter) connected to the circuit and it is the electrical potential difference between two terminals of a given device (e.g. solar module string). Given these conditions, no electric current will flow in the circuit and the full supply voltage will be measurable across the open circuit point: using the'12V' module specification shown for Figure 4.7. the V., would be 12V. Figure 47 Open Circuit 4.2 Parallel Circuits When two or more components are connected across one voltage source they form a parallel circuit. Each parallel component forms an individual’branch, and although each branch will have the same potential difference applied, there Is the possibilty of a different current flow in each branch. The total current flow, I, In the circuit shown in Figure 4.8 is equal to the sum of the currents (|, +1) flowing in the parallel branches, but the potential difference Vis the same across all branches. if we provide multiple energy sources in parallel, such as solar modules, and assuming that they are all the same voltage, the potential difference remains constant, but the current capability is equal to the sum of the individual supplies, Vr= VV, ‘and Page|34 Chapter 4- Series and Parallel CircuitsPay Ltd, Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation Figure 48 Aparailel circuit if we continue to add modules in parallel, the voltage will remain constant but the current capability of the complete “array will continue to increase, Figure 4.9 Solar modules in parallel Example ifthe solar modulesin Figure 4.9 are nominally PV, = PV, what will te output be, in terms of voltage and current? 5.5 Arespectively, !2Veach and witha current capability of, The voltage of the circuit will be: And the total current will be: 3543.5 =7A 4.3 Combining Series & Parallel Circuits By combining the features of both series and parallel circuits we can arrange solar modules (or batteries) in dfering voltage or current configurations as prescribed by the system. When there is a combination of solar modules connected in series and/or parallel the combination is called an array, Figure 4.10 A solar array with PY modules in series and parallel Chapter 4 -Serles and Parallel Circuits Page |35a Grid-Connected PV Systems Design and Installation i Example Figure 48 shows an array of 2 parallel stings of modules in series. Assuming that the voltage ofthe PV modules fs 35V and thecurrentis 44, what is the output ofthe array? The output voltage ofthe array is 35.+35=70V And has an output current of: 444584 43.1 Summary . Solar Modules in SERIES: The solar modules’ voltages add together while the current remains constant. The current of the circuit or string is equal to the current of the module producing the least current of the modules that are In series. Solar Modules in PARALLEL ‘The solar modules array voltage stays the same and is equal to the average output voltage of the parallel modules. The ‘current in the parallel modules’ circuit is additive: the sum of the output currents of the parallel modules. 4.4 Understanding Cell Connection ‘The PV module is the core component for a PV system. Understanding how a module is designed, manufactured and assembled provides a key insight into the design of real systems. Information on manufacturing solar modules is contained in Chapter 6 The current-voltage (V) characteristics ofa single cellas shown in Figure 4.11 demonstrate all the combinations of current land voltage output which are possible for that cell. The extremes of voltage and current for that cell are shown on the IV curve. The output power available from a PV cell at any one point along the IV curve is the product of the current and voltage at that particular point. The figure is expressed in Watts. Current (A) 4 s- | SS | __ vottage wv) 0.6 s Figure 4.11 The lV characteristics ofa single cell Figure 4.12 shows three identical cells connected in series. The current-voltage characteristics of the IV curve shown for these three cells are determined in the same manner as for a single PV cell, but the electrical output (Watts) will be calculated based on the maximum combined voltage figure and the current figure. Current (A) 4 — Voltage (V) 06 12 18 Figure 4.12 The combined IV characteristics of three identical cells connected in series Page | 36 Chapter 4 - Series and Parallel Circuits