CHAPTER-01

The Content of Systems Analysis & Design Methods

Review Questions

1.Why are information System(IS) essential in organizations?

Answer:
 Decision-making: Information systems provide managers with
timely and accurate information that helps them make informed
decisions
 Efficiency: IS can automate routine tasks, reducing the time and
effort required to perform them.
 Communication: IS can facilitate communication within and
between organizations. This can improve collaboration, knowledge
sharing, and problem-solving, leading to better outcomes.
 Competitive advantage: IS can provide organizations with a
competitive advantage by enabling them to gather, analyze, and act
on data faster than their competitors.
 Customer service: IS can help organizations improve customer
service by providing timely and accurate information to customers,
allowing them to track orders, access product information, and
resolve issues more quickly.

2.Why do systems analyst need to know who the stakeholders are in the
organization?
Answer:
Analysis of the information needs of the stakeholders is an important
first step in determining the requirements of the new system. It is
essential that the analyst understands the environment in which the new
system will operate.
3.Who are the typical stakeholders in an information system? What are
their roles?
Answer:
 Owners - fund the project
 Users - anyone who interacts with the system
 Designer - translate business needs into technical solutions
 Builders - develops and builds the system
 Analysts - defines the business needs and requirements

4. Please explain what the consequences are if an information system

lacks a system owner.
Answer:
Anyone who has interest in the system If an information system lacks an
owner, then the system will not have funding.

5.What are the difference between internal users and external users?
Give examples.
Answer:
Examples of internal users are owners, managers, and employees.
External users are people outside the business entity (organization) who
use accounting information. Examples of external users are suppliers,
banks, customers, investors, potential investors, and tax authorities

6.What are the differences between the role of system analysts and the
role of the rest of the stakeholders?
Answer:
System analysts will check the code that is developed by the
stakeholder. Stakeholder will takes part in dealing with the corporate
responsibility. Whereas the system analyst will communicate with the
stakeholders to learn and document the needs that are needed for
producing the business documents.

7.What kind of knowledge and skills should a system analyst possess?

Answer:
A high level of technical expertise and broad knowledge of hardware,
software and programming. excellent analytical skills. a methodical,
investigative and inquisitive mind and attention to detail. good
interpersonal and client-handling skills, with the ability to manage
expectations and explain technical detail.

8.In addition to the business an computing knowledge that system

analysis should possess, what are the other essential skills that they need
to effectively complete their jobs?
Answer:
Whether formally qualified or not, a System Analyst should also possess
these skills:
 Critical thinking ability
 Strong problem-solving capacity
 High-level written and verbal communication skills
 Project management skills
 Ability to work under pressure and to tight deadlines
 Knowledge of data modelling and data visualization tools

9.Why are good interpersonal communication skills essential for system

analysis?
Answer:
Systems analyst is the person who has to deal with group activities,
business politics, strife’s, and change. This is where interpersonal skills
come into role because the analyst most be able to have an
understanding with everyone that is involved with the project, in the
project and beyond.

10.What are some of the business drivers for today’s information

systems?
Answer:
Some of today’s business drivers consist of the following:
 Improved Decision-Making: Timely and accurate information is
crucial for making informed business decisions.
 Enhanced Customer Experience: Customer-centricity is vital for
businesses today. Information systems help organizations
understand customer behavior, preferences, and needs.
 Business Agility and Adaptability: In a rapidly changing
business environment, agility is essential. Information systems
allow organizations to quickly adapt to market changes, industry
trends, and customer demands.
 Data-driven Insights: Information systems facilitate the
collection, storage, and analysis of vast amounts of data. By
harnessing this data, businesses can uncover valuable insights,
patterns, and trends.
 Cost Reduction: Information systems help businesses streamline
their operations, automate routine tasks, and eliminate redundant
processes, resulting in cost savings.

11. What are the differences between e-commerce and e-business?

Answer:

Particulars E-commerce E-business

It refers to performing It refers to performing

online commercial every type of business
Meaning
transactions and activities activity through the
over the internet. internet.

It is a broad concept and

It is a narrow concept and
Scope is a superset of e-
is a subset of e-business.
commerce.
 E-commerce transactions E-business transactions
Limitation
are limited. are not limited.

It consists of the use of

It involves mandatory use
Resources the internet, extranet or
of the internet.
intranet.

E-commerce is appropriate E-business is appropriate

Business
in a Business to Customer in a Business to Business
models
(B2C) context. (B2B) context.

12.What are the differences between information and knowledge?

Answer:
BASIS FOR
INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE
COMPARISON
What is it? Refined data Useful information
Combination of Data and context Information, experience and
intuition
Processing Improves Increases concisousness
representation
Outcome Comprehension Understanding
Transfer Easily transferable Requires learning

13.What are the most important technology drivers for today’s

information systems?
Answer:
  Cloud Computing: Cloud computing has become an important
driver of information systems, providing organizations with
flexible and scalable infrastructure and services.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is becoming increasingly
important in information systems, providing organizations with
the ability to automate tasks, analyze data, and make decisions.
 Internet of Things (IoT): IoT devices are becoming more
prevalent in information systems, enabling organizations to
gather data from sensors and other devices.
 Blockchain: Blockchain technology is becoming an important
driver of information systems, providing organizations with
secure and transparent ways to store and share data.
 Big Data Analytics: Big data analytics is becoming
increasingly important in information systems, providing
organizations with the ability to analyze large amounts of data
to identify patterns and trends.

14.What are the four steps in a system development process? What

happens in each step?
Answer:
The four steps in a system development process are:
a. System initiation
 Here we need to identify the problem
b. System analysis
 Analyze and evaluate the problem ii. Identify solution
requirements and expectations
c. System design
 look for the all the possible solutions for the problem and
then evaluate and choose the best. ii. Make designs to
implement the chosen solution.
d. System implementation
 Implement the chosen solution ii. Review the solution we
implemented. Also check for any flaws and if any repeat
steps 1 and 2.
15.Why is system initiation essential in the system development
process?
Answer:

Here are some reasons why system initiation is essential:

1. Identify the need: System initiation helps the project team

identify the need for a new system or a change to an existing
system.
2. Define the scope: System initiation helps define the scope of the
project. This involves identifying the objectives, goals, and
requirements of the system, as well as the potential risks,
constraints, and assumptions.
3. Evaluate feasibility: System initiation helps evaluate the
feasibility of the project.
4. Secure funding: System initiation helps secure funding for the
project. It involves preparing a business case and presenting it to
stakeholders to obtain approval and funding for the project.
5. Develop project plan: System initiation helps develop the project
plan. This involves creating a high-level plan for the project,
including the project schedule, budget, and resource allocation.

Problems & Exercises

1.Assume you are a system analyst who will be conducting a

requirements analysis for an individually owned brick-and-mortar retail
store with a point-of-sale system. Identify who the typical internal and
external users might include.
Answer:
Internal Users:
 Store Owner: The owner of the retail store who will use the
point-of-sale system to manage sales, inventory, and financial
reports.
 Store Manager: The store manager who will use the system to
monitor sales, manage inventory levels, and schedule
employees.
 Sales Associates: The sales associates who will use the system
to process sales transactions, check inventory levels, and
provide customer service.

External Users:
 Customers: The primary external users of the point-of-sale
system are the customers who will use it to make purchases.
 Suppliers: Suppliers who provide inventory to the store may
need to access the system to monitor inventory levels and fulfill
orders.
 Accountants: An external accountant may need access to the
point-of-sale system to manage financial records and generate
reports for tax purposes.
 Government Authorities: Government authorities such as tax
agencies may need access to the system for auditing and
regulatory purposes.

2.Assume you are a systems analyst for a consulting company and have
been asked to assist the chief executive officer(CEO) of a regional bank.
The bank recently implemented a plan to reduce the number of staff.
including loan officers, as a strategy to maintain profitability.
Subsequently, the bank has experienced chronic problems with
backlogged loan officers who are able to review and approve or
disapprove loans. The CEO of the bank is interested in solutions that
would allow the approval process to move faster without increasing the
number of loan officers, and has engaged your company to come up with
suggestions. What is one type of system that you might recommended to
the bank?
Answer:
One type of system that I might recommend to the bank to help with the
loan approval process is an automated loan origination system.

An automated loan origination system is a software system that uses

algorithms and rules to process loan applications automatically, from
submission to approval or denial. The system can collect applicant data,
such as credit history, employment information, and income data, and
use this information to calculate a risk score and determine the
applicant's eligibility for a loan. The system can also automate the
approval process based on pre-defined criteria and generate automated
responses to applicants.

3.How do communication and collaboration systems efficiency and

effectiveness? What are some of the communication and collaboration
systems that are being used by an increasing number of organizations?
Answer:

Here are some ways in which communication and collaboration systems

can improve efficiency and effectiveness:

1. Improved Communication: Communication systems, such as

email, instant messaging, and video conferencing, can help
individuals and teams communicate more quickly and effectively,
regardless of their physical location. This can help to reduce delays
in decision-making and increase the speed of project completion.
2. Better Coordination: Collaboration systems, such as project
management software, can help teams to coordinate their efforts
more effectively, allowing for better task allocation and tracking of
progress.
 3. Increased Knowledge Sharing: Collaboration systems can also
facilitate the sharing of knowledge and information, both within
teams and across departments.

Some of the communication and collaboration systems that are being

used by an increasing number of organizations include:

 Video Conferencing Systems: Platforms such as Zoom,

Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet allow for virtual meetings
and collaboration, making it easier for remote teams to
communicate and work together.
 Project Management Systems: Platforms such as Asana,
Trello, and Jira allow for the coordination of tasks and
workflows across teams, improving efficiency and
accountability.
 File Sharing Systems: Platforms such as Dropbox, Google
Drive, and OneDrive allow for the easy sharing and
collaboration on documents and files, reducing the need for
email attachments and enabling real-time collaboration.
 Enterprise Social Networks: Platforms such as Yammer,
Workplace by Facebook, and Microsoft Teams allow for social
collaboration and communication within organizations,
improving knowledge sharing and fostering a sense of
community.

4.Identify the type of information system that clerical workers in an

organization would typically use and why?
Answer:
Clerical workers in an organization typically use a transaction
processing system (TPS).
A transaction processing system is a type of information system that
captures, processes, and stores transactional data, such as sales,
inventory, and payroll transactions. These systems are designed to
handle large volumes of routine, day-to-day transactions and provide
real-time information to support operational decision-making.
5.As information systems increase in complexity and
comprehensiveness, ethical issues regarding accessing and using data
from these systems are also increasing. What are some of these ethical
issues?
Answer:
 Privacy: The increasing amount of personal data stored in
information systems raises concerns about privacy
 Security: As more data is stored in information systems, the risk
of security breaches and cyber-attacks also increases.
 Bias: Information systems are only as unbiased as the data that is
fed into them.
 Ownership: The ownership of data in information systems can be
a complex issue.

6.What are business to consumer(B2C) and business to business(B2B)

web applications and what are some examples of each type?
Answer:
B2C web applications are designed for companies to sell products or
services directly to individual consumers over the internet. These
applications typically offer an easy-to-use interface, secure payment
processing, and a wide range of products and services. Examples of B2C
web applications include:
 Amazon: A popular online retailer that sells a vast range of
products, from books and electronics to clothing and groceries.
 Netflix: A subscription-based streaming service that offers a wide
range of TV shows and movies to its customers.
  Uber: A ride-sharing app that connects passengers with drivers.
 Zillow: A real estate website that allows users to search for
properties, view property values, and find real estate agents.

B2B web applications, on the other hand, are designed for businesses to
conduct transactions with other businesses over the internet. These
applications often offer features such as bulk ordering, invoicing, and
account management. Examples of B2B web applications include:

 Salesforce: A cloud-based customer relationship management

(CRM) platform that allows businesses to manage their customer
interactions and sales processes.
 Shopify: An e-commerce platform that allows businesses to create
their own online stores and sell products to customers.
 Hubspot: A marketing and sales automation platform that helps
businesses to attract and engage customers.
 PayPal: A secure online payment system that allows businesses to
send and receive payments electronically.

7.While system development processes and methodologies can vary

greatly, identify and briefly explain the generic phases of the system
development process that are described in the textbook and which must
be completed for any project. You are a contractor with a systems
integration company.
Answer:

8.Your company has a contract with a local firm to link all of their
systems so they can transparently work together. Their applications
include a number of existing legacy systems, which were built at
different times by different developers using a variety of languages and
platforms, as well as several newer contemporary applications. What is
the term for this type of linking? What type of tool would you most
likely use and what are some examples of these tools?
Answer:
To integrate the legacy systems and newer contemporary applications, a
middleware tool would be most likely used. Middleware is software that
sits between the different applications and allows them to communicate
and share data. It provides a standardized interface for the applications
to interact with each other and can help to overcome differences in
programming languages, platforms, and data formats.
Examples of middleware tools that can be used for system integration
include IBM MQ, Apache Kafka, Microsoft BizTalk, Oracle Fusion
Middleware, MuleSoft, and TIBCO. These tools provide a range of
integration capabilities such as messaging, data transformation, routing,
and protocol mediation.

9.Your company has asked you to develop a new Web-based system to

replace its existing legacy system. There will be very little change in
business requirements and functionality from the existing legacy system.
Suggest which system development process you might use and why.
Answer:
For a project where there is very little change in business requirements
and functionality from the existing legacy system, a suitable system
development process would be the iterative model.

The iterative model is a type of software development process in which

the project is divided into small parts or iterations. Each iteration is a
mini-project in itself and includes the planning, analysis, design,
development, testing, and implementation phases. The project team
develops a small part of the system in each iteration and then reviews
and refines it before moving on to the next iteration.

The iterative model is suitable for this project because it allows the
development team to make incremental changes to the existing system
and refine it through feedback from stakeholders. The iterative approach
can help identify and fix issues earlier in the development process,
which can reduce the overall project risk.

10.You recently Joined a retail sales company which has recently bought
out and assimilated a commercial industrial supply house. You have
been asked to lead a project to develop a consolidated inventory-tracking
system. Suggest which system development process you might use and
why.
Answer:
The Agile methodology is a type of software development process that
emphasizes flexibility and collaboration between the development team
and stakeholders. It is an iterative and incremental approach to software
development, which allows for continuous feedback and refinement of
the system throughout the development process.

The Agile methodology is well-suited to this project because it enables

the development team to work closely with stakeholders, including both
the retail sales company and the commercial industrial supply house.
The development team can prioritize requirements and features based on
stakeholder feedback, and work on developing the most important
features first.

11.Your company president sits down beside you just before a meeting
is to begin and tells you that people keep saying the customer needs to
install a CRM, but doesn’t really know what it is. The company
president then asks you to explain it in nontechnical terms in the next 30
seconds.
Answer:
Sure, a CRM or Customer Relationship Management system is like a big
digital address book that helps businesses keep track of all their
interactions with their customers. It can store information like customer
names, contact details, and their purchase history, and helps businesses
stay organized and provide better customer service. Think of it like a
tool that helps businesses keep track of their relationships with their
customers.
12.Industry studies indicate that mobile and wireless technology has
become one of the major technology drivers for designing new
information systems. Why is this the case and what is the impact?
Answer:
Mobile and wireless technology has become a major driver for designing
new information systems because it has transformed the way people
access and use information. With the widespread adoption of
smartphones and other mobile devices, people are now able to access
information and communicate with each other from anywhere at any
time.

This has led to a demand for information systems that are accessible
through mobile and wireless devices, and can provide users with real-
time information and services. This demand has driven the development
of new technologies and software applications that are specifically
designed for mobile and wireless devices.

The impact of mobile and wireless technology on information systems

has been significant. It has enabled businesses to become more agile and
responsive to customer needs, by providing them with real-time access
to information and allowing them to make decisions on the go. It has
also enabled new business models to emerge, such as mobile commerce
and mobile banking.

13.Briefly explain the impact of web services on web development. Give

some examples of web services.
Answer:
Web services have had a significant impact on web development by
enabling different applications to communicate with each other over the
internet. This has made it possible for developers to create more
sophisticated web applications that can integrate with other systems and
share data seamlessly.
Some examples of web services include:
 1. RESTful APIs: These are web services that use the
Representational State Transfer (REST) architecture to provide a
simple and lightweight way for applications to exchange data over
the internet.
2. SOAP web services: SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) is a
messaging protocol that enables applications to exchange
structured information over the internet.
3. Payment gateway web services: These are web services provided
by payment gateway providers such as PayPal and Stripe, which
enable e-commerce websites to accept online payments securely.

14.Identify in which phase of the development process the following

activities belong:
Answer:
a. development of the technical blueprint or design document.
This activity belongs to the Design phase of the development
process.
b. Project scheduling.
This activity belongs to the Planning phase of the
development process.
c. Integration testing.
This activity belongs to the Testing phase of the development
process.
d. Interviewing system users to define business requirements.
This activity belongs to the Analysis phase of the
development process.

15.What are two most important advantages of object-oriented software

technologies over structured software technologies.
Answer:
Faster development:
Reuse enables faster development. Object-oriented programming
languages come with rich libraries of objects, and code developed during
projects is also reusable in future projects.
Lower cost of development:
The reuse of software also lowers the cost of development.

CHAPTER– 04
Project Managements
Review Questions

1.What is a project?
Answer:
A project is a temporary and unique undertaking that aims to create a
specific product, service, or result. It has a defined start and end date,
specific objectives and requirements, and utilizes resources to achieve its
goals.

2.Of the many different reasons that projects fail, what is the major
cause of project failure?
Answer:
The major cause of project failure is often attributed to poor
communication and mismanagement of project resources, such as time,
budget, and personnel. Other reasons for project failure may include
unclear goals, lack of stakeholder involvement, inadequate planning,
scope creep, and unforeseen risks.

3.What is the difference between scope creep and feature creep?

Answer:
Scope creep refers to the gradual expansion of a project's scope beyond
its original objectives, without any corresponding increase in resources
or timeline. Feature creep, on the other hand, refers to the addition of
new features or functionalities to a project that were not part of the
original plan. The main difference between the two is that scope creep
involves expanding the overall scope of the project, while feature creep
involves adding new features or requirements.

4.What are the five main categories of competencies that a project

manager should have?
Answer:
The five main categories of competencies that a project manager should
have:
 Leadership competencies
 Technical competencies
 Strategic and business management competencies
 Communication competencies
 Relationship management competencies

5.Why are business achievement competencies important?

Answer:
Business achievement competencies are important for project managers
because they help them to understand the business context and goals of
the project, and to align their efforts with the overall objectives of the
organization. These competencies include financial management,
business acumen, and strategic thinking.

6.What are the basic project management functions?

Answer:
The basic project management functions include:
 Initiating: Defining the project and obtaining approval to
begin.
 Planning: Creating a detailed plan for executing the project
 Executing: Carrying out the plan and completing the project
tasks.
 Monitoring and Controlling: Tracking progress, identifying
problems, and making adjustments as necessary
  Closing: Completing the project and obtaining approval from
stakeholders.

7.What are PERT and Gantt charts? How do we decide which one to
use?
Answer:
PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) and Gantt charts are
project management tools used to visually represent a project schedule.
PERT charts use a network diagram to show the sequence of tasks and
their dependencies, while Gantt charts use horizontal bars to represent
the start and end dates of each task. PERT charts are typically used for
complex projects with many interdependent tasks, while Gantt charts are
better suited for simpler projects with fewer dependencies. The choice of
which tool to use depends on the nature and complexity of the project, as
well as the preferences and needs of the project manager and
stakeholders.

8.What are the eight major activities in the project management life
cycle?
Answer:
• Negotiate scope.
• Identify tasks.
• Estimate task durations.
• Specify inter-task dependencies.
• Assign resources.
• Direct the team effort.
• Monitor and control progress.
• Assess project results and experiences.

9.Why is negotiating scope important? What is the deliverable in the

process of negotiating the scope?
Answer:
Negotiating scope is important because it helps to ensure that the project
stays on track and that everyone involved in the project has a clear
understanding of what is included in the project scope. Negotiating
scope also helps to prevent scope creep, which is the gradual expansion
of the project scope beyond its original objectives. The deliverable in the
process of negotiating the scope is a clear and agreed-upon project scope
statement that defines the project's objectives, requirements, and
deliverables.

10.What is a popular tool used to identify tasks in the project

management life cycle?
Answer:
A popular tool used to identify tasks in the project management life
cycle is the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The WBS is a
hierarchical decomposition of the project into smaller, more manageable
components, which are then broken down into smaller tasks.

11.What are the factors to consider in estimating task durations?

Answer:
The factors to consider in estimating task durations include the
complexity of the task, the skills and experience of the team members
assigned to the task, the availability of resources, the level of effort
required to complete the task, and any potential risks or uncertainties
associated with the task.

12.What are the differences between forward scheduling and reverse

scheduling?
Answer:
Forward scheduling involves starting the project as soon as possible and
scheduling tasks to begin as soon as the preceding task is completed.
Reverse scheduling involves setting a fixed end date for the project and
working backward to schedule tasks based on the time required to
complete each task.

13.What are the categories of resources to be allocated to the project?

Answer:
The categories of resources to be allocated to the project include human
resources (e.g., project team members, contractors), physical resources
(e.g., equipment, facilities), and financial resources (e.g., budget,
funding).

14.What should project managers do to manage changes that occur

and/or are requested during a project?
Answer:
To manage changes that occur and/or are requested during a project,
project managers should establish a formal change control process. This
process should include procedures for identifying, evaluating,
approving, and implementing changes, as well as communication
protocols for keeping stakeholders informed about changes.

15.Why is critical path analysis important?

Answer:
Critical path analysis is important because it helps to identify the most
critical tasks in the project schedule, which are those tasks that must be
completed on time in order for the project to be completed on schedule.
By identifying the critical path, project managers can focus their efforts
on managing those tasks that are most critical to the project's success,
and they can also identify opportunities to accelerate the project
schedule by shortening the duration of critical tasks.
 Problems & Reviews

1.Assume you are a systems analyst and a proud member of a project

team that has just completed a major project that spanned several years
and that touched almost every business unit in your organization. The
project was completed ahead of schedule and well within budget.
Development and implementation went very smoothly with virtually no
disruption of business operations. A post-implementation survey
indicates that system users have been able to use the system with
minimal training, although there have been some comments from the
more vocal users that it wasn’t quite what they expected and doesn’t do
some of the things they thought it would. Should the project be
considered a success?
Answer:
Despite the comments from some of the users that the system wasn't
quite what they expected, the project can still be considered a success,
given that it was completed ahead of schedule, within budget, and with
virtually no disruption of business operations. The fact that system users
have been able to use the system with minimal training is also a good
indicator of success. It is not uncommon for users to have different
expectations, and it is important to ensure that their feedback is taken
into account for future system improvements.
2.Executive management is concerned that some users are less than
satisfied with the new system described in the preceding question and
have assigned you to lead a post-implementation work group to
determine the cause. Of the dozen project mismanagement problems
described in the textbook, which ones do you think were most likely to
have contributed to user dissatisfaction?
Answer:
The mismanagement problems that could have contributed to user dis-
satisfaction could include poor requirements gathering and analysis,
inadequate user involvement and participation, insufficient testing,
inadequate training and documentation, and inadequate post-
implementation support and maintenance.

3.As a newly appointed project manager, you are eager to get started on
your first project. What should your first activity be? How important is
it? Who is typically involved? What questions do you need to make sure
are answered? What’s the ultimate outcome from this activity, and what
is included in this deliverable?
Answer:
The first activity as a newly appointed project manager should be to
establish the project's objectives and goals, and to define the project
scope. This is a critical activity because it sets the direction for the
project and ensures that everyone involved understands what is expected
of them. Typically, the project sponsor, stakeholders, and team members
are involved in this activity. The questions that need to be answered
include: What is the project trying to achieve? What are the project
deliverables? Who are the stakeholders, and what are their needs and
expectations? What resources are needed? The ultimate outcome of this
activity is a project charter, which outlines the project's objectives,
scope, deliverables, and resources, and serves as a reference point for the
rest of the project.
4.You are the project manager of a medium-size project that is
scheduled to take 10 months from project initiation on September 1st
through delivery on June 30th. It is now April 1st, seven months since
the project began, and the project is slightly behind schedule, by perhaps
a week. Draw a Gantt chart . Assume you are using the FAST
methodology, and that project phases can overlap.
Answer:

Schedule it using date.

5.You are the project manager for a company that is building a

behavioral health system for some of the counties in your state. The
project is slightly ahead of schedule and there haven’t been any
significant problems to date. In reviewing some of the screens under
construction, you are surprised to find a number of features that were not
part of the design. The system builder was one of your most talented and
creative programmers. When you ask about these features, the builder
proudly tells you that they add to the functionality of the system without
taking any additional programming time, and that they were intended to
be a surprise. You can see that the features definitely do add to the
functionality of the system. The code has already been written for them
—should you allow them to be included in the system, even though they
were not part of the approved technical design?
Answer:
While the additional features may add to the functionality of the system,
they were not part of the approved technical design, and their inclusion
could potentially cause issues with the system's overall performance and
stability. As a project manager, it is important to ensure that all changes
to the system are approved through proper channels and that they do not
compromise the integrity of the system. In this case, the project manager
should discuss the matter with the builder and explain the importance of
following the approved technical design. If the builder insists on
including the features, a change request should be submitted to the
change control board.

6.The methodology used in your organization calls for change requests

to be considered by a change control board (CCB). After some reflection
and a discussion with the programmer, you have decided to submit a
change request to the CCB to add the new features. In your presentation
to the CCB, what reason might you give for the change request and what
things should you take into consideration?
Answer:
In the presentation to the change control board, the project manager
should explain the reason for the change request, which is to add new
features that were not part of the approved technical design. The project
manager should also present the benefits and drawbacks of including the
new features and should take into consideration the impact on the project
timeline, budget, and resources. The project manager should also ensure
that the change request is properly documented and that the decision is
communicated to all stakeholders.

7.The CEO of your organization was so impressed with your last project
that you have been given responsibility with a larger, even more
important project. The CEO calls you in for a discussion regarding the
importance of the project, and tells you that the very survival of the
organization may hinge upon completing this project and rolling out the
new system to customers before a certain date when a competitor is
expected to complete a similar project. The company can afford to
budget only up to a certain maximum, although if other, less critical
projects-in-progress are delayed, there may be some additional funding
available if absolutely necessary. Finally, in order to be a competitive
product in the market, the new system must contain at least a certain
minimum feature set, although more would be desirable, and the quality
must be of the highest level. At the conclusion of this discussion, the
CEO shakes your hand and wishes you good luck. Use the priorities set
by the CEO to create an initial management expectations matrix.
Answer:
An initial management expectations matrix can be created by prioritizing
the expectations set by the CEO according to their importance for the
success of the project. The following is an example of how such a matrix
could be structured:

Expectation Priority Notes

The very survival of the organization may

Project completion hinge upon completing the project before
before competitor Critical the competitor.

The company can afford to budget only up

Adhere to budget Critical to a certain maximum.

The new system must contain at least a

Minimum feature certain minimum feature set, although more
set High would be desirable.

Quality of the The quality must be of the highest level to

highest level High be a competitive product in the market.
Expectation Priority Notes

If other, less critical projects-in-progress

are delayed, there may be some additional
Additional funding Medium funding available if absolutely necessary.

This matrix outlines the expectations set by the CEO in order of their
priority, with notes to provide further context. The expectations with the
highest priority should be given the most attention and resources in order
to ensure the success of the project.

8.Now suppose that during the course of this project, it becomes

apparent that costs were significantly underestimated and the budget is
rapidly becoming depleted. In addition, the head of marketing has
picked up a trade magazine and read that your organization’s main
competitor is adding some really exciting features to their product
without changing their release date. The budget overage is not the major
problem; you know additional money can be allocated, although it may
delay other projects. But you also know that your marketing
stakeholders will be demanding that similar features be added to the
system you are developing while keeping to the original schedule. This
presents an expectations conflict since scope is the constrained measure
of success. What should you do at this point?
Answer:
As a project manager, it is important to communicate the situation to the
stakeholders and to work with them to find a solution. The project
manager should assess the impact of adding the new features on the
project timeline, budget, and resources and should discuss the situation
with the project sponsor and other key stakeholders to determine the best
course of action. If additional funding is required, the project manager
should work with the sponsor to identify potential sources of funding,
and if necessary, delay other less critical projects. The project manager
should also ensure that the change is properly documented and
communicated to all stakeholders.

9.Suppose the CEO decides that no matter what, the new features
absolutely must be added in order for the new system to be competitive.
What issues does this raise, and how would this be reflected in the
expectations matrix?
Answer:
Adding new features to the system at this stage could potentially cause
scope creep, which could lead to delays and budget overruns. The
project manager should work with the project sponsor and other key
stakeholders to assess the impact of adding the new features on the
project timeline, budget, and resources, and should ensure that the
project objectives and goals are still achievable. This should be reflected
in the expectations matrix, which should be updated to reflect the new
scope of the project.

10.You are working on the schedule for the system design phase and are
trying to estimate the duration of a complex design task. From breaking
this task down into smaller tasks similar to ones that you’ve had
experience with on other projects, you estimate the task should normally
take an expected duration (ED) of three workdays, given a typical 75
percent worker efficiency rate and 15 percent interruption factor. But
you also know of some instances where absolutely nothing went right,
and it took up to two full workweeks, or a pessimistic duration (PD) of
80 hours, to complete the design task. Using the classic technique
described in the textbook, calculate the most likely duration of the task.
Answer:
To calculate the most likely duration of the task, we use the three-point
estimation technique. The formula for calculating the expected duration
(E) is E = (O + 4M + P)/6, where O is the optimistic duration, M is the
most likely duration, and P is the pessimistic duration. In this case, O = 3
workdays, M = (30.75)/(1-0.15) = 3.75 workdays, and P = 80 hours = 10
workdays. Substituting these values into the formula, we get E = (3 +
43.75 + 10)/6 = 5.125 workdays, or approximately 5 workdays.

11.In the preceding question, what technique did you use to estimate the
expected duration of the design task? Describe some of the other
techniques you could use to estimate task duration.
Answer:
The technique used in question 10 is the three-point estimation
technique. Other techniques that can be used to estimate task duration
include expert judgment, historical data analysis, analogous estimation,
parametric estimation, and bottom-up estimation.

12.During one phase of the project, you review the project schedule and
realize that a member of your project team has been assigned multiple
tasks that add up to more hours than the person has available to work
during that period. What technique could you use to resolve this?
Answer:
The technique that can be used to resolve this issue is resource leveling.
Resource leveling involves adjusting the start and finish dates of tasks to
ensure that resource availability is balanced with task requirements. This
may involve delaying certain tasks, splitting tasks, or adding resources
to the project team.

13.You have been asked to complete a project in shortest time possible.

The project tasks, most likely duration (in days), and predecessors are
shown below. What are the different paths (sequence of tasks) and the
number of days for each? What is the critical path, that is, the shortest
time in which the project can be completed? Is it actually important in
the business world for project managers to understand critical path
analysis, or is this just theoretical knowledge?
Answer:
To determine the different paths and critical path, we can construct a
network diagram for the project tasks and identify the earliest start time
(EST), latest start time (LST), earliest finish time (EFT), and latest finish
time (LFT) for each task. The critical path is the longest path of tasks
with zero slack, meaning any delay in those tasks will delay the entire
project.
 CHAPTER – 17
User Interface Design
Review Questions

1.Why should the system users be involved in the process of

designing user interfaces?
Answer:
System users should be involved in the process of designing user
interfaces for the following reasons:
a. User-Centric Design: Users are the ones who will ultimately
interact with the system, so their input is crucial to creating interfaces
that meet their needs, preferences, and expectations.
b. Usability and User Experience: Users' involvement helps identify
potential usability issues and improve the overall user experience.
c. Acceptance and Adoption: Involving users in the design process
fosters a sense of ownership and increases the chances of user
acceptance and adoption.

2.Who are expert users? Why are they called expert?

Answer:
Expert users are individuals who have extensive knowledge, skills, and
experience in using a specific system or domain. They are called experts
because they have attained a high level of proficiency through
continuous usage, training, and exploration. Expert users are well-versed
in the system's functionalities, workflows, and advanced features. They
possess a deep understanding of best practices, shortcuts, and efficient
ways to accomplish tasks within the system. Their expertise allows them
to navigate the system quickly, troubleshoot problems, and provide
guidance to other users.
3.Why can some user Interfaces cause users to feel confused,
panicky, or frustrated?
Answer:
User interfaces can cause users to feel confused, panicky, or frustrated
due to various factors:
1. Complexity: Interfaces that are overly complex, cluttered, or
poorly organized can overwhelm users and make it difficult for them to
locate information or perform tasks efficiently.
2. Inconsistent Design: Inconsistencies in design elements,
terminology, or interaction patterns across different parts of the interface
can confuse users and disrupt their mental models.
3. Lack of User Guidance: Insufficient or unclear instructions,
tooltips, or contextual cues can leave users uncertain about how to
proceed or accomplish tasks.
4. Poor Feedback: Interfaces that fail to provide timely and
meaningful feedback, such as confirmation messages or visual cues, can
make users uncertain about the outcome of their actions.

4.What does it mean to test the systems on actual users?

Answer:
Testing the systems on actual users involves conducting usability tests or
user trials with real users who represent the target audience. The purpose
of this testing is to observe how users interact with the system and gather
feedback on its usability, functionality, and overall user experience. By
involving real users, designers can identify pain points, uncover usability
issues, and validate design decisions. Testing on actual users allows for
iterative improvements and ensures that the system meets user
expectations and requirements.

5.What should we do to ensure the system users are aware of what

to do ln the system?
Answer:
To ensure that system users are aware of what to do in the system, the
following steps can be taken:
a. Clear and Concise Instructions: Provide easily
understandable instructions on how to perform tasks,
navigate through the system, and use specific features.
b. Onboarding and Training: Offer a guided onboarding
process or interactive tutorials to familiarize users with the
system's functionalities and interface.
c. Help and Support: Provide comprehensive help
documentation, tooltips, and contextual guidance to assist
users in understanding the system and resolving any issues
they encounter.
d. Feedback and Error Handling: Implement clear feedback
mechanisms and effective error messages to guide users in
correcting mistakes or recovering from errors.

6.How should the interfaces handle errors?

Answer:
Interfaces should handle errors in a user-friendly manner by considering
the following guidelines:
a. Clear Error Messages: Provide error messages that are concise,
specific, and easy to understand.
b. Contextual Guidance: Offer contextual help or suggestions
within the error message itself, providing users with relevant
information on how to resolve the error or where to find assistance.
c. Error Prevention: Design interfaces that proactively prevent
errors through validation checks, constraints, and informative
prompts.
d. Error Recovery: Provide clear instructions on how users can
recover from errors.
e. User-Friendly Validation: When validating user input, ensure that
error messages are displayed near the point of error, rather than at
the end of a long form or process.
7.What are some factors that should be considered in terms of the
terminology used in computer dialogues?
Answer:
When considering the terminology used in computer dialogues, it is
important to take the following factors into account:
e. User Familiarity: Use terminology that aligns with the users'
knowledge and familiarity with the domain.
f. Consistency: Maintain consistency in the use of terminology
across the interface. Use the same terms to refer to the same
concepts or actions throughout the system to avoid confusion.
g. Clarity and Understandability: Choose terms that are clear,
concise, and easily understandable to the users.
h. User Perspective: Consider the users' perspective and
mental models when selecting terminology.
i. Internationalization: If the system is intended for a global
audience, take into account cultural and linguistic
differences.

8.Why are Web browsers becoming more important when designing

applications?
Answer:
Here are some reasons why web browsers are crucial in application
design:
a. Accessibility: Web browsers provide a platform-independent
environment, allowing users to access applications from
various devices and operating systems.
b. Ubiquity: Web browsers are widely available and installed
on most devices, making web applications easily accessible
to a large user base.
c. Cross-Platform Compatibility: Web browsers support
standardized web technologies, enabling developers to create
applications that work seamlessly across different platforms.
 d. User Experience: Modern web browsers offer rich
capabilities, such as support for multimedia, interactivity, and
responsive design.
e. Rapid Development and Deployment: Web applications
can be developed and deployed quickly, as they leverage
existing web technologies and infrastructure.

9.Explain paging and scrolling.

Answer:
Paging and scrolling are two common methods used for navigating
content in digital interfaces:
 Paging: Paging divides content into discrete pages or
sections, allowing users to navigate through them
sequentially. Each page typically contains a specific amount
of information or a set of items.
 Scrolling: Scrolling involves continuously moving through
content by vertically or horizontally dragging or swiping. It
allows users to access a larger amount of information or a
longer document in a continuous flow.

10.What should we consider when we design function keys for our

applications?
Answer:
When designing function keys for applications, consider the following
factors:
 Relevance: Determine the most important and frequently
used functions that should be assigned to function keys.
 Consistency: Ensure consistency in the use of function keys
throughout the application.
 User Familiarity: Consider the standard conventions for
function key usage in the target platform or industry. Users
are accustomed to certain functions associated with specific
 keys, so aligning with established practices can enhance
usability.
 Documentation and Help: Provide clear documentation or
contextual help within the application to educate users about
the assigned functions of function keys.
 Customization: Consider allowing users to customize or
remap function keys according to their preferences.
 Accessibility: Ensure that function keys can be easily
accessed, especially for users who rely on assistive
technologies.

11.Why are pens used in applications?

Answer:
Pens are used in applications for several reasons:
i. Precision: Pens offer more precise input compared to
finger touch, making them ideal for tasks that require fine
control and accuracy.
ii. Annotation and Markup: Pens are useful for annotating
documents, images, or diagrams, allowing users to
highlight, underline, or add handwritten notes.
iii. Signature Capture: Pens can be used to capture
handwritten signatures, which is important in applications
that require signing documents or forms electronically.
iv. Input Diversity: By supporting both touch and pen input,
applications can cater to a broader range of user
preferences and input styles.

12.What is the relationships between windows and frames?

Answer:
The relationship between windows and frames can vary depending on
the context, but generally:
 Windows: In a graphical user interface (GUI), a window is a
visual container that displays an application or document on
the screen.
  Frames: Frames are often used within web browsers to
divide the browser window into multiple sections or regions.
A frame represents a separate HTML document embedded
within the browser window, allowing multiple web pages or
content sources to be displayed simultaneously.

13.What are characteristics of a pop-up menu?

Answer:
Characteristics of a pop-up menu include:
i. Contextual: Pop-up menus typically appear in response to a
specific user action, such as a right-click or long-press, and
are contextually relevant to the current selection or location.
ii. Compact: Pop-up menus are designed to be concise and
space-efficient, usually presenting a list of options or
commands in a compact form that overlays the existing
content.
iii. Customizable: Pop-up menus often allow customization,
enabling users to add or remove options based on their
preferences or specific needs.
iv. Clear and Readable: The menu options should be clearly
presented and easy to read, using legible typography and
appropriate spacing.

14.What are steps of the user interface design process?

Answer:
The user interface design process typically involves the following steps:
 User Research: Conduct research to understand the target
users, their needs, goals, and preferences.
  Requirements Gathering: Define the functional and non-
functional requirements of the system based on user research
and stakeholder inputs.
 Conceptual Design: Create high-level design concepts and
prototypes that outline the overall structure, layout, and key
features of the interface.
 Detailed Design: Refine the design concepts and create
detailed wireframes, mockups, or prototypes that represent
specific interface elements, interactions, and visual styles.
 Implementation: Collaborate with developers to translate
the design into a functional user interface.
 Evaluation: Continuously monitor and evaluate the
interface's performance, usability, and user satisfaction.

15.What Is the tool used to facilitate the charting of the dialogue?
Answer:
The tool commonly used to facilitate the charting of dialogue is a
flowchart or diagramming tool. Flowchart tools provide a visual
representation of the dialogue flow, allowing designers to map out the
sequence of interactions, decisions, and possible outcomes in a clear and
organized manner. These tools typically offer a range of shapes,
symbols, and connectors that can be used to create flowcharts, process
diagrams, or other visual representations of the dialogue structure. Some
popular flowchart and diagramming tools include Microsoft Visio,
Lucidchart, Draw.io, and Gliffy.
Problems & Exercises

1.Fellow designer has asked you to review the dialogue to be used ln

several screens for a new Application. Do you think the following
messages comply with the guidelines for tone and terminology?
Explain your answer as needed.
a. An error message that says DISCHARGE DATE MUST BE ON
OR AFTER ADMISSION DATE.
b. An instruction that says ENTER THE CLIENT’S NAME NOW.
c. An error message that says DATA IS SO FAR OUT OF RANGE
IT HAS LEFT THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
d. A question that asks customers DO YOU WANT TO RDF THE
ACR BEFORE “UCI’ING” CMIS?
e. An error message that says DON’T WORRY-NOT EVERYONE
GETS IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME.
Answer:
messages (a), (b), and (e) comply with guidelines for tone and
terminology. However, messages (c) and (d) would benefit from revision
to ensure clearer and more professional communication.

2.Menu-driven interfaces, although older than GUI interfaces, are

still very common. What type of user dialogue strategy does a menu
-driven interface employ? What Is the main difference between
menu-driven interfaces and GUJ interfaces? What is the major
advantage of a menu-driven interface and what is it’s major
disadvantage?
Answer:
A menu-driven interface employs a command-driven user dialogue
strategy. In this strategy, the system presents a list of options or
commands to the user in the form of a menu. The user selects an option
from the menu, and the system performs the corresponding action.

The main difference between menu-driven interfaces and GUI

(Graphical User Interface) interfaces lies in their presentation and
interaction style. In a menu-driven interface, the interaction primarily
relies on textual menus and input commands, whereas GUI interfaces
utilize graphical elements such as icons, buttons, and windows for
interaction. GUI interfaces offer a more visual and interactive
experience, allowing users to interact with the system using mouse
clicks, drag-and-drop actions, and visual representations.
3.Select an application that is used in your organization or school
and that has more than one user interface screen Also, try to select
an application that you haven't used before, or at least one that you
haven't used for a while. Test the user interface design against each
of the human engineering guidelines described in the chapter. Make
sure to enter incorrect as well as correct data. Describe me
application and user interface screens that you tested. How many
guidelines did the application meet, and which ones were they? How
many guidelines did It fail, and which ones were they?
User Interface Screen Description:
Guidelines Testing:
 Visibility of System Status: The application displays a
loading indicator when fetching data or performing actions to
provide feedback on system status.
 Consistency and Standards: The UI elements, layout, and
interactions are consistent throughout the application,
ensuring a familiar experience for users.
 Error Prevention: The application validates user inputs,
such as preventing the selection of an invalid due date or
prohibiting empty task titles.
 Recognition Rather Than Recall: The application provides
visual cues and labels to guide users rather than relying on
memory, ensuring ease of use.
Evaluation:
 The application meets the guidelines for Visibility of
System Status, Match Between System and Real World,
User Control and Freedom, Consistency and Standards, Error
Prevention, Recognition Rather Than Recall, Flexibility and
Efficiency of Use, and Aesthetic and Minimalist Design.
 The application fails to meet a guideline if it lacks any of
the criteria mentioned in the respective guideline.

4.Considering the application described h1 the preceding exercise,

what changes would you make to the user interface screens to bring
them into compliance with me human engineering guidelines
described in the textbook? Be specific in your answers. Have a
couple of fellow students and/or co-workers review your changes,
one as a user and the other as a designer. Old they find new
problems?
Answer:
Consistency and simplicity: Ensure consistent use of colors, fonts, and
layout across screens to create a cohesive user experience.
Clear and descriptive labeling: Use clear and concise labels for
buttons, menus, and interactive elements to help users understand their
purpose and functionality.
Navigation and menu design: Minimize the need for frequently
required multiple-level menu navigation by implementing a more
streamlined and intuitive menu structure.

5.Answer the following true/false questions. Explain your answers as

necessary.
Answer:
a.Different action verbs should be used in screen dialogue to
describe required keyboard actions ln order to add variety and
interest.
(False) - Consistency is important in screen dialogue to maintain clarity
and avoid confusion. Using consistent action verbs helps users
understand the expected interactions.
b.Most managers are expert users, because they need a high level of
PC expertise In order to manage effectively.
(False) - While managers may have a certain level of expertise, it cannot
be assumed that all managers are expert users. Expertise varies among
individuals, and managerial skills are not necessarily tied to PC
expertise.
c.Organizations should expect that expert designers, who come
highly recommended and who are at the top of their pay scale, will
need to refine and modify their user interface designs several times
before the result will be satisfactory to the organizations.
(True)
d.Windows user interface design often borrows from Web interface
styles and techniques.
True.
e.Applications need only one type of help menu or dialogue.
(False) - Depending on the complexity and user requirements,
applications may require multiple types of help options, such as
contextual help, tool tips, tutorials, user manuals, and searchable help
menus.
f.Users appreciate clever or humorous screen messages.
(True/False, depending on the context) -
g.The process for designing user interfaces is straightforward and
easy to understand.
(False) - Designing user interfaces can be a complex and iterative
process that requires careful consideration of user needs, usability
principles, and design best practices. It involves user research,
prototyping, testing, and refinement to create effective and user-friendly
interfaces.

6.In designing user interfaces, consideration must be given to

information securely and privacy. Describe some of the guidelines
and considerations that must be taken into become in building
internal controls into the user interface design.
Answer:
In designing user interfaces, consideration must be given to information
security and privacy. Some guidelines and considerations to be taken
into account when building internal controls into the user interface
design include:
 Implement secure login mechanisms, such as strong
password requirements, multi-factor authentication, and
encryption of user credentials.
 Ensure sensitive information is adequately protected through
measures like data encryption, access controls, and secure
transmission protocols.
 Incorporate user permissions and roles to limit access to
confidential data based on the principle of least privilege.
  Provide clear and transparent privacy settings to allow users
to control the collection and usage of their personal
information.

7.Fill in the blanks for the following statements:

a.Some command line interfaces use a ___command__ syntax that
allows users to ask questions In their native language·

b.The __final_ step in user Interface design is to iterate to the previous

steps as part of the __iterative___ process until users are __satisfied__
with the design.

c.SQL uses syntax which allows __authorized_ users to the database.

d.Good usability guideline include understanding possible user needs

and informing the user of an action's consequences before me action is
executed
e.One guideline for establishing users access privileges Is to base their
privileges upon job roles , not individuals

8.Match the definitions or examples in the first column with the

terms in the second column:
A. Frequently required multiple level menu navigation I. platform
independent
B. An application's overall sequence of screens and messages 2.
Consumer-style interface
C. Full screen approach to display area seen by user at a time. 3.
Terminal emulators.
D. Information is moved up or down one line at a time. 4.state
transition diagram.
E. Computer expertise in multiple related fields or study. 5. Iconic
menu.
F. Windows screen employing artistic web-like “face” 6. Screen
thrashing.
G. Independent zones within a window. 7. Mnemonic syntax.
H. user interfaces that are not dependent upon a specific OS 8. B2C.
I. Graphics tool used to show screen variation and sequence. 9.
Dialogue.
J. Software display mainframe screen format in a window. 10.
Scrollling.
K. Command language interface meaningful to user. 11.
Informatics.
l. Functionality based upon business-to-consumer transactions
12.paging.
M. Pictorial representation of menu option in main window body.
13. Frames.
Answer:
A. Frequently required multiple level menu navigation - 13. Frames
B. An application's overall sequence of screens and messages - 4. State
transition diagram
C. Full-screen approach to display area seen by the user at a time - 12.
Paging
D. Information is moved up or down one line at a time - 10. Scrolling
E. Computer expertise in multiple related fields or study - 11.
Informatics
F. Windows screen employing artistic web-like "face" - 2. Consumer-
style interface
G. Independent zones within a window - 9. Dialogue
H. User interfaces that are not dependent upon a specific OS - 1.
Platform independent
I. Graphics tool used to show screen variation and sequence - 4. State
transition diagram
J. Software displays mainframe screen format in a window - 3. Terminal
emulators
K. Command language interface meaningful to the user - 7. Mnemonic
syntax
L. Functionality based upon business-to-consumer transactions - 8. B2C
M. Pictorial representation of menu option in the main window body - 5.
Iconic menu
9.You have been asked to design a series of user interface screens
that will be used by both employees and customers. You proudly roll
out your prototypes, expecting accolades and high praise. Instead,
the users who try out your prototype-customers and employees alike
are confused, frustrated, and even angry. What are some of the
interface problems they might have encountered which caused them
to react like this? When you go to your boss for advice, your boss
asks you a series of questions regarding the steps you followed.
What are the questions you'll probably be asked?
Answer:
Some of the interface problems that the users might have encountered,
leading to their negative reactions, could include:
 Lack of clarity in navigation: Users may have difficulty
finding their way around the interface, encountering
confusing or hidden navigation elements, which makes it
challenging to access the desired features or information.
 Inconsistent terminology and labeling: Inconsistent or
ambiguous terminology used throughout the interface can
confuse users, leading to misunderstandings and difficulties
in understanding the functionality of different elements.
 Overwhelming interface: The interface may have been
overloaded with too much information, excessive options, or
complex layouts, overwhelming the users and making it
difficult for them to focus on the most important tasks or
actions.
 Poor information hierarchy: The organization of
information and content may be unclear, lacking a logical
hierarchy or structure that helps users locate and prioritize the
information they need.
When seeking advice from your boss, they may ask you a series of
questions to understand the steps you followed during the design
process. Some of the questions you may be asked could include:
  Did you conduct user research and gather feedback from both
employees and customers during the design process?
 How did you define the user personas and their specific needs and
expectations?
 What usability testing methods did you employ to validate the
prototypes and gather user feedback?
 Did you consider the accessibility requirements for both employees
and customers in your design?
 How did you ensure consistency in terminology and labeling
across the interface?

10.At one time, most software applications came with a thick user
manual. Many of these users’ manuals have disappeared in favor of
sophisticated online help systems and tutorials. Lf you are a systems
designer designing the help system for a new application, what are
some of the important considerations to keep ln mind?
Answer:
When designing the help system for a new application, there are several
important considerations to keep in mind:
 Accessibility: Ensure that the help system is accessible to all
users, including those with disabilities.
 Contextual Help: Make the help system context-sensitive,
providing relevant assistance based on the user's current task
or location within the application.
 Search Functionality: Implement a robust search feature
that allows users to search for specific topics or keywords
within the help system.
 Clear and Concise Content: Present information in a clear
and concise manner, using plain language and avoiding
technical jargon.
 Visual Aids: Include visual aids such as screenshots,
diagrams, and videos to supplement textual instructions.
 Interactive Tutorials: Offer interactive tutorials or
walkthroughs that guide users through key features or
processes.
11. It is not uncommon for an application to use hundreds of
screens, windows, and dialogue boxes ln it’s user interface. Co-
Ordinating the order and conditions under which these appear can
be a difficult process that Is prone to error. To help coordinate and
document this process, state transition diagrams (STD) are used to
Illustrate the conditions under which screens, windows, and
dialogue boxes appear. as well as their sequence. Take an
application ln your organization or at school with which you are
familiar. Create a state transition diagram for a part of the system.
Answer:
Creating a state transition diagram for a part of a system in an
organization or school would require a specific application context and
understanding of the interface's behavior and flow. Without the specific
details, it is not possible to create a meaningful state transition diagram.

12.Assume that you are part of a project team that has been hired
by a company that Is moving from mainframe technology to
client/server technology. You are working on the user interface
design. The company wants this application to set the tone for
subsequent applications to be developed. You have been given free
rein to develop the conventions and standards for the user interface
screens that will be used for the look-and-feel of this and subsequent
applications. Create a one-page list of what you believe to be the
most. important conventions and standards.
Answer:
 Consistency: Establish a consistent visual and interaction
design language across all applications to provide a unified
experience for users.
 Modernization: Update the visual design and aesthetics to
align with contemporary user interface trends, ensuring a
fresh and appealing look for the applications.
 Responsive Design: Implement a responsive user interface
design that adapts seamlessly to different screen sizes and
 devices, enabling users to access applications from desktops,
laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
 Streamlined Navigation: Design intuitive and streamlined
navigation systems that allow users to easily move between
screens and access different functionalities.
 Modularization: Break down complex functionalities into
modular components to promote reusability and
maintainability across applications.

13.GUI and Web applications provide users with a variety of paths

through the different parts of the application. The price paid for this
user-friendliness and accommodation Is complicated design and
programming. Is It possible to have user-friendly and
accommodating interfaces that don't require complicated
programming and design?
Answer:
Yes, it is possible to have user-friendly and accommodating interfaces
that don't require complicated programming and design. The key is to
strike a balance between providing flexibility and ease of use while
keeping the design and programming manageable. Here are some
approaches to achieve this:
 Simplify the User Journey: Focus on designing intuitive user
flows that guide users through the application seamlessly.
 Clear and Consistent Design Patterns: Implement consistent
design patterns throughout the application to create familiarity
and reduce the learning curve for users.
 Effective Information Architecture: Organize the application's
content and features in a logical and hierarchical structure.
 Contextual Help and Guidance: Provide contextual help and
guidance within the application to assist users when they need it
most.
Progressive Disclosure: Employ progressive disclosure techniques to
present information and options gradually, based on user context or
need.

CHAPTER-18
Object Oriented Design & Modeling Using the UML
Review Questions

1.What are the three kinds of objects used in object-oriented design?

Answer:
The three kinds of objects used in object-oriented design are Entity
Objects, Control Objects, and Boundary Objects.

2.Why are three kinds of objects needed in object-oriented design?

Answer:
The three kinds of objects are needed in object-oriented design because
they represent different aspects of a system. Entity objects represent the
data, Control objects represent the logic, and Boundary objects represent
the interface between the system and the external world.

3.What is navigability? Please give an example of a navigability

relationship.
Answer:
Navigability is the ability of an object to access or reference another
object. For example, if a Car object has a reference to a Driver object,
the Car object can navigate to the Driver object to access its properties
and methods.
4.What is visibility in object-oriented design? Explain the different
levels of visibility.
Answer:
Visibility in object-oriented design refers to the accessibility of an
object's properties and methods from other objects. There are four levels
of visibility: public, private, protected, and package (default). Public
visibility allows any object to access the property or method, private
visibility only allows the same class to access it, protected visibility
allows the same class and its subclasses to access it, and package
visibility only allows objects in the same package to access it.

5.What is the key reason for object reusability?

Answer:
The key reason for object reusability is to save time and effort by using
existing objects rather than creating new ones from scratch.
6.What are some of the methods developers use to achieve object
reusability?
Answer:
Developers can achieve object reusability by creating general-purpose
objects, designing objects with clear interfaces, and using object-
oriented design principles such as inheritance and composition.

7.What are the main activities of object-oriented design?

Answer:
The main activities of object-oriented design are identifying the objects
in the system, defining their properties and methods, specifying their
relationships and interactions, and organizing them into a coherent
structure.

8.What is the objective of refining the use-case model in object design?

Why is it important?
Answer:
The objective of refining the use-case model in object design is to
identify the objects that will be needed to implement the use cases and to
refine their properties and methods. It is important because it helps to
ensure that the system will meet the requirements of the users.

9.What are some ways that we can use to identify use-cases design
objects-namely, Interface objects, Control objects and entity objects?
Answer:
Interface objects are identified by their interaction with the external
world, Control objects are identified by their coordination of other
objects, and Entity objects are identified by their representation of data
within the system.

10.What is the goal of constructing object robustness diagrams? What

are the components of the diagrams?
Answer:
The goal of constructing object robustness diagrams is to identify the
objects, their properties and methods, and their relationships and
interactions. The components of the diagrams include objects, their
properties and methods, and the messages that pass between them.

11.What should we look for in identifying the object behaviors and

responsibilities of the objects?
Answer:
When identifying the object behaviors and responsibilities, we should
look for the actions that the object can perform, the information that it
has or needs, and its relationships with other objects.

12.What is the relationship between an object state and state transition

event?
Answer:
An object state represents its current condition, and a state transition
event represents a change in that condition. For example, a Car object
might have a state of "stopped" and a state transition event of "start
engine".
13.What are the steps needed to construct the state chart diagram?
Answer:
The steps needed to construct a state chart diagram include identifying
the objects that will have states, identifying the states and state transition
events, and drawing the diagram to show the transitions between states.

14.What are the tools used to document the detailed object interaction
for the use cases?
Answer:
The tools used to document the detailed object interaction for the use
cases include sequence diagrams and collaboration diagrams.

15.What does a design class diagram include?

Answer:
A design class diagram includes the objects, their properties and
methods, and their relationships and interactions. It shows the structure
of the system and how the objects are organized into a coherent whole.

Problems & Exercises

1.What is the main rationale for using object oriented methods to

develop systems? Why?
Answer:
The main aim of Object Oriented Design (OOD) is to improve the
quality and productivity of system analysis and design by making it
more usable. In analysis phase, OO models are used to fill the gap
between problem and solution.

2.A project developed in PL/1 is expected to take 30 months. Assuming

the same ratios as those shown in Table 18-1, compare the duration,
level of effort, and software size between a project developed in PL/1
and a project developed in an object-oriented language comparable to
Smalltalk.
Programming Project Duration Level of effort
Software size
Language
PL/1 30.0 240.0
41,800
OO Language 5.5 16.4
3,500

3.True or false? Explain your answers as needed.

 A dependency relationship models a two-class association in only
two instances.
 False. A dependency relationship models a one-way
relationship between two classes where one class
depends on another class for its implementation,
without the second class depending on the first class.
 To enforce encapsulation, attributes should generally be declared
private.
 True. Declaring attributes as private ensures that they
can only be accessed and modified by methods within
the same class, which helps to prevent unwanted
changes to the object's state from outside the class.
 An object that is supposed to collaborate with other objects when
necessary to provide a requested service, but which is unable to do
so, is termed an irresponsible object.
False. An object that is unable to collaborate with other
objects to provide a requested service is termed a passive
object, not an irresponsible object.
 Interface objects are typically persistent.
 False. Interface objects are typically not persistent, as
they only define a set of methods or services that an
implementing class must provide without specifying
how they are implemented or stored
  During the object-oriented design phase, the object model is
updated to reflect the actual implementation environment.
 False. During the object-oriented design phase, the
object model is not updated to reflect the actual
implementation environment.

4.What are the interface objects users may find for the following?
a. Photo printer that doesn’t require a computer to print pictures.
For a photo printer that doesn't require a computer to print pictures, the
interface objects that users may find include:

 Buttons or touch screen for selecting photos to print and adjusting

print settings (such as size, quality, and number of copies).
 Card reader or USB port for reading photos from a camera
memory card or USB drive.
 LCD screen for displaying photos and print status.
b. Service station gas pump.

For a service station gas pump, the interface objects that users may find
include:

 Buttons or touch screen for selecting fuel type, authorizing

payment, and dispensing fuel.
 Numeric keypad for entering payment information or personal
identification numbers.
 Card reader or payment terminal for reading credit or debit cards
and processing payments.
 LCD screen for displaying fuel prices, payment instructions, and
transaction details.
c. Entrance/exit door in retail store.

For an entrance/exit door in a retail store, the interface objects that users
may find include:
  Door handle or push bar for opening the door.
 Motion sensor or pressure sensor for automatically detecting and
opening the door when a person approaches or exits.
 Access control system or card reader for requiring authorized entry
or exit.
 Alarm or notification system for alerting store staff or security in
case of unauthorized entry or exit.

5.During the design phase in object-oriented design, are any changes

made to the use cases created earlier? If so, what are these changes, and
what is their overall purpose?
Answer:

Some of the changes that may be made to the use cases during the
design phase include:

1. Refinement of use cases: Use cases may be refined to add more

detail, such as the specific inputs and outputs of the system and the
steps involved in carrying out each use case.
2. Reordering or grouping of use cases: Use cases may be
reordered or grouped together based on their functional or
technical dependencies, making it easier to implement them in a
logical sequence.
3. Splitting or combining of use cases: Use cases may be split into
smaller, more manageable parts or combined into larger use cases
to improve modularity and maintainability.
4. Identification of new use cases: New use cases may be identified
during the design phase as a result of decisions made about the
system's architecture, interfaces, or design patterns.

6.Fill in the blanks:

a. Window __________, e.g., icons, buttons and links, are
__________ stated in system design _________.
 Window components, e.g., icons, buttons and links, are
typically stated in system design specifications.
b. The term for a set of __________ objects which are
__________, have an __________ and, which can act as a
single unit is __________.
The term for a set of related objects which are grouped
together, have an interface, and which can act as a single unit
is module.
c. To be able to __________ objects, they need to __________
correctly by defining them within an appropriate __________
hierarchy so they are __________ enough for easy use in
other applications.
To be able to reuse objects, they need to be designed
correctly by defining them within an appropriate class
hierarchy so they are abstract enough for easy use in other
applications.
d. During the __________ phase, __________ and __________
are refined to mirror the __________ environment of the
solution, rather than an environment based upon a
__________ ideal.
During the implementation phase, code and interfaces are
refined to mirror the implementation environment of the
solution, rather than an environment based upon a
hypothetical ideal.

7.Match the terms in the first column with the definitions or examples in
the second column.
1. Visibility A. Common reusable solution to given problem in
given context
2. Design pattern B. Execution of software logic in response to
message
3. Components C. Object condition at a specific point during its
 lifetime
4. State transition D. External object’s event access level to an
attribute or method
5. Interface object E. Obligation to collaborate if needed to provide
requested service
6. Control object F. Collaborating objects subsystem providing set
of related services
7. Entity object G. Model of single object’s life cycle states
8. Object state H. Holds business rule or application logic
9. Object I. Acting out use-case responsibility scenarios to
simulate object behaviors

10. Object J. Representation of business domain’s actual data

framework
11. Role playing K. Change in state caused by occurrence updating
attributes’ values
12. Method L. API, screen, window, dialogue box
13. State machine M. DLL or .exe file diagram
1. Visibility D. External object’s event access level to an attribute
or method
2. Design pattern A. Common reusable solution to given problem
in given context
3. Components M. DLL or .exe file diagram
4. State transition K. Change in state caused by occurrence
updating attributes’ values
5. Interface object E. Obligation to collaborate if needed to provide
requested service
6. Control object F. Collaborating objects subsystem providing set
of related services
7. Entity object J. Representation of business domain’s actual data
 8. Object state G. Model of single object’s life cycle states
9. Object I. Acting out use-case responsibility scenarios to
simulate object behaviors
10. Object framework H. Holds business rule or application logic
11. Role playing I. Acting out use-case responsibility scenarios
to simulate object behaviors
12. Method B. Execution of software logic in response to
message
13. State machine G. Model of single object’s life cycle states.

8.Select an application with which you are familiar. Pick one of the
processes in the application and create an analysis use case; use the
template shown in Figure 18-7. Then, using the guidelines in this
chapter, refine the use case and transform it into a design use case.
Highlight the areas that you changed or added.

9.After creating the design use case, analyze it in order to identify and
classify the use-case design objects; use Figure 18-8 as an example. In
general, you will probably have more entity objects than interface
objects, and you should have at least one control object. Have a fellow
student or co-worker check your work to make sure it is identified and
classified correctly.

10.What is the purpose of an object robustness diagram? What are the

symbols used in this diagram, and what do they represent? Next, draw
an object robustness diagram based upon your use case; use Figure 18-9
as an example.
Answer:
An object robustness diagram is a type of UML (Unified Modeling
Language) diagram that is used to represent the interactions between
objects in a system. The purpose of this diagram is to show how objects
collaborate with each other to perform a particular function in the
system, while also highlighting the robustness of the objects and their
interactions.
The symbols used in an object robustness diagram are:

1. Class Box: A rectangle that represents a class of objects in the

system.
2. Object: A rectangle that represents an instance of a class in the
system.
3. Message: A line that represents a communication between objects
in the system.
4. Actor: A stick figure that represents a user or external system that
interacts with the system.
5. Control: A box with rounded corners that represents a control
object that manages the flow of information between objects.
6. Boundary: A rectangle that represents the boundary of the system.
7. Link: A line with an arrowhead that represents a relationship
between classes.
Here is an example of an object robustness diagram based on a
simple use case:

Fig. "Withdraw Cash".

11.Now go back to the design use case you created. Analyze this use
case to identify the required system behaviors; use the matrix shown in
Figure 18-10 as an example. After identifying the use case behaviors,
determine if each behavior will be automated or manual in the new
system. If the behavior is automated, then in the third column assign the
object type that will be responsible for executing that behavior.

12.Explain the purpose of the class responsibility collaboration

(CRC) card; then create a CRC card for each object type identified
in your previous exercises.
Answer:
The Class Responsibility Collaboration (CRC) card is a tool used to
identify the responsibilities and collaborations of a class in object-
oriented analysis and design. It helps to document the tasks a class is
responsible for, the interactions it has with other classes, and the data it
requires. Here are some example CRC cards for the objects identified
previously:

 Customer Class: Store customer information, place orders,

manage payment information. Collaborates with Order Class and
Payment Class.
 Order Class: Store order information, calculate order total, track
order status. Collaborates with Customer Class and Inventory
Class.
 Payment Class: Store payment information, process payments,
manage refunds. Collaborates with Customer Class and Order
Class.
 Inventory Class: Store product information, track inventory
levels, generate inventory reports. Collaborates with Order Class
and Product Class.
 Product Class: Store product information, track product
availability, generate product reports. Collaborates with Inventory
Class and Order Class.
13.At this point, take a moment and assess the object-oriented
analysis and design techniques you have learned. How do you feel
they compare to the other analysis and design approaches taught in
this textbook? Do you feel the additional work and complexity will
pay off in terms of reduced project development time and other
factors? If you were given the choice, which approach would you
choose?
Answer:

 OOAD techniques have several advantages over other analysis

and design approaches. One of the key benefits of OOAD is that
it focuses on modeling real-world objects and their interactions.
This approach can lead to better-designed systems that are
easier to understand, maintain, and modify.
 Compared to other analysis and design approaches taught in
textbooks, such as structured analysis and design or functional
decomposition, OOAD is more flexible and adaptable to
changes in requirements.
 While OOAD may require additional work and complexity
during the analysis and design phase, it can pay off in reduced
project development time and other factors in the long run.
 If given the choice, the appropriate analysis and design
approach would depend on the specific project requirements,
team expertise, and other factors.