Engineering Material science

AME 2510
Lab Manual

Student Name:

Student ID:

Class Section:

Prof. Yasser Fouad El Addas

Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering

King Saud University, Al Muzahimiyah branch, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

November 2023

Contents
Experiment # 1 Hardness Tests....................................................................................................................3

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Experiment # 2 Tensile Test.......................................................................................................................22

Experiment # 1 Hardness Tests

Objectives:

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 1. To learn about principles and different methods of hardness measurement.
2. To learn about the correlations among different types of hardness measurement
and correlations of hardness with tensile strength.
3. To acquire experience of using various types of hardness testers.
Background:
Hardness is resistance of a material to plastic indentation, scratching, surface penetration,
or wear. These properties are all related to the resistance against plastic flow (permanent
deformation) in the material.

There are different approaches and criteria for hardness measurement. Some test methods
for certain material provide convenient correlation of hardness to other mechanical
properties. For example, hardness from indentation tests on steel and copper alloys can be
used as a rough guide to estimate tensile strength. Hardness tests, in most cases, are rapid
and repeatable, and in many instances nondestructive. Therefore, hardness test represents
an important means of quality control.

All the widely used hardness measurements adopt one of the two general methods: static
indentation and rebound testing. Static indentation involves pressing a ball, diamond, or
other types of indenters under a specified constant load into the surface of material and
measuring the length, width, or depth of the indentation. Each hardness test method, or
scale, is defined with a particular type of indenter, a specified minor load, and a specified
major load. The measured indentation size is then converted to a hardness number specific
to the scale adopted. In general, the harder the material, the better the resistance, and thus
the smaller the indentation.

Rebound testing involves dropping an indenter onto the surface of specimen and measuring
rebound height of the indenter. The potential energy at the initial height is converted to
kinetic energy when the indenter is released. A fraction of the kinetic energy is consumed
for plastic deformation on impact, leaving some kinetic energy after impact to convert back
to potential energy and achieve a certain rebound height of the indenter. The rebound
height measured by the instrument is then converted to a hardness number.

Brinell hardness Testing

Brinell test is performed by pressing a hardened steel ball, 10 mm in diameter, into the flat
surface of a sample under a constant load. The load is usually 3000 kg (both dead weights

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on holder) held for 10 to 15 s for steel and hard metals or 500 kg (only the smaller dead
weight on holder) held for about 30 s for soft non-ferrous metals such as copper and
aluminum alloys. The specified time period is necessary to ensure that plastic flow during
indentation in the metal has stopped. A Brinell hardness tester is shown in Figure 1.

The Brinell hardness number (HB or BH number) is determined by dividing the load by the
surface area of the circular indentation seen on the surface according to the formula:

where P is the applied load in kg, D is the diameter of the

indenter ball in mm, d is the mean diameter in mm of the
indentation, and HB is in kg/mm2. The mean diameter of
the indentation (two readings at right angles to each
other) is measured using a microscope.

The indentation is a result of plastic deformation under

the applied load. Unfortunately, different metals respond
somewhat differently to a given load exceeding their yield
strength. Some metals, for example, work harden more
easily during plastic deformation than others. Such
metals may give hardness readings lower than that of a
material that shows little work hardening when the two
are compared under light loads yet give higher hardness
readings when compared under heavy loads.

For Brinell hardness test the sample should be flat and securely supported. The sample
should be thick enough so that no bulge appears on the opposite (bottom) face during
indentation. To ensure accurate results, indentations should not be made too close to the
edge of the test piece. Lack of supporting material from one side of the test piece may
result in larger and unsymmetrical indentations. Similarly, indentations should not be made
too close to one another. Otherwise, the metal may work harden and affect the second
indentation or there may not be sufficient supporting material for the second indentation.

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Procedure for Brinell hardness test:
1. Place the specimen on the anvil with its surface normal to the direction of applied
load.
2. Place the correct weights (two for 3000 kg and only the small one for 500 kg) on the
yoke.
3. Turn the large side handwheel in counterclockwise direction until it stops. Hold it in
place with your right hand.
4. Using your left hand, raise the anvil with the capstan handwheel tuning in clockwise
direction until the specimen just makes contact with the ball indenter. See that the
ball is at least 5 mm from the edges of the specimen or existing indentations.
5. Apply load by slowly turning the side handwheel clockwise until the yoke and
weights rise and float for 15 s (under 3000 kg weight) or 30 s (under 500 kg weight).
6. Release the load gradually with the side handwheel slowly turning in the opposition
(counterclockwise) direction. Make sure this is done gently to avoid dynamic load
from rapid descend of the weights and the holder.
7. 7. Lower the specimen by turning the capstan handwheel counterclockwise until it
clears the indenter.
8. Measure the diameter of the indentation to the nearest 0.1 mm using a microscope.
9. Calculate the Brinell hardness numbers using Equation (1) with measured
parameters in correct units.

Rockwell Hardness Testing

A typical Rockwell hardness tester is shown in Figure 2.
Rockwell hardness test differs from Brinell hardness
test in that the hardness is determined from the depth
of indentation made by the indenter under a constant
load. Various types of indenters may be used in
Rockwell hardness tests: diamond indenter and steel-

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ball indenters of diameter 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, or 1/2 in. In the test the indenter is pressed into
the specimen surface under an initial minor (light) load followed by a major (heavy) load.
The additional depth of indentation made by the indenter under the major load beyond that
by the minor load is measured and converted to a hardness number (see Table 1). The
hardness number is inversely related to the depth of indentation.

There are two basic types of Rockwell hardness tests: regular hardness test and
superficial hardness test. Both use hardness testers of similar basic mechanical
principles and measure similar criteria with a diamond or a steel ball indenter. In
regular Rockwell hardness tests, the minor load is always 10 kg while the major load
can be 60, 100, or 150 kg. A letter is assigned to each scale that employs a particular
combination of indenter and major load as shown in Figure 5. A hardness number is
suffixed by first the letter H (for hardness), then the letter R (for Rockwell), and finally
the letter that indicates the scale used. For example, a value of 45 on the Rockwell C
scale is expressed as 45 HRC.

In superficial hardness measurement, the minor load is 3 kg and the major load 15, 30, or
45 kg. The superficial hardness scale is designed by a number indicating the major load and
a letter N for diamond indenter, T for 1/16-in. ball indenter, W for 1/8-in. ball indenter, X for
1/4-in. ball indenter, or Y for 1/2-in. ball indenter. A superficial hardness number is suffixed
by first the letter H (for hardness), then the letter R (for Rockwell), and finally the scale
designation. For example, 50 HR30T means a value of 50 is obtained using a 1/16-in. ball
indenter with 30 kg major load.

The Rockwell test is more rapid and leaves a smaller and less conspicuous indentation on
the workpiece than does the Brinell test. To ensure accuracy, the test surface should be flat
and free from scale, pits, and foreign materials. Oiled surfaces generally give slightly lower
readings than dry ones because of reduced friction under the indenter. The bottom surface
also should be free from scale, dirt, or other foreign substances that might crush or flow
under the test pressure and so affect the results. When the Rockwell hardness tester is used
to test the hardness of polymers, a 15-second delay during loading of major load and before
the measurement of indenter penetration is allowed to account for the viscoelastic property
of polymers. The scale is also specified with a user-selected indenter and a specified major
load (60, 100, or 150 kg). For hardness comparison, the same types of indenter and applied
load should be used.

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Procedure for regular Rockwell hardness test (Wilson/Rockwell tester):
1. Turn power switch located in lower rear panel "ON".
2. Select desired scale by means of the "TEST SCALE SCROLL". This key may be depressed
for each scale advancement or held in for rapid scrolling.
3. Select and install the proper indenter, as indicated in the "PENETRATOR" display.
4. Select the proper major load, as indicated in the "MAJOR LOAD kg" display, by means of
the weight selector dial.
5. Place the specimen on the anvil.
6. Raise specimen into contact with the indenter by turning capstan handwheel clockwise
slowly. The bar LEDs (red) will light up and the read display will show "MINOR LD".
7. Continue to slowly turn the capstan handwheel. Stop the handwheel when the bar
LEDs.
8. reach the "SET" zone. The major load will automatically be applied and then removed.
9. The read display will show "TESTING" and then the numerical value and the scale
tested.
10. 8. Remove the minor load by turning the capstan handwheel counterclockwise.
Continue to lower the specimen until it clears the indenter. The test has concluded.
Procedure for superficial Rockwell hardness test (Kentrell hardness tester):
1. Select proper indenter and anvil.
2. Put gage level pin in “S” position.
3. Screw in upper pins (minor load for superficial hardness test).
4. Select proper major load (lower pins).
5. Select proper gage index.
6. Set depth knob on side of yester (make one test holding indenter bar down until two
seconds after dial gage needle comes to rest, set depth knob in accordance with dial
gage reading for continuous testing).
7. Place the specimen on the anvil.
8. Raise specimen into contact with the indenter by turning handwheel clockwise slowly
until the short gage needle roughly points to the black short downward arrow and the
long gage needle points to the start arrow (red or green depending on the selected dial

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 index). Use the adjusting ring to line up the gage index with the needle, if necessary.
DO NOT TURN THE CAPSTAN
HANDWHEEL COUNTERCLOCKWISE TO MOVE THE NEEDLE BACKWARD.
9. Press the indenter bar to apply the major load. The long gage needle points to the
measured hardness after a few seconds.
10. Remove the minor load by turning the capstan handwheel counter-clock and continue
until the specimen clears the indenter.

Microhardness Testing
The term microhardness generally refers to the size of indentation. In
the test, a minute indenter and small constant loads (no more than
1000 g) are usually employed.

The dimensions of the indentation and the load are both used in the
determination of the hardness number. There are two similar
indenters for microhardness testing: Vickers and Knoop
microhardness indenters (Figure 3 - b). Both hardness tests follow the
Brinell principle, in that the indenter is pressed under a constant load
into the material, the load removed, the size of the indentation
measured, and the hardness number calculated by dividing the load
by the surface area of indentation. They differ, however, in the shape
of the indenter and indentation as shown in

Figure 3-b. The Vickers indenter generates a square impression while Knoop indenter
creates an elongated impression.

Vickers Microhardness Testing

A Vickers indenter is used in the Vickers microhardness test. The Vickers microhardness
indenter is made of diamond in the form of a square-base pyramid having an angle of 136°
between faces as shown in Figure 4. The indenter should be applied under a predetermined
constant load for 10 to 15 s. The diagonals of the square
indentation are measured using the microscope and a mean
value is calculated. The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is
then calculated according to the formula:

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 VHN = 2Psin( /2)/d2 = 1854.4 P/d2 (2)

where P is the applied load in grams (g), q is the indenter face angle of 136°, and d is
the mean diagonal length in mm. The constant 1854.4 incorporates the value of
sin(q/2) and other conversion factors to give VHN a unit of kg/mm2.

Knoop Microhardness Testing

The Knoop microhardness indenter is made of diamond in the form of pyramid that has an
included longitudinal angle of 172° 30' and an included transverse angle of 130°. The
indenter generates a diamond-shape indentation having an approximate ratio of 7 to 1
between long and short diagonals.

The Knoop hardness number (KHN) is calculated using the formula:

KHN = P/A = 14229 P/d2 (3)
where P is the applied load in grams (g), A is the indentation area, d is the measured length
of long diagonal of the indentation in mm, and 14229 is the constant relating projected area
of the indentation to the square of the length of the long diagonal.

Procedure for microhardness test:

1. Turn on the tester.
2. Select and install the indenter (Vickers or Knoop), if not already installed.
3. Place the weights selected on the loading pan.
4. Place the specimen in the tester and turn the 40´-objective lens into place. Focus on
the specimen surface with the focusing control until surface features can be seen.
5. Gently turn the loading handle clockwise to raise the weights and the indenter and
turn the indenter into place. Slowly release the loading handle counterclockwise to
apply the load. Leave the indenter on the specimen for 10 to 15 s.
6. Raise the indenter by turning the loading handle clockwise gently and turn the
objective lens back into place.
7. Focus on the specimen surface to view the indentation. Measure length of the long
diagonal (Knoop) or both diagonals (Vickers) of the indentation with the scale in the
microscope. The numbers on the scale are length measured in 0.001 mm.
Alternatively, the diagonal lengths can be determined by moving a point on the
scale from a corner to the opposite corner of the impression under microscope and

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 noting the difference in micrometer readings (numbers on the fine scale are in 0.01
mm).
8. Calculate microhardness numbers using the appropriate formula.
Hardness-Tensile Strength Correlations:
It is difficult to develop precise correlations between hardness from different measuring
methods, or with other mechanical properties. Approximate relations, however, can be
found for the same material using different hardness tests. Tables 2 and 3 are useful for
approximate conversion of hardness from various hardness testing methods. There is also
no direct correlation between indentation hardness and yield strength from a tension test
since far more plastic deformation is involved in the hardness tests than that involved
before yielding of material in tension test. However, because the plastic deformation
involved in the tests for ultimate tensile strength is similar to that in hardness tests,
empirical relations exist between these two properties. Based on Brinell hardness, for
steels:

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 ME 254 – Materials Engineering Laboratory
Hardness Test Data Sheet

Date: Name:

1. Brinell Hardness Test

Material: Thickness:
Applied Load:
Diameter of Impression (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Brinell Hardness Based on Average Diameter:

Brinell Hardness Calculations:

Material: Thickness:
Applied Load:
Diameter of Impression (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Brinell Hardness Based on Average Diameter:

Brinell Hardness Calculations:

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2. Regular Rockwell Hardness Test
Material: Thickness:
Scale: Type of Indenter:
Minor Load: Major Load:
Measure Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Rockwell Hardness:
Estimated Tensile Strength:

Tensile Strength Calculations:

Material: Thickness:
Scale: Type of Indenter:
Minor Load: Major Load:
Measure Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Rockwell Hardness:
Estimated Tensile strength:

Tensile Strength Calculations:

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 Material: Thickness:
Scale: Type of Indenter:
Minor Load: Major Load:
Measure Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Rockwell Hardness:
Estimated Tensile strength:

Tensile Strength Calculations:

3. Superficial Rockwell Hardness Test

Material: Thickness:
Scale: Type of Indenter:
Minor Load: Major Load:
Measure Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Rockwell Hardness:
Estimated Tensile Strength:

Material: Thickness:
Scale: Type of Indenter:
Minor Load: Major Load:
Measure Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Rockwell Hardness:

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 Estimated Tensile Strength:
4. Sclerscope Hardness Test
Material: Thickness:
Measured Shore Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Shore Hardness:

Material: Thickness:
Measured Shore Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Shore Hardness:

Material: Thickness:
Measured Shore Hardness (3 minimum)
Average diameter:
Standard Diameter:
Equivalent Brinell Hardness from Average Shore Hardness:

5. Superficial Rockwell Hardness Test

Material: Thickness:
Type: Type of Indenter:
Applied Load: Major Load:
Diagonal Length (major)*(2 minimum):
Diagonal Length (major)*(2 minimum):
Average Diagonal Length:
Hardness based on average Diagonal Length:
*Measure both diagonal lengths for Vickers hardness, only major (long) diagonal length for
Knoop hardness.

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Calculations of hardness from average diagonal length

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 Experiment # 2 Tensile Test

Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to evaluate the mechanical (tensile) properties of
selected metallic materials using the tensile test method. These mechanical properties
include modulus of elasticity, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, failure strength,
ductility, and strain to failure.

Background:
A simple tensile test consists of gradual application of an axial tensile load to a standard
specimen by means of a suitable testing machine and measuring the corresponding
dimensional changes. In this method, a strip or cylinder of the material, having length L
and cross-sectional area A, is anchored at one end and subjected to an axial load P – a
load acting along the specimen’s long axis – at the other (see Fig. 1). As the load is
increased gradually, the axial deflection δ of the loaded end will increase also.
Eventually the test specimen breaks. We usually want to understand how stretching, or
deformation is related to the applied load. We also wish to understand how these
relationships are influenced by the internal structures (or called microstructure) of the
material.

Fig. 1: The tension tests.

The load–deformation data obtained from a tensile test depends on the specimen
geometry. To minimize the effect of sample geometry, load and elongation are usually

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converted to engineering stress and engineering strain, respectively. The engineering stress
is calculated as follow:

Engineering stress:

where F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section, in
units of newtons (N) and A0 is the original cross-sectional area before any load is applied
(m2). The units of engineering stress are megapascals, MPa (where 1 MPa = 10 6 N/m2 = 1
N/mm2). The following relation is used to compute the engineering strain:

Engineering strain:

in which l0 is the original length before any load is applied, and l i is the instantaneous length.
Engineering strain is unitless. Fig. 2 shows the typical stress-strain curve for a metallic
material.

Fig. 2: Schematic of a typical stress-strain curve for a metal

Deformation in engineering materials can be classified into elastic and plastic deformation.
The elastic deformation is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load is

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released, the material returns to its original shape. For most metallic materials, elastic
deformation is limited to small strains, < 0.5%. However, as the material is deformed beyond
the elastic limit, plastic deformation occurs where the deformation here is permanent or
nonrecoverable. In other words, the sample will not return to its original shape if the plastic
deformation occurs.

The tension test is the most common method for determining most of the elastic and plastic
properties in engineering materials. Several useful mechanical (elastic and plastic)
properties can be extracted from the measured stress-strain curves. Some of these
parameters are briefly explained below:

o Modulus of Elasticity
In elastic deformation (nonpermanent deformation), the stress σ and strain ε
are linearly proportional to each other through the Hook’s law:

The constant of proportionality E is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s

modulus. The slope of the initial linear segment in the stress-strain curve
corresponds to the modulus of elasticity E, see Fig. 3. This modulus may be
thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance to elastic deformation.

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 Fig. 3: Schematic of a stress-strain curve showing the initial linear elastic
deformation

o Yield Strength
After elastic deformation, the phenomenon of yielding or plastic deformation
occurs where the specimen experiences a permanent change in shape. The
initial yielding point occurs when the stress-strain curve started to deviate from
the initial linear elastic segment. The stress value at this point is sometimes
called the proportional limit. Since the proportional limit sometimes cannot be
determined precisely, the yield strength value is usually taken at a small strain
after the proportional limit. The 0.2% offset method is commonly used to
determine the value of the yield strength in metals, where a straight line is
constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–strain curve at a strain
0.002 (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4: Schematic of a typical stress-strain behavior for metals showing the transition
from the elastic to the plastic deformation.

o Ultimate Tensile Strength

The ultimate tensile strength is the stress at the maximum on the engineering
stress–strain curve (see point M in Fig. 2). This corresponds to the maximum
stress that can be sustained by a structure in tension. At this maximum stress, a

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 small constriction or neck begins to form at some point in the tensile specimen,
and all subsequent deformation is confined at this neck.

o Ductility
It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at
fracture. Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation
%EL or percent reduction in area %RA as follow:

o Toughness
Toughness is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to
fracture. For the static (low strain rate) situation, toughness may be determined
from the area under a tensile stress–strain curve up to the point of fracture.

It is worth mentioning that the engineering stress-strain curve can be converted to a more
meaningful scheme, called true stress-strain curve. The true stress σ T is calculated by
normalizing the applied load on the instantaneous cross sectional area A i instead of the
original cross-sectional area A0 as in the engineering stress:

True stress:

The true strain εT is computed as follow:

True strain:

From the above relations, it is clear that you need to measure the instantaneous cross-
sectional area and length during the tensile tests in order to plot the true stress-strain
curves. Such measurements are not usually easy during the test. However, for most metals,
we can use the assumption of constant volume during plastic deformation up to the point of
necking. This is usually a reasonable assumption for most metals that deform mainly by

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dislocation slip, and it enables us to easily compute the true stress-strain data from the
engineering stress-strain curve. In this case, we can use the following relations to convert
the engineering stress-stress curves into true stress-strain curves:

Methods/Experiment:
The tensile test will be performed using the Instron universal testing machine available
in the mechanical engineering lab. This machine is capable of measuring the applied
load and extension during the tensile test. At least two metallic materials (e.g., steel and
brass) will be tested in this experiment to show the difference in mechanical responses
between different materials. The samples will be pulled in the Instron machine until
they break.
The samples will be prepared according to the ASTM E8 standard. It is important to
precisely measure the dimensions of the samples, including thickness and gauge length,
using a micrometer before conducting the test. The dimensions of the sample should
also be measured at the end of the test after fitting the broken pieces together. The
measurements will be used later to convert the measured load-deflection data into
engineering stress-strain data.

Results and Discussion:

As mentioned above, the dimensions of the samples should be precisely measured
before and after the test. The following tables may be used:

Tensile Specimen #1 (Material: ………………………….)

Before the test After the test

Initial thickness Final thickness

Initial Width Final Width

Initial Area Final Area

Initial Gauge Length Final Gauge Length

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 Tensile Specimen #2 (Material: …………………………..)

Before the test After the test

Initial thickness Final thickness

Initial Width Final Width

Initial Area Final Area

Initial Gauge Length Final Gauge Length

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