A. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS ) Social structure has been defined by W.P. Scott in the following words, “The pattern of interrelated Statuses and roles found in a society or other group at a particular time and constituting a telatively stable set of social relations, It is the organised pattern of the inter-related rights and obligations of persons and groups in a system of interaction as analysed is terms of statuses, roles, social norms and social institutions,” interrelated institutions, agencies and social pattems, as well as the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group", —Talcott Parsons, Essays in Sociological Theory, The Free Pree, Glencoe, Mlinois, pp. 89-103 [26]Unit 11—Basic Concepts in Sociology n em, organisation, complex, pattens, oer a whale Pattens, type and indeed does not fall very short —S.F. Nadel, The Theory of Social Structure SH Node y Structure, Cohen & West Ltd., (4) A. R. Radcliffe Brown has defined social structure in a very vivid manner in his popular work ‘Structure and Functions in a Primitive Society in shefalowing manner, “The componens of scl structure are human beings, he Siracture itself being an arrangement of persons in relat institutio Cane mh arrnee persons in relationship institutionally —D. Forde and A.R. Raddlffe Brown, ed. African Systems of Kinship an ee Systems of Kinship and ‘AR. Radcliffe Brown, Structure and Function in Primitive Society, p. 9-10 (6) Anthropologists, Malinowsky and MJ. Herskovits, have defined social structure, in the context of culture. According to Herskovits, “The structure of culture has been usefully phrased in terms of trait, complex area and pattern This isa logical progression. The trait, the smallest unit that can be identified, combines with other traits to form a complex. Complexes are oriented so as to five to a culture distinctive forms that are termed its patterns. The distribution of similarly patterned ways of life in a given region constitutes a culture- area’. MJ. Herskovits, Man and His Works, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, p. 169. (6) A noted anthropologist Levi Strauss has given an entirely different definition of social structure. His conviction is that social structure is not felated to social relationships, socal interactions and social system but it is directly related to internal aspect of mind. He has defined social structure in the following words, “attribute of human social organisation as such, we can fome to recognise the nature of this structure only when he built up @ generalised model from radically exhausted empirical referents. —Levy Strauss, Structural Anthropology. ‘The Concept of Structure has orginally ben. Borrowed from biology Herebert Spencer has used. in socal context to discuss the society and its ‘components, Later on, the term gained popularity among the Sociologists and ‘Anthropologists Anthropologists have undertaken several studies in primitive sodetis to find out the structural and functional aspects of social systems : H. M. Johnson has aptly remarks that, “The structure of anything consists of the relatively stable interrelationships among ts parts, moreover, term ‘part | implies a certain degree of stability siice a social system is composed of the interrelated acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or recurrence in these acs.” Sociology : A Systematic Introduction Charaéteristics of Social Structure—For a clear understanding of the ‘term ‘social structure’ one must understand its characteristics which are as follows :ome + ‘est () (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Sociologists like Parsons, H.M. Johnsot some elements of social structure. These Principles of Sociology social structure is always abstract. It consists of the continuity of units which make it. is ati jable idea or concept. Social structure is comparatively ‘si The role of social processes like cooperation, conflict, competition, accommodation and assimilation is important in social structure, ~ Social structure is not always related to i Social structure always denotes the external forms of the system. It is always under the influence of local diversities, n and S.F. Nadel have suggested of elements are based on behavioural a system or organization, system. These elements are as follows : @ (2) (3) (4) Status and Role system, which denotes the position of individuals ina social system. Normative patterns, i.e. ideals, values and standards which guide and control human behaviour. Sanction system which enable people to conform to social sanctions. Action system is important an element for the social structure, Itis the action system which keeps a society alway moving.functions secre and functions are two sides of a coin, Both th: 7 scientists particaias , terms have been Haron a ae ei ig when he analysed the evolutionary theory of social ope ipo. Function, has been defined by i d 'y W.P. Scott in the foll words, * carsequences of the existence oF operation of a unit (e catiom, atde institution etc.) for other units in a (social, cultural or personality) system or for the system as a whole. The function of a culture complex, such as Christmas complex, for example, may be analysed by relating the complex to various other aspects oF units of the society such as, toy makers, ministers, churches, religion socialization practices, secularization, and the like." : : —W.P. Scott, Dictionary of Sociology, p. 165. Several Sociologists and Anthropologists have given their views concerning functions to study the'social system. Anthropologist A.R. Brown defined function in the following words, “The concept of function applisd to human societies is based on an analogy between social life and organic life. The recognition of analogy and some of its implications is not new. In the 19th century the analogy, the concept of function and the word itself appeared frequently in social philosophy and Sociology. So far as | know the first systematic formation of the concept as applying to the strictly scientific study of society was that of Emile Durkheim in 1895.” —A.R. Radcliffe Brown, Structure and Fur ‘According to Kallen, “the activity or function in the past had been treated as dependent variable or faculty ofa fixed structure of form. Now al his was Feverved and function was regarded as the independent variable while form or Tinuctare was denoted to second place, To illustrate this notion with an extreme txample, whereas in the past it was assumed that aman had 4 Pa of legs {etrucrure) and he wlked, now it is assumed that a man had walks (function) and this activity produces a pair of legs. —Don Martindale, The ‘Nature an init ction. He has also RK. Merton has given a very suitable definition of fun ti Bir ser description in his popular work known as ‘Social Thesty and Structure’, He asserts, "Functions are those observed consequcrit which ake, for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system and dysfureenn te observed consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustmen in Primitive Society, p. 178 .d Type of Sociological Theory, p. 423.Principles of Sociology an organisation help to determine the ‘determine the effectiveness with which 30 aystem...cueThe social functions of Structure just as the structure helps f© the functions are fulfilled. «Rober K. Merton, Social Theory and Structure p21 sunetionalism—According to W.P, Scott, *Functionalism is analysis of _fanonon Acting 7 Soe rao SSitural system. In functionalism, society is conceived of such a system {merrelated parts in which no part can be understood in isolation from the Teading to a certain degree of imbalance, ‘whole. A change in any partis seen as Which in turn results in changes in other parts of the social system and to some Extent fo a reorganization of the system as a whole. The development of fanctionalism was based on the model of the organic system found in the biological sciences. Functionalism has b ween defined in many ways, Various sociologists and anthropologists have conducted many field studies on the basis of functional analysis Functionalists believe thatthe world isa total system. This system is ‘based on consciences world is a total system. This system is a based on Coneciences, integration and stability. Functionalism came into existance as a reaction to evolutionism. A. Comte believed that functionalism is a special type of Organicism. Likewise a British Sociologist and social philosopher Herbert Spencer find this world divided into three categories, eg. (i) Inorganic, (2) Organic and (3) Super organic, Spencer asserts that the functionalist is that theory which perceives the mutual relationships among the three categories of the world with functional method. But a French sociologist Durkheim did not agiee with idea that was advanced by Herbert Spencer. Durkheim criticised him in his famous book ‘The Division of Labourer in Society. He presumes that a society has some functional prerequisites. The pre-requisites require sustainability of social order. Social brder, according to Durkheim is based on collective conscience. Thus Durkheim's concept of functionalism is based the concopt of social facts which represent the collective conscience Later on Anthropologists A.R; Brown and Malinowsky have developed their own theories influenced by Durkheim A.R. Brown's works like African ___Systems of Kinship and Marriage, Structure and Functions in Primitive | Society, The Andman Islanders, ee. reveal alot of information of his a se on tion of his approach "Durkheim's analysis of functionals is based on three stages of so. ‘are Biologia, Suuctral and Symi: Malinowsky's main emphasis ‘the integration of culture. He believes that culture is & means which keeps to be able to maintain his physical and mental existence. Man is.@ pgical being but he is also a socal being and as such has many physical and logical needs. For the fulfilment of these needs man creates culture wwaky asserts that it s the culture that makes the physical, mental. and ual existence possible. His works like the ‘Argonauts’ of Westerni and Customs in a Savage Society, tc testify Malinowsky’s notions of functionalism. ‘T, Parsons and Robert K. Merton are two very popular sociologists who have done important works in the field of functionalism. Parsons describes functionalism which views society as a system, a set of inner connected parts which together form a whole. The basic unit of analysis is society having various parts understood in terms of their relationship to the whole. Parsons views society as a system and such system has four basic functional prerequisites adoptation, goal attaimment, integration and pattern maintenance. Merton's Contribution regarding Functionalism—Merton has given detailed description of structure and functions is his book ‘Social Theory and Social Structure’, He has suggested five meanings of the word ‘Function’. which are as follows : (i) Funetion as some celebration, (ii) Function as a profession, (ii) Activities of a person occupying some important place, (iv) Function in terms of mathematical calculations, (v)_ Function in the context of biological analysis. Merton has utilised the term ‘function’ in the context of biological analysis eg. functions of limbs or functions of heart. The word ‘Function’ has been used in the context of utility, purpose, motive or consequences. According to Merton, “functions are those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system.” Merton, Social Theory & Social Structure, p. 51 Merton has classified function into two categories— (i), Function, (ii) Dysfunction. Further he classifies function into Manifest function and Latent Function. ‘Manifest Functions are those objective consequences contributing to adjustment or adaptation of a system which are intended and recognised by participants in the system (Merton). Latent Functions are correlatively, being those which are neither intended nor recognised. Dysfunctions are tho. observed consequences which lessen the ‘adaptation or adjustment of the sy:tem, Merton has also mentioned a special type Of function known as Non-fune.ion. Non-Functions are those consequences which are simply irrelevant to the sy:tem under consideration. Merton's contribution to the functional analysis is said to be very balenced and different from the analysis of function given by his predecessors. He challenged the analysis of function given by his predecessors on the ground that32 Principles of Sociology these are based on three postulates viz. (i) Postulate of the functi society, (ii) Postulate of universal functionalism, (iii) ee Unity indispensability. These postulates according to Merton make the ulate - functional analysis static. Merton asserts that functional analysis e theory of theory, method and processes. Thus it is three dimensional. Brief Telateq to Merton's contribution towards functional analysis is useful, s Y $Peakin, innovative. : ystematic ¢