Unit-5
JSS Academy of Technical Education
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Renewable Energy Resources
Wave and tidal power
Wave Energy
Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that
energy to do useful work — for example, electricity generation, water desalination, or the
pumping of water (into reservoirs). Machinery able to exploit wave power is generally known as
a wave energy converter (WEC).
Wave power is distinct from the diurnal flux of tidal power and the steady gyre of ocean
currents. Wave power generation is not currently a widely employed commercial technology
although there have been attempts at using it since at least 1890. In 2008, the first experimental
wave farm was opened in Portugal, at the Aguçadoura Wave Park.
Physical concepts
When an object bobs up and down on a ripple in a pond, it experiences an elliptical trajectory.
Motion of a particle in an ocean wave
A = at deep water. The orbital motion of fluid particles decreases rapidly with increasing depth
below the surface.
B = at shallow water (ocean floor is now at B). The elliptical movement of a fluid particle
flattens with decreasing depth.
1 = Propagation direction.
2 = Wave crest.
3 = Wave trough.
Photograph of the water particle orbits under a – progressive and periodic – surface
gravity wave in a wave flume. The wave conditions are: mean water depth d = 2.50 ft (0.76 m),
wave height H = 0.339 ft (0.103 m), wavelength λ = 6.42 ft (1.96 m), period T = 1.12 s.
See Energy, Power and Work for more information on these important physical concepts. See
Wind wave for more information on ocean waves.
Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves
propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves, there is an energy transfer from the
wind to the waves. Both air pressure differences between the upwind and the lee side of a wave
crest, as well as friction on the water surface by the wind, making the water to go into the shear
stress causes the growth of the waves.[4]
Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of time the wind has been
blowing, fetch (the distance over which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth and
topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse the energy of the waves). A given wind
speed has a matching practical limit over which time or distance will not produce larger waves.
When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be "fully developed".
In general, larger waves are more powerful but wave power is also determined by wave
speed, wavelength, and water density.
Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface and diminishes exponentially with depth.
However, for standing waves (clapotis) near a reflecting coast, wave energy is also present as
pressure oscillations at great depth, producing microseisms. These pressure fluctuations at
greater depth are too small to be interesting from the point of view of wave power.
The waves propagate on the ocean surface, and the wave energy is also transported
horizontally with the group velocity. The mean transport rate of the wave energy through a
vertical plane of unit width, parallel to a wave crest, is called the wave energy flux (or wave
power, which must not be confused with the actual power generated by a wave power device).
Wave power formula:
In deep water where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength, the wave energy flux is
with P the wave energy flux per unit of wave-crest length, Hm0 the significant wave height, T the
wave period, ρ the water density and g the acceleration by gravity. The above formula states that
wave power is proportional to the wave period and to the square of the wave height. When the
significant wave height is given in meters, and the wave period in seconds, the result is the wave
power in kilowatts (kW) per meter of wave front length.
Example: Consider moderate ocean swells, in deep water, a few kilometers off a coastline, with a
wave height of 3 meters and a wave period of 8 seconds. Using the formula to solve for power,
we get
meaning there are 36 kilowatts of power potential per meter of wave crest.
In major storms, the largest waves offshore are about 15 meters high and have a period of about
15 seconds. According to the above formula, such waves carry about 1.7 MW of power across
each meter of wave front.
An effective wave power device captures as much as possible of the wave energy flux. As a
result the waves will be of lower height in the region behind the wave power device.
Wave energy and wave energy flux
In a sea state, the average energy density per unit area of gravity waves on the water surface is
proportional to the wave height squared, according to linear wave theory:[4][8]
where E is the mean wave energy density per unit horizontal area (J/m2), the sum of kinetic and
potential energy density per unit horizontal area. The potential energy density is equal to the
kinetic energy,[4] both contributing half to the wave energy density E, as can be expected from
the equipartition theorem. In ocean waves, surface tension effects are negligible for wavelengths
above a few decimeters.
As the waves propagate, their energy is transported. The energy transport velocity is the group
velocity. As a result, the wave energy flux, through a vertical plane of unit width perpendicular
to the wave propagation direction, is equal to:
with cg the group velocity (m/s). Due to the dispersion relation for water waves under the action
of gravity, the group velocity depends on the wavelength λ, or equivalently, on the wave period
T. Further, the dispersion relation is a function of the water depth h. As a result, the group
velocity behaves differently in the limits of deep and shallow water, and at intermediate depths:
Tidal power:
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of
tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity.
Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation.
Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable
energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of
sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability.
However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design
(e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross
flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than
previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to
competitive levels.
Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North
America. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times.[1][2]
The world's first large-scale tidal power plant (the Rance Tidal Power Station) became
operational in 1966.
Generation of tidal energy:
Variation of tides over a day:
Main articles: Tide and Tidal acceleration
Tidal power is extracted from the Earth's oceanic tides; tidal forces are periodic variations
in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces create corresponding motions
or currents in the world's oceans. The magnitude and character of this motion reflects the
changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and
local geography of the sea floor and coastlines.
Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital
characteristics of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–Sun system. Other
natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun,
including fossil fuel, conventional hydroelectric, wind, bio fuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear
energy makes use of Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable elements, while geothermal power
taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary
accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through radioactive decay (80%).[3]
A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity. Greater tidal variation
and higher tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a site for tidal
electricity generation.
Because the Earth's tides are ultimately due to gravitational interaction with the Moon
and Sun and the Earth's rotation, tidal power is practically inexhaustible and classified as a
renewable energy resource. Movement of tides causes a loss of mechanical energy in the Earth–
Moon system: this is a result of pumping of water through natural restrictions around coastlines
and consequent viscous dissipation at the seabed and in turbulence.
This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years
since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth (length of
a day) has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours;[4] in this period the Earth has lost 17% of its
rotational energy. While tidal power may take additional energy from the system, the effect is
negligible and would only be noticed over millions of years.
Generating methods
The world's first commercial-scale and grid-connected tidal stream generator – Sea Gen – in
Strangford Lough, The strong wake shows the power in the tidal current.
Top-down view of a DTP dam, Blue and dark red colors indicate low and high tides,
respectively.
Tidal power can be classified into three generating methods:
Tidal stream generator:
Tidal stream generators (or TSGs) make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to
power turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines that use wind to power turbines.
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or head)
between high and low tides. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary.
Dynamic tidal power
Dynamic tidal power (or DTP) is a theoretical generation technology that would exploit
an interaction between potential and kinetic energies in tidal flows. It proposes that very long
dams (for example: 30–50 km length) be built from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean,
without enclosing an area. Tidal phase differences are introduced across the dam, leading to a
significant water-level differential in shallow coastal seas – featuring strong coast-parallel
oscillating tidal currents such as found in the UK, China and Korea
Main article: List of tidal power stations
The first tidal power station was the Rance tidal power plant built over a period of 6 years
from 1960 to 1966 at La Rance, France.[8] It has 240 MW installed capacity.
254 MW Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Plant in South Korea is the largest tidal power
installation in the world. Construction was completed in 2011.
The first tidal power site in North America is the Annapolis Royal Generating Station,
Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, which opened in 1984 on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy. It
has 20 MW installed capacity.
The Jiangxia Tidal Power Station, south of Hangzhou in China has been operational since
1985, with current installed capacity of 3.2 MW. More tidal power is planned near the
mouth of the Yalu River.
The first in-stream tidal current generator in North America (Race Rocks Tidal Power
Demonstration Project) was installed at Race Rocks on southern Vancouver Island in
September 2006. The next phase in the development of this tidal current generator will be
in Nova Scotia.
A small project was built by the Soviet Union at Kislaya Guba on the Barents Sea. It has
0.4 MW installed capacity. In 2006 it was upgraded with a 1.2MW experimental
advanced orthogonal turbine.
Jindo Uldolmok Tidal Power Plant in South Korea is a tidal stream generation scheme
planned to be expanded progressively to 90 MW of capacity by 2013. The first 1 MW
was installed in May 2009.
A 1.2 MW SeaGen system became operational in late 2008 on Strangford Lough in
Northern Ireland.
The contract for an 812 MW tidal barrage near Ganghwa Island north-west of Incheon
has been signed by Daewoo. Completion is planned for 2015.
A 1,320 MW barrage built around islands west of Incheon is proposed by the Korean
government, with projected construction start in 2017.
Other South Korean projects include barrages planned for Garorim Bay, Ansanman, and
Swaseongho, and tidal generation associated with the Saemangeum reclamation project.
The barrages are all in the multiple-hundred megawatts range.
The Scottish Government has approved plans for a 10MW array of tidal stream
generators near Islay, Scotland, costing 40 million pounds, and consisting of 10 turbines
– enough to power over 5,000 homes. The first turbine is expected to be in operation by
2013.
The Indian state of Gujarat is planning to host South Asia's first commercial-scale tidal
power station. The company Atlantis Resources is to install a 50MW tidal farm in the
Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast, with construction starting early in 2012.
In New York City, 30 tidal turbines will be installed in the East River by 2015 with a
capacity of 1,050 kilowatts.
Recycling
Recycling is processing used materials (waste) into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage,
reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from landfilling) by reducing the
need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to
virgin production.[1][2] Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third
component of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" waste hierarchy.
There are some ISO standards relating to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics
waste and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice.
Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, and
electronics. Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste –
such as food or garden waste – is not typically considered recycling. Materials to be recycled are
either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, and
reprocessed into new materials bound for manufacturing.
In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same
material—for example; used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used
foamed polystyrene into new polystyrene.
However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same
product from raw materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials
involve their reuse in producing different materials (e.g., paperboard) instead. Another form of
recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic
value (e.g., lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components), or due to their
hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from various items).
Critics dispute the net economic and environmental benefits of recycling over its costs,
and suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse and suffer from confirmation
bias. Specifically, critics argue that the costs and energy used in collection and transportation
detract from (and outweigh) the costs and energy saved in the production process; also that the
jobs produced by the recycling industry can be a poor trade for the jobs lost in logging, mining,
and other industries associated with virgin production; and that materials such as paper pulp can
only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling.
Proponents of recycling dispute each of these claims, and the validity of arguments from
both sides has led to enduring controversy.
Government-mandated demand
Legislation has also been used to increase and maintain a demand for recycled materials. Four
methods of such legislation exist: minimum recycled content mandates, utilization rates,
procurement policies, recycled product labeling.
Both minimum recycled content mandates and utilization rates increase demand directly
by forcing manufacturers to include recycling in their operations. Content mandates specify that
a certain percentage of a new product must consist of recycled material. Utilization rates are a
more flexible option: industries are permitted to meet the recycling targets at any point of their
operation or even contract recycling out in exchange for [trade] able credits. Opponents to both
of these methods point to the large increase in reporting requirements they impose, and claim
that they rob industry of necessary flexibility.
Governments have used their own purchasing power to increase recycling demand
through what are called "procurement policies." These policies are either "set-asides," which
earmark a certain amount of spending solely towards recycled products, or "price preference"
programs which provide a larger budget when recycled items are purchased. Additional
regulations can target specific cases: in the United States, for example, the Environmental
Protection Agency mandates the purchase of oil, paper, tires and building insulation from
recycled or re-refined sources whenever possible.
The final government regulation towards increased demand is recycled product labeling.
When producers are required to label their packaging with amount of recycled material in the
product (including the packaging), consumers are better able to make educated choices.
Consumers with sufficient buying power can then choose more environmentally conscious
options, prompt producers to increase the amount of recycled material in their products, and
indirectly increase
Recycling consumer waste
Collection
Recycling and rubbish bin in a German railway station.
A number of different systems have been implemented to collect recyclates from the general
waste stream. These systems lie along the spectrum of trade-off between public convenience and
government ease and expense. The three main categories of collection are "drop-off centres",
"buy-back centres" and "curbside collection".
Drop-off centres
Drop off centres require the waste producer to carry the recyclates to a central location,
either an installed or mobile collection station or the reprocessing plant itself. They are the
easiest type of collection to establish, but suffer from low and unpredictable throughput.
Buy-back centres
Buy-back centres differ in that the cleaned recyclates are purchased, thus providing a
clear incentive for use and creating a stable supply. The post-processed material can then be sold
on, hopefully creating a profit. Unfortunately government subsidies are necessary to make buy-
back centres a viable enterprise, as according to the United States National Solid Wastes
Management Association it costs on average US$50 to process a ton of material, which can only
be resold for US$30.
Curbside collection
Curbside collection encompasses many subtly different systems, which differ mostly on
where in the process the recyclates are sorted and cleaned. The main categories are mixed waste
collection, commingled recyclables and source separation. A waste collection vehicle generally
picks up the waste.
A recycling truck collecting the contents of a recycling bin in Canberra, Australia
At one end of the spectrum is mixed waste collection, in which all recyclates are
collected, mixed in with the rest of the waste, and the desired material is then sorted out and
cleaned at a central sorting facility. This results in a large amount of recyclable waste, paper
especially, being too soiled to reprocess, but has advantages as well: the city need not pay for a
separate collection of recyclates and no public education is needed. Any changes to which
materials are recyclable is easy to accommodate as all sorting happens in a central location.
In a Commingled or single-stream system, all recyclables for collection are mixed but
kept separate from other waste. This greatly reduces the need for post-collection cleaning but
does require public education on what materials are recyclable.
Source separation is the other extreme, where each material is cleaned and sorted prior to
collection. This method requires the least post-collection sorting and produces the purest
recyclates, but incurs additional operating costs for collection of each separate material. An
extensive public education program is also required, which must be successful if recyclate
contamination is to be avoided.
Source separation used to be the preferred method due to the high sorting costs incurred
by commingled collection. Advances in sorting technology (see sorting below), however, have
lowered this overhead substantially—many areas which had developed source separation
programs have since switched to comingled collection.
Sorting
Early sorting of recyclable materials: glass and plastic bottles in Poland.
Once commingled recyclates are collected and delivered to a central collection facility,
the different types of materials must be sorted. This is done in a series of stages, many of which
involve automated processes such that a truck-load of material can be fully sorted in less than an
hour.
Some plants can now sort the materials automatically, known as single-stream recycling.
A 30 percent increase in recycling rates has been seen in the areas where these plants exist.
Initially, the commingled recyclates are removed from the collection vehicle and placed
on a conveyor belt spread out in a single layer. Large pieces of corrugated fiberboard and plastic
bags are removed by hand at this stage, as they can cause later machinery to jam.
Recycling industrial waste
Sign at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India
Although many government programs are concentrated on recycling at home, a large
portion of waste is generated by industry. The focus of many recycling programs done by
industry is the cost-effectiveness of recycling. The ubiquitous nature of cardboard packaging
makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product by companies that deal heavily in
packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, and distributors of goods. Other industries deal in
niche or specialized products, depending on the nature of the waste materials that are present.
The glass, lumber, wood pulp, and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly
recycled materials. However, old rubber tires may be collected and recycled by independent tire
dealers for a profit.
Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International Resource Panel,
hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published reports on metal
stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates. The Panel reported that the increase in
the use of metals during the 20th and into the 21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal
stocks from below ground to use in applications within society above ground. For example, the
in-use stock of copper in the USA grew from 73 to 238 kg per capita between 1932 and 1999.
The report authors observed that, as metals are inherently recyclable, the metals stocks in
society can serve as huge mines above ground. However, they found that the recycling rates of
many metals are very low. The report warned that the recycling rates of some rare metals used in
applications such as mobile phones, battery packs for hybrid cars and fuel cells, are so low that
unless future end-of-life recycling rates are dramatically stepped up these critical metals will
become unavailable for use in modern technology.
The military recycles some metals. The U.S. Navy's Ship Disposal Program uses ship
breaking to reclaim the steel of old vessels. Ships may also be sunk to create an artificial reef.
Uranium is a very dense metal that has qualities superior to lead and titanium for many military
and industrial uses. The uranium left over from processing it into nuclear weapons and fuel for
nuclear reactors is called depleted uranium, and it is used by all branches of the U.S. military use
for armour-piercing shells and shielding.
The construction industry may recycle concrete and old road surface pavement, selling their
waste materials for profit.
Some industries, like the renewable energy industry and solar photovoltaic technology in
particular, are being proactive in setting up recycling policies even before there is considerable
volume to their waste streams, anticipating future demand during their rapid growth.
Cost-benefit analysis
Environmental effects of recycling
Material Energy savings Air pollution savings
Aluminium 95% 95%
Cardboard 24% —
Glass 5-30% 20%
Paper 40% 73%
Plastics 70% —
Steel 60% —
There is some debate over whether recycling is economically efficient. Municipalities
often see fiscal benefits from implementing recycling programs, largely due to the reduced
landfill costs. A study conducted by the Technical University of Denmark found that in 83
percent of cases, recycling is the most efficient method to dispose of household waste. However,
a 2004 assessment by the Danish Environmental Assessment Institute concluded that
incineration was the most effective method for disposing of drink containers, even aluminium
ones.
Fiscal efficiency is separate from economic efficiency. Economic analysis of recycling
includes what economists call externalities, which are unpriced costs and benefits that accrue to
individuals outside of private transactions. Examples include: decreased air pollution and
greenhouse gases from incineration, reduced hazardous waste leaching from landfills, reduced
energy consumption, and reduced waste and resource consumption, which leads to a reduction in
environmentally damaging mining and timber activity. About 4000 minerals are known, of these
only a few hundred minerals in the world are relatively common.
At current rates, current known reserves of phosphorus will be depleted in the next 50 to
100 years. Without mechanisms such as taxes or subsidies to internalize externalities, businesses
will ignore them despite the costs imposed on society. To make such non-fiscal benefits
economically relevant, advocates have pushed for legislative action to increase the demand for
recycled materials.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has concluded in favor of
recycling, saying that recycling efforts reduced the country's carbon emissions by a net 49
million metric tonnes in 2005. In the United Kingdom, the Waste and Resources Action
Programme stated that Great Britain's recycling efforts reduce CO2 emissions by 10-15 million
tonnes a year. Recycling is more efficient in densely populated areas, as there are economies of
scale involved.
Certain requirements must be met for recycling to be economically feasible and
environmentally effective. These include an adequate source of recyclates, a system to extract
those recyclates from the waste stream, a nearby factory capable of reprocessing the recyclates,
and a potential demand for the recycled products. These last two requirements are often
overlooked—without both an industrial market for production using the collected materials and a
consumer market for the manufactured goods, recycling is incomplete and in fact only
"collection".
Many economists favor a moderate level of government intervention to provide recycling
services. Economists of this mindset probably view product disposal as an externality of
production and subsequently argue government is most capable of alleviating such a dilemma.
However, those of the laissez faire approach to municipal recycling see product disposal as a
service that consumer’s value. A free-market approach is more likely to suit the preferences of
consumers since profit-seeking businesses have greater incentive to produce a quality product or
service than does government. Moreover, economists almost always advise against government
intrusion in any market with little or no externalities.
Trade in recyclates
Computers being collected for recycling at a pick-up event in Olympia, Washington, United
States
Certain countries trade in unprocessed recyclates. Some have complained that the
ultimate fate of recyclates sold to another country is unknown and they may end up in landfills
instead of reprocessed. According to one report, in America, 50–80 percent of computers
destined for recycling are actually not recycled.
There are reports of illegal-waste imports to China being dismantled and recycled solely
for monetary gain, without consideration for workers' health or environmental damage. Though
the Chinese government has banned these practices, it has not been able to eradicate them.
In 2008, the prices of recyclable waste plummeted before rebounding in 2009. Cardboard
averaged about £53/tonne from 2004–2008, dropped to £19/tonne, and then went up to £59/tonne
in May 2009. PET plastic averaged about £156/tonne, dropped to £75/tonne and then moved up
to £195/tonne in May 2009.
Certain regions have difficulty using or exporting as much of a material as they recycle. This
problem is most prevalent with glass: both Britain and the U.S. import large quantities of wine
bottled in green glass. Though much of this glass is sent to be recycled, outside the American
Midwest there is not enough wine production to use all of the reprocessed material. The extra
must be down cycled into building materials or re-inserted into the regular waste stream.
Simple test for determining whether something is a resource... or just garbage... If someone will
pay you for the item, it's a resource. But if you have to pay someone to take the item away. then
the item is garbage.
In a 2002 article for The Heartland Institute, Jerry Taylor, director of natural resource
studies at the Cato Institute, wrote, "If it costs X to deliver newly manufactured plastic to the
market, for example, but it costs 10X to deliver reused plastic to the market, we can conclude the
resources required to recycle plastic are 10 times more scarce than the resources required to
make plastic from scratch. And because recycling is supposed to be about the conservation of
resources,
