DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The Digestive System Functions opening
Ingestion—taking in food o Cheeks—form the lateral walls
Digestion—breaking food into nutrient o Hard palate—forms the anterior
molecules roof
Absorption—movement of nutrients into o Soft palate—forms the posterior
the bloodstream roof
Defecation—elimination of indigestible o Uvula—fleshy projection of the
waste soft palate
Organs of the Digestive System Mouth (Oral Cavity)
Two main groups of organs Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
o Alimentary canal o Vestibule—space between lips
(gastrointestinal or GI tract)— externally and teeth and gums
continuous, coiled, hollow tube internally
These organs ingest, o Oral cavity proper—area
digest, absorb, defecate contained by the teeth
o Accessory digestive organs o Tongue—attached at hyoid
Includes teeth, tongue, bone and styloid processes of
and other large digestive the skull, and by the lingual
organs frenulum to the floor of the
mouth
Organs of the Alimentary Canal Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
The alimentary canal is a continuous, o Tonsils
coiled, hollow tube that runs through Palatine—located at
the ventral cavity from stomach to posterior end of oral
anus: cavity
o Mouth Lingual—located at the
o Pharynx base of the tongue
o Esophagus
o Stomach Functions of the mouth
o Small intestine o Mastication (chewing) of food
o Large intestine o Tongue mixes masticated food
o Anus with saliva
o Tongue initiates swallowing
o Taste buds on the tongue allow
Mouth (Oral Cavity) for taste
Anatomy of the mouth
o The mouth (oral cavity)—
mucous membrane–lined cavity
o Lips (labia)—protect the anterior
Pharynx
Food passes from the mouth posteriorly
into the:
o Oropharynx—posterior to oral
cavity
o Laryngopharynx—below the
oropharynx and continuous with
the esophagus
The pharynx serves as a passageway for
food, fluids, and air
Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx
o Longitudinal inner layer Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
o Circular outer layer
Alternating contractions of the muscle Surface epithelium that is mostly
layers (peristalsis) propel the food simple columnar tissue (except for
esophagus)
Esophagus (Gullet) Small amount of connective tissue
Anatomy (lamina propria)
o About 10 inches long Small smooth muscle layer
o Runs from pharynx to stomach
through the diaphragm Lines the cavity (known as the
Physiology lumen)
o Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing) to the 2. Submucosa
stomach Just beneath the mucosa
o Passageway for food only
(respiratory system branches off Soft connective tissue with blood
after the pharynx) vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-
associated lymphoid tissue, and
lymphatics
Layers of Tissue in the
Alimentary Canal Organs 3. Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
Summary of the four layers from
Inner circular layer
innermost to outermost (detailed next):
1. Mucosa Outer longitudinal layer
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa 4. Serosa—outermost layer of the
4. Serosa wall contains fluid-producing cells
Visceral peritoneum—innermost
Layers of Tissue in the layer that is continuous with the
Alimentary Canal Organ outermost layer
1. Mucosa Parietal peritoneum—outermost
layer that lines the abdominopelvic body wall
cavity by way of the mesentery Embedded fat insulates,
cushions, and protects
abdominal organs
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses Lymph follicles contain
Two important nerve plexuses serve the macrophages
alimentary canal Muscularis externa has a third layer
Both are part of the autonomic nervous o Oblique layer helps to churn,
system mix, and pummel the food.
o Submucosal nerve plexus Functions of the stomach
o Myenteric nerve plexus o Temporary storage tank for food
Function is to regulate mobility and o Site of food breakdown
secretory activity of the GI tract organs o Chemical breakdown of protein
begins
o Delivers chyme (processed food)
Stomach to the small intestine
The stomach is a C-shaped organ located Structure of the stomach mucosa:
on the left side of the abdominal cavity o Simple columnar epithelium
Food enters at the cardioesophageal dotted by gastric pits that lead to
sphincter from the esophagus
gastric glands
Food empties into the small intestine at
o Mucous cells produce
the pyloric sphincter (valve)
bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
o Gastric glands—situated in
Regions of the stomach gastric pits and secrete gastric
o Cardial part (cardia)—near the juice, including:
heart Intrinsic factor, which
o Fundus—expanded portion is needed for vitamin
lateral to the cardiac region B12 absorption in the
o Body—midportion small intestine
o Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal
end. Structure of the stomach mucosa
Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 (continued)
gallon) of food when full o Chief cells—produce protein-
o Rugae—internal folds of the digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
mucosa present when the o Parietal cells—produce
stomach is empty hydrochloric acid
External regions Mucous neck cells
o Lesser curvature—concave —produce thin
medial surface acidic mucus
o Greater curvature—convex (different from
lateral surface the mucus
Layers of peritoneum attached to the produced by
stomach cells of the
o Lesser omentum—attaches the mucosa)
liver to the lesser curvature o Enteroendocrine cells—produce
o Greater omentum—attaches the a hormone called gastrin
greater curvature to the posterior
Small Intestine lacteal
The body’s major digestive organ 3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)
Longest portion of the alimentary tube —deep folds of mucosa and
(2–4 m or 7–13 feet in a living person) submucosa
Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
Muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Large Intestine
Suspended from the posterior abdominal Larger in diameter, but shorter in length
wall by the mesentery at 1.5 m, than the small intestine
Extends from the ileocecal valve to the
anus
Small Intestine Subdivisions:
Subdivisions o Cecum
o Duodenum o Appendix
Attached to the stomach o Colon
Curves around the head o Rectum
of the pancreas o Anal canal
o Jejunum
Attaches anteriorly to the Cecum—saclike first part of the large
duodenum intestine
o Ileum Appendix
Extends from jejunum to o Accumulation of
large intestine lymphoid tissue that
Meets the large intestine sometimes becomes
at the ileocecal valve inflamed
(appendicitis)
Small Intestine o Hangs from the cecum
Chemical digestion begins in the small
intestine
Colon
o Enzymes are produced by:
Intestinal cells o Ascending—travels up right side
Pancreas of abdomen
o Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes o Transverse—travels across the
to the duodenum abdominal cavity
o Descending—travels down the
o Bile, formed by the liver, enters
left side
the duodenum via the bile duct
o Sigmoid—S-shaped region;
enters the pelvis
Small Intestine Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal
Three structural modifications that are located in the pelvis
increase surface area for food absorption
1. Microvilli—tiny projections Anal canal ends at the anus
of the plasma membrane Anus—opening of the large intestine
(create a brush border o External anal sphincter—
appearance) formed by skeletal
2. Villi—fingerlike projections muscle and under
voluntary control
formed by the mucosa
o Internal anal sphincter—formed
House a capillary bed and
by smooth muscle and Incisors—cutting
involuntarily controlled Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
o These sphincters are normally Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
closed except during defecation Molars—grinding
The large intestine delivers undigestible
food residues to the body’s exterior
Regions of a Tooth
Two major regions of a tooth
Large Intestine 1. Crown
Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to 2. Root
lubricate the passage of feces
Muscularis externa layer is reduced to
three bands of muscle called teniae coli Regions of a Tooth
These bands of muscle cause the wall to 1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the
pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs) gingiva (gum)
o Enamel—covers the crown
o Dentin—found deep to the
Accessory Digestive Organs enamel and forms the bulk of
Teeth the tooth, surrounds the pulp
Salivary glands cavity
Pancreas o Pulp cavity—contains connective
Liver tissue, blood vessels, and nerve
Gallbladder fibers (pulp)
o Root canal—where the pulp
cavity extends into the root
Teeth Note: The neck is a connector between
Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller the crown and root.
fragments o Region in contact with the gum
Humans have two sets of teeth during a o Connects crown to root
lifetime: 2. Root
1. Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth o Cement—covers outer
A baby has 20 teeth by surface and attaches the
age 2 tooth to the periodontal
First teeth to appear are membrane (ligament)
the lower central incisors o Periodontal membrane holds
tooth in place in the bony jaw
2. Permanent teeth
o Replace deciduous teeth between Salivary
the ages of 6 and 12 Glands
o A full set is 32 teeth, but some
people do not have wisdom teeth
(third molars) Three pairs of salivary glands empty
secretions into the mouth
o If they do emerge, the wisdom 1. Parotid glands
teeth appear between ages of 17 Found anterior to the ears
and 25 2. Submandibular glands
3. Sublingual glands
Classification of Teeth Both submandibular and
sublingual glands Connected to the gallbladder via the
empty saliva into the common hepatic duct
floor of the mouth
through small ducts Bile is produced by cells in the liver
Bile leaves the liver through the
common hepatic duct and enters
Salivary Glands duodenum through the bile duct
Saliva Bile is a yellow-green, watery solution
o Mixture of mucus and serous containing:
fluids o Bile salts and bile
o Helps to moisten and bind food pigments (mostly
together into a mass called a bilirubin from the
bolus breakdown of
o Contains salivary amylase to hemoglobin)
begin starch digestion o Cholesterol, phospholipids, and
o Dissolves chemicals so they can electrolytes
be tasted Function of bile
o Emulsify fats by physically
breaking large fat globules into
Pancreas smaller ones
Found posterior to the parietal Gallbladder
peritoneum Sac found in shallow fossa of liver
o Mostly retroperitoneal When no digestion is occurring,
Extends across the abdomen from spleen bile backs up the cystic duct
to duodenum for storage in the gallbladder
During digestion of fatty
food, bile is introduced into
Pancreas the duodenum from the
Produces a wide spectrum of gallbladder
digestive enzymes that break down Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol,
all categories of food which can cause blockages
Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
Alkaline fluid introduced with
enzymes neutralizes acidic Functions of the Digestive
chyme coming from stomach System
Hormones produced by the pancreas
Major functions of the digestive system
o Insulin are summarized as:
o Glucagon o Digestion
o Absorption
Liver
Largest gland in the body 1. Ingestion—placing of food into the
mouth
Located on the right side of the body
under the diaphragm 2. Propulsion—movement of foods from
Consists of four lobes suspended one region of the digestive system to
from the diaphragm and another
abdominal wall by the falciform o Peristalsis—alternating
ligament waves of contraction and
relaxation that squeezes
food along the GI tract Mixed with
o Segmentation—movement of saliva, which is
materials back and forth to released in
foster mixing in the small response to
intestine mechanical
pressure and
3. Food breakdown: mechanical breakdown psychic stimuli
o Examples: Salivary amylase begins
Mixing of food in the starch digestion
mouth by the tongue o Essentially, no food absorption
Churning of food in the occurs in the mouth.
stomach Food propulsion—swallowing and
Segmentation in the small peristalsis
intestine o Pharynx and esophagus have no
o Mechanical digestion prepares digestive function
food for further degradation by Serve as passageways to
enzymes the stomach
4. Food breakdown: digestion o Pharynx functions in swallowing
o Digestion occurs when (deglutition)
enzymes chemically break Two phases of
down large molecules into swallowing:
their building blocks 1. Buccal phase
o Each major food group uses 2. Pharyngeal-
different enzymes esophgeal phase
Carbohydrates are broken 1. Buccal phase
to monosaccharides Voluntary
(simple sugars) Occurs in the mouth
Proteins are broken to Food is formed into a
amino acids bolus
Fats are broken to fatty The bolus is forced into
acids and glycerol the pharynx by the tongue
5. Absorption
o End products of digestion are
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
absorbed in the blood or lymph Involuntary transport of
o Food must enter mucosal cells the bolus by peristalsis
and then into blood or lymph Nasal and respiratory
capillaries passageways are blocked
6. Defecation
o Elimination of indigestible Activities in the Stomach
substances from the GI tract in Food breakdown
the form of feces o Gastric juice is regulated by
o neural and hormonal factors
Activities Occurring in the o Presence of food or rising pH
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus causes the release of the hormone
Food ingestion and breakdown gastrin
o Food is placed into the mouth o Gastrin causes stomach glands to
Physically broken down produce:
by chewing Protein-digesting
enzymes fats, proteins, and
Mucus carbohydrates
Hydrochloric acid o Alkaline content
o Hydrochloric acid makes the neutralizes acidic
stomach contents very acidic chyme and
o Acidic pH provides the
Activates pepsinogen to proper
pepsin for protein environment for
digestion the pancreatic
enzymes to
Provides a hostile
operate
environment for
o Release of pancreatic juice from
microorganisms the pancreas into the duodenum
o Protein digestion enzymes is stimulated by:
Pepsin—an active Vagus nerves
protein-digesting enzyme Local hormones
Rennin—works on that travel via the
digesting milk protein in blood to influence
infants, not adults the release of
o Alcohol and aspirin are virtually pancreatic juice
the only items absorbed in the (and bile):
stomach o Secretin
Food propulsion o Cholecystokinin
1. Peristalsis: Waves of (CCK)
peristalsis occur from the
o Hormones (secretin and CCK)
fundus to the pylorus, forcing also target the liver and
food past the pyloric sphincter gallbladder to release bile
2. Grinding: The pylorus Bile
meters out chyme into the o Acts as a fat
small intestine (3 ml at a
emulsifier
time)
o Needed for fat
3. Retropulsion: Peristaltic absorption and
waves close the pyloric absorption of
sphincter, forcing content fat-soluble
back into the stomach. The vitamins (K, D,
stomach empties in 4–6 E, and A)
hours
Food breakdown and absorption o Water is absorbed along the
o Intestinal enzymes from the length of the small intestine
brush border function to: o End products of digestion
Break double sugars into Most
simple sugars substances are
Complete some protein absorbed by
digestion active
Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic transport
enzymes help to complete through cell
digestion of all food groups membranes
o Pancreatic enzymes play the Lipids are absorbed by
major role in the digestion of diffusion
o Substances are transported to the o Haustral contractions are most
liver by the hepatic portal vein or seen in the large intestine
lymph o Mass movements are slow,
powerful movements that
Food breakdown and absorption occur 3 to 4 times per day
o Peristalsis is the major means of
moving food o Presence of feces in the rectum
o Segmental movements causes a defecation reflex
Mix chyme with digestive Internal anal sphincter is
juices relaxed
Aid in propelling food Defecation
occurs with
relaxation of the
Activities of the Large Intestine voluntary
Food breakdown and absorption (external) anal
o No digestive enzymes are sphincter
produced
o Resident bacteria digest
remaining nutrients
Produce some vitamin K
and B
Release gases
o Water and vitamins K and B are
absorbed
o Remaining materials are
eliminated via feces
o Feces contains:
Undigested food residues
Mucus
Bacteria
Water
Propulsion of the residue and defecation
o Sluggish peristalsis begins when
food residue arrives
