ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES (EAPP)

2ND QUARTER
IMPORTANT NOTES AND REMINDERS:
● EACH member of the group MUST be able to present in front depending on the division of
topic/lessons discussed within each group.
● During report discussions, EACH member must be able to discuss the DEFINITION, EXAMPLES,
IMPORTANCE, and STEPS (if any) of the given topic/lesson.
● Leaders of each group must keep me updated about his/her members’ progress during the group
preparation/discussion regarding the reporting.
● Members who failed to show up during their designated date of reporting without any valid reason
won’t have a respective grade/s on their PERFORMANCE TASK/WRITTEN WORK depending on the
activities assigned in their lesson.
● Their will be a group evaluation after every (2) lessons, to determine the grades of each members.

LESSON 1
TOPIC: CONCEPT

1. define concept;
2. make use of explication and clarification to elucidate a concept;
3. analyze the parts of formal definition; and
4. write an example of formal definition and other techniques in definition.

What is Concept?
A concept is an idea conceived in the mind. An abstract or general idea inferred or derived from specific instances. It
is a general idea about a thing or group of things, derived from specific instances or occurrences.

Ways to Elucidate a Concept

Ways to elucidate a concept is by Definition, Clarification, and Explication.

1. Clarification is a method of explanation in which the points are organized from a general abstract idea to specific
and concrete examples.

Example:
Pandemic- is an epidemic (a sudden outbreak) that becomes very widespread and affects a whole region, a
continent, or the world due to a susceptible population. The Spanish Influenza in 1920 and COVID 19 at present are
examples of pandemic.

2. Explication is a method of defining difficult terms used in the formal definition. When explicating, you can provide
an informal definition.
Example: A ballpen is a writing tool that has a ballpoint. It is a writing tool preferred by high school students. It also
has variety of colors.

3. Definition clarifies the meaning of a word or concept and limits the scope of a particular word or concept.

Techniques in Definition (Writing Techniques)

1. Informal Definition is a brief explanation of the term being defined. It uses a word, a sentence, or a phrase. It is
usually an incomplete definition.

Example: Ballpen is a writing tool preferred by high school students.

2. Formal Definition is a complete definition and it is stated in an equation like statement and it has 3 parts (species
= genus + differentia).
Species is the term to be defined.
Genus is the family or class to which the species belongs.
Differentia is the distinguishing characteristics of the species that will set apart from the other species.
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Example: A ballpen is a writing tool that has a ballpoint.
Explanation: Ballpen is the term being defined(species), writing tool is the family where ballpen belongs(genus), and
has a ballpoint is the characteristic of ballpen that is unique from the other writing tools(differentia).

3. Negation is usually in a negative statement. Sometimes it is called elimination.

Example: A ballpen is not a kitchen utensil.

4. Analysis is telling what steps comprise a process, or what functional parts make up a device.
Example: A ballpen has a cup to cover the tip of it. The body of the ball pen contains the ink.

5. Derivation is the information about the origin of a word.

Example: ‘Pen” originated from the Old French word for feather, ‘penne’, and from the Latin ‘penna’, because long
ago pens were made from feathers, with the end of the feather sharpened to form a ‘nib.’

6. Description is telling the readers what the term looks like.

Example: A ballpoint pen, also known as a biro or ball pen, is a pen that dispenses ink (usually in paste form) over a
metal ball at its point, i.e. over a "ball point." The metal commonly used is steel, brass, or tungsten carbide.

7. Analogy points out the similarities between two unlike or different things.
Example: A ballpen is like a human emotion that can express feelings through writing.

8. Comparison and Contrast compares and stresses the difference between the things compared.
Example: A pen is made up of a plastic covering that holds the ink inside and it usually comes in many colors. Blue
and black being the most common. On the contrast, pencils are made out of wood and come with a rubber eraser on
the tip and unlike pen it only comes in one color, dull and boring gray.

LESSON 2
TOPIC: CONCEPT PAPERS
1. define what a concept paper is;
2. explain the importance of a concept paper;
3. illustrate the parts or components of the concept paper; and
4. compare and contrast the various kinds of concept papers from a given context.

Defining a Concept Paper

A concept paper is a summary of a project or study, a proposal providing an in-depth discussion of a topic, with the
goal of extensive research, or as a result of a current project.
Modified from Spickard (2005), “All research projects need a concept paper: a summary that tells the reader what the
project is, why it is important, and how it will be carried out”. A concept paper may serve as the foundation and
benchmark for potential projects that needed further investigation and improvement. So when is the concept paper
written?
A concept paper must be written before completing a full-blown paper or project. The primary function of the concept
paper is to explain the importance of a particular research project, likewise, uses persuasive text. It serves as a
summary that initiates a proposal, thesis, dissertation, project, or proposal. Why do you think writing concept papers
is important?

The Importance of Concept Papers

A concept paper can be used in any of the following ways:

• To determine whether a project proposal or idea is feasible
• To develop potential solutions or investigations of a certain project
• To serve as the foundation for a full proposal
• To interest potential benefactors and sponsors
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have an idea about what a concept paper is, and why it is important. On the succeeding page, you are about to learn
the different formats and various kinds of concept papers used in a particular field or discipline.

Various Kinds of Concept Papers

A concept paper is divided into parts or components in which relative to the kind of concept paper you are asked to
prepare. There is a certain requirement depending on a specific area of discipline or program. The format may vary
from organizations, institutions, businesses to industries.

Basically, there is a certain format prescribed or being asked based on the requirement by a certain institution or
industry, and thus, must be followed. There could also be a number of pages required, however, a typical concept
paper may range from four to five pages in the academic field, while two to three pages in the business field. In the
academe, concept papers that do not follow the guidelines below will not be reviewed or accepted.
The following are some of the essential components of a concept paper of a specific field and discipline.

Basic Format for Academics (most courses)

• Title
• Rationale
• Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
• Research Questions
• Method
• References

Basic Format for Academics (Mathematics and Sciences)

• Statement of the Problem
• Purpose of the Study
• Research Questions
• Hypotheses
• Brief Review of the Literature
• Research Method
• References
Basic Format for Business or Industry
• Introduction
• Purpose/Need
• Project Description
• Goals/Objectives/Aims
• Methods
• Timeline
• Expected Outcomes/Benefits
• Budget/Needs & Requested Support

SAMPLE CONCEPT PAPERS:

ABC Project Concept Paper:

Title: How to involve young parents in advocating for proposed school regulation
Background of this idea
ABC’s mission is to advocate for the rights of people with disabilities. In the past few years, we have been concerned
about how to best advocate for young parents with children who have disabilities—especially since a recently
proposed school regulation will have a huge impact on their lives. To sufficiently influence policy makers, these
parents need to be educated on the issues and involved in advocating for the new regulation. Their involvement will
give ABC’s advocacy work the necessary visible support of young families. However, few young parents participate in
ABC’s advocacy programs, preferring to join XYZ for their relevant information and support groups or LMN for their
help in addressing problems in the school system. ABC recognizes that young parents have a limited amount of free
time and wants to make it easy for them to participate in its advocacy efforts.
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Purpose
The purpose of this alliance is to:
• Share information about the proposed school regulation
• Recruit young parents into the project
• Provide training to young parents so that they can assist in revising the proposed school regulation
• Defray the costs of parent involvement in the project

Outcomes
An alliance of ABC, XYZ, and LMN (and perhaps other partners) will directly impact people with disabilities and their
families and make a difference in their lives for years to come. The involvement of informed, concerned constituents
will influence policy makers and help to make needed revisions in the proposed school regulation.

The first steps

Before the end of the summer, we will need to:
1. Assign a lead organization to manage the advocacy component
2. Recruit young parents of disabled children who are willing to advocate for revising the proposed school regulation
3. Provide a comprehensive training program for the young parents so they understand the roles of each of the
participating organizations, the background on the proposed regulation and the regulation’s probable impact on
students
4. Involve the informed young parents in meetings, the State Department of Education will hold on the regulation

Timeline
This project will be complete by the end of December when the vote will be taken on the school regulation. At that
time, we could decide to continue as an alliance to advocate for other issues or celebrate our success and conclude
the alliance project.
Below is another example, an excerpt from a seven-page concept paper of an academic thesis.
Research Title: Variations in the Waray-Waray Dialect of Northern and Western Samar.

Rationale
The Waray-waray is one of the major languages spoken in the Philippines, indeed its copiousness and complexity, as
far as linguistics is concerned, appeal to set for an intensive and rigid study of the language. The current studies of
Waray-waray language are inadequate to describe fully the richness of the language, predominantly the lexical
variations and distinction present in the Waray-waray dialect particularly, in Northern and Western Samar.
According to Lobel (2009), Waray-waray has “25 dialects and subdialects”, however, no considerable official and
formal literature is employable by language researchers, linguists, and students for reference or formal studies about
the lavishness of the dialect.

Theoretical Framework
A lexical study of variations and distinctions of a language is imperative predominantly to diversified and variegated
language like Waray-waray. Language variations and distinctions within the same region or locality, markedly deemed
problematic (Honeybone, 2011) that every “linguistic behavior is categorical and idealize away from the variation that
is found in speech”.
In the same way, Martina, (2014) claimed that lexical units must be based on a multi-dimensional approach in which
“cognitive, linguistic, and communicative terms can be described in the framework of cognitive and functional
linguistic theory”.
Furthermore, in the underlying condition and theoretical considerations, integration of the different research
techniques in a Qualitative Research Design is regarded as significant and useful to the study. The different types of
qualitative research methodologies highlighting participant observation, interviews, and structured questionnaires in
administering evidence within a qualitative research framework are highly workable in the descriptive analysis and
examination of data.
Research Question
The study attempts to answer the following questions:
1. What lexical differences does Western and Northern Samar have?
2. What are the phonological and orthographical characteristics distinct to each region?
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3. How do the native speakers of the language identify and classify such variations and distinctions?
4. What are the benefits and challenges to supervene in conducting an exhaustive study of the language?
Methodology
The language study will utilize Descriptive-Qualitative Design in gathering and analyzing the data. The sampling
procedure “purposeful sampling” will be used in gathering appropriate and relevant data for the lexical study.
Elicitation of data is through in-depth interviews, and conversations with respondents until sufficient and enough data
for the study is highly achieved. Collection of data through recording, interviews, and note-taking are to be analyzed
and interpreted.
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LESSON 3
TOPIC: PRESENTING A CONCEPT THROUGH VISUAL/GRAPHIC AIDS
1. describe the different visuals and graphic aids used in presenting a concept or project;
2. enumerate the importance of visuals and graphic aids through concept mapping;
3. use flowcharting or mapping in presenting a "mini concept"; and
4. present a concept or project through presentation slides and other graphic
aids from a given context

Presenting Concepts through Visuals and Graphic Aids.

Texts and graphics support each other. Graphic aid in text are important as they help the readers to grasp ideas able
to see supporting information.

There are enticing ways to present a concept. In your milieu, visuals are highly considered. So, it is expected that
learners like you utilize visuals and graphic aids in presenting novel concept and projects to make them more
interesting and remarkable to the readers and audience.

Utilize the different visuals and graphic aids and begin planning for your presentation. What are those visuals and
graphic aids you can use?

Some Useful Visuals and Graphic Aids

Check on the most common visuals and graphic aids you can use in your presentation:

1. Slides and Presentation Tools – these tools such as PowerPoint, Google Slides can be used to create
presentations. Another online-based template like Prezi and Visme could also be used for highly visual presentations
by including images and movements.

2. Flowcharting and Mapping Symbols – these used boxes or other shapes connected by lines or arrows to shows
steps in procedures or processes helping readers visualize relationship among those data.

3. Tables, Charts, and Graphs – these provide a systematic listing of data in rows or columns. It could present
numerical data pictorially making it more meaningful that could not be explained in a wordy or paragraph form.

4. Diagrams – this is a symbolic representation of ideas through drawings and figures showing the appearance or
structure to emphasize data and information.

5. Images or photographs – this is the most realistic and concrete presentation of physical features of things.

Importance of Visuals and Graphic Aids

• Provide visual explanation of concepts and information
• Allow to literally “see” and understand ideas or concepts
• Supply information not found in the text
• Show how ideas and concepts are related
• Combine verbal and non-verbal cues to enhance comprehension
• Aids recall information easily, memory and retention

A Presentation Sample
When presenting your concept, you don’t have to include the entire content of your paper. That is why, you must
decide which ideas and concepts to highlight. It could be in a form of an outline, in which only the most essential parts
are shown and discussed. Do not present without visuals. The use of visuals and graphic aids will make your
presentation appealing and interesting to the audience.
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Let’s take a look at the 8-slide presentation sample of a novel project. Take note of the parts when visuals and
graphic aids are best used.

LESSON 4
TOPIC: POSITION PAPER (ARGUMENTS IN MANIFESTOES)
1. define position paper;
2. enumerate what a position paper should contain;
3. write arguments from an issue; and
4. analyze arguments used in manifestoes.

What is Position Paper?

Position paper is the writing of one’s stand on a particular issue. The topic should be arguable. It discusses an issue,
which the writer will take a stand (agree/disagree), the purpose is to convince the reader to take his or her stand.

What Contains a Position Paper?

1. Issue - is the topic being argued upon in the paper. The writer will choose his/her side. He may take it negative or
positive.
Example: Topic: Haircut
Issue: Abolish the haircut policy on senior high school male students.

2. Argumentative Thesis - is formed when the writer took a stand on the issue.
Example: The haircut policy on male senior high school students should be abolished because they have the right to
come to school in any length of hair they preferred. (Note: this is your thesis statement)

3. Claims - are statements that support the writer’s stand.

Example: students have the right to come to school at any length of hair they preferred.
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4. Evidence – is a proof that strengthen the writer’s claim.
Example: - Since female students can come to school in their long hair, male students should be allowed also to
exercise fairness in gender equality.

What is an Argument?
An argument is a list of statements, one among these statements is the conclusion and the others are the premises
or assumptions of the argument.
To give an argument is to provide a set of premises as reasons for accepting the conclusion.

Example:

If you want to get a high grade, you should study hard. You really want to get a high grade. So, you should study
hard.
Note:
The first two sentences here are the premises of the argument, and the last sentence is the conclusion.
To give this argument is to offer the premises as reasons for accepting the conclusion.
How to Analyze an Argument?
To analyze an author’s argument, take it one step at a time:
1. Briefly note the main assertion (what does the writer want me to believe or do?)
2. Make a note of the first reason the author makes to support his/her
conclusion.
3. Write down every other reason.
4. Underline the most important reason.
Main assertion: (what does the writer want me to believe or do?)
Reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
• You can now summarize the author’s position and, if required, agree or disagree in part or in whole, offering
examples from your own experiences.

What is a Manifesto?

According to Merriam Webster dictionary, a manifesto is a statement in which someone makes his or her intentions or
views easy for people to ascertain.
On the other hand, Encyclopedia Britannica defines manifesto as a document publicly declaring the position or
program of its issuer. A manifesto advances a set of ideas, opinions, or views, but it can also lay out a plan of action.
While it can address any topic, it most often concerns art, literature, or politics. Manifestos are generally written in the
name of a group sharing a common perspective, ideology, or purpose rather than in the name of a single individual.
Example: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’s The Communist Manifesto (see/read on the internet), is a good and
famous example of a manifesto regarding politics.

See also the “Sample Manifestos by Swarthmore Students,” re: Arts and Social Change.
(https://www.swarthmore.edu/arts-social-change/sample-manifestos-swarthmore-students)

Here is one example of their manifestos.

I believe that every child has potential. Regardless of race, socio-economic class, or IQ, every child has the ability to
contribute to our world. It can be intellectual-- the next brilliant math or physics theorem, the next great poem of our
time-- it can be athletic-- representing fair play and competition-- it can be artistic-- a song, a dance, a play. Every
child has potential. No child is confined by where they live, who their parents are, what society expects of them. Every
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child can contribute something beautiful to our world. It can be a smile, a laugh, or one good thought. That is all it
takes to change someone's life.
- Katie Sipiora
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LESSON 5
TOPIC: POSITION PAPER (ARGUMENTS AND FACTUAL EVIDENCES)
You can say that you have understood the lesson in this module if you can already:
1. define fallacy;
2. determine the logical fallacies;
3. identify the arguments and evidences; and
4. present reasonable arguments with factual evidences

What is Fallacy?
A fallacy is reasoning that comes to a conclusion without the evidence to support it (Merriam Webster dictionary).

What are the Types of Fallacies?

1. Ad Hominem- It is attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.
Tony will run as president in our school, but Tony was involved in a fight two years ago, therefore he cannot be a
good president.
2. Strawman- It is misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
Al Gore feels that all companies are irresponsible and should be punished for allowing emissions, which causes
global warming.
3. Loaded Question-It is asking a question that has an assumption built into it so that it can be answered without
appearing guilty.
Have you stopped cheating in EAPP class?
4. Black or white- It is where two alternative states are presented as the only possibilities when in fact more
possibilities exist.
If you will agree with him then you are against us.
5. Slippery slope- It is asserting that if we allow A to happen, then Z will consequently happen too, therefore A
should not happen.
(A teacher to a student)
I will not allow you to go to the comfort room because you might fall on the stairs, and if you fell on the stairs your
parents will complain, and if they complained, a case will be filed against me. Therefore, you cannot go to the comfort
room.
6. Burden of proof- It is saying that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone
else to disprove.
If you cannot prove that I was the one who stole your bag, therefore, I wasn’t the one who stole it.
7. Composition Division-It is assuming that what’s true about one part of something has to be applied to all or other
parts of it.
The students in Hogwarts High School are lazy. Luna Lovegod is a student in Hogwarts High School. Therefore, Luna
Lovegod is lazy.
8. Bandwagon- It is appealing to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempt of validation.
I wanted to take HUMMS, but all my friends will take STEM, therefore, I will take STEM.
9. Appeal to Emotion-It is manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
I remember my grandmother told me that if I will let rice fall on the table while eating, the rice will cry, so I shouldn’t let
these rice fall on the table while eating.
Arguments as we have discussed in the previous module is the attempt to prove a point using evidence and
reasoning.
Evidence is the concrete facts used to support a claim. Ideally, evidence is something everyone agrees on, or
something that anyone could, with sufficient training and equipment, verify for themselves.
Evidence is one of the two basic ingredients of argument (the other is reasoning), and so a great deal of effort goes
into ensuring its quality, and challenging the quality of evidence in arguments we disagree with.

What is Factual Evidence?

Factual evidence is very convincing in argumentative essay. The three types of factual evidence are:
1. Facts- are the things that we know to be true like personal experiences or observations and interviews, which
provide empirical or statistical information. These should come from a credible source.
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2. Empirical Evidence- are data that have been observed and tested.
example: experiential data- these are scientific research and testing
3. Statistical Information- These are data gathered, sorted, analyzed, interpreted, and presented by scientists.

LESSON 6
TOPIC: WRITING A POSITION PAPER
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. describe the features of a position paper;
2. enumerate the different credible sources needed in a position paper;
3. explain the importance of a position paper, and
4. write various position papers based on a given context.

Essential Features of a Position Paper

In writing a position paper, it is important to put into consideration the reasonability and credibility of an argument. To
achieve this end, the essential features and characteristics of a position must be observed, and they are the
following:

• A well-defined or controversial issue;

• A clear position on the issue;
• A convincing argument; and
• A reasonable tone.
Bringing back the topics from the previous modules about position papers, they explain how you are going to defend
a side of an issue. Mainly, your position must consist of arguments and claims founded by strong shreds of evidence
from credible sources. So, what are these credible sources?
Credible Sources
Credible sources are crucial in making the position paper more persuasive, and most of these are the following:
• Bills and laws
• Declarations from government and international non-government organizations, such as the United Nations, WHO,
etc.
• Books, entries from encyclopedias and dictionaries.
• Scholarly articles from academic journals, articles from reputable newspapers, and magazines
• Reputable television programs; and other news media sources
• Personal interviews from experts and resource informants

Importance of Position Papers

• Give a critical examination with the use of facts, evidence, and reasoning, which addresses both the strengths and
weaknesses of the writer’s point.
• Support an issue with a solid foundation of an argument, strong evidence, and proofs.
• Discuss the rationale and author’s side of an issue.

The Position Paper Format

Writing a position paper is a bit tough as it may seem especially to novice writers. However, with preparation,
research, and taking into consideration its important parts; you will find that writing a position paper is easier and
manageable. The position paper has several parts:

1. The Argumentative Thesis or Argument, is an assertion or issue that is developed into an argumentative thesis that
states the stand of the author on the issue.
Example: The establishment of condominiums near universities should be prohibited because of the risks it poses to
public safety and environment.

2. The Claim are statements that support the author’s stand. In the above example, written in bold cites risks to public
safety and the environment is the claim that strengthens a stand.
3. The evidence, are proofs to strengthen the author’s claims, this can be any of the following:
• Facts and statistics; surveys, library research and experiments
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• Interviews with experts and informants who have direct experience about the problem or issue
• Perceived philosophical, socio-political, or psychological truths.
How to Build a Position Paper
Now, let us write your first draft, get an extra paper, and follow the steps below. Always refer to the previous lessons
for key concepts in crafting a position paper.
1. Do research about any issue you find interesting or controversial.
2. Brainstorm with anyone who may have an opinion and stand about the issue or topic you have chosen.
3. Crafting the main issue or problem:
The issue is about _________________________________________________
4. Write the claims and assertions you would like to include in your position paper:
Claim 1 _________________________________________________________________
Claim 2 _________________________________________________________________
Claim 3 _________________________________________________________________
5. Prepare your argumentative thesis by combining 3 and 4; the issue and claims, into one complex sentence.
Argumentative Thesis: ___________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________ .
6. Now, utilize the three elements: assertions or claims, evidence, and explanation making your reasoning valid, clear,
and understandable in every point. Refer to previous lessons about these terms.
7. In writing paragraphs, always consider the parts of writing a good paragraph, the proper introduction, body, and
conclusion that you already have learned on the previous lessons, and integrate it with a position paper specific
features and format:
Introduction write the background of the issue and argumentative thesis
Body, the claims should be developed from topic sentences and must be supported with credible evidence. Make
sure you always refer back to the previous discussions.
The Conclusion is composed of a summary of the major claim and a restatement of your thesis statement.
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LESSON 7
TOPIC: Objectives and Structures of Various Kinds of Reports
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. define reports;
2. illustrate the kinds of report;
3. explain the objectives of report; and
4. write an introduction of a report.

What are Reports? Reports communicate information that has been compiled as a result of research and analysis of
data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on transmitting information with a
clear purpose, to a specific audience.

What are the Kinds and Objectives of Reports?

Business report discipline with an applied focus such as Engineering, Information Technology, Commerce,
Accounting and Finance, will set report writing assignments that simulate the process of report writing in industry.
Assignments are set in the form of a problem or a case study. The students research the problem, and present the
results of the research in a report format to an imaginary client.

The purpose of a business report is to provide critical analysis of how the business is tracking in all areas of the
organization. Business reports are important tools to guide decision-making and to allow business owners and senior
managers the opportunity to investigate and solve any identified issues.

Technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and easily accessible format. It
is divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of information.

The purpose of technical reports is used to communicate information to customers, colleagues and managers, and
they are used to document the equipment and procedures used in testing or research and the results obtained so that
the work can be repeated if necessary or built upon.
Field report is common in disciplines such as Law, Industrial Relations, Psychology, Nursing, History and Education.
These types of reports require the student to analyze his or her observations of phenomena or events in the real
world in light of theories studied in the course.

Examples of field reports are a Court observation report, an observation report of a child or a patient for
Developmental psychology or Nursing, a History site report, and a teaching observation report for Education.

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation of people, places, and/or events and
to analyze that observation data in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research
problem underpinning the study.
Scientific report (also called laboratory reports) is another kind of report. They are common in all the Sciences and
Social Sciences. These reports use a standard scientific report format describing methods, results and conclusions to
report upon an empirical investigation.

The purpose of a science report is to clearly communicate your key message about why your scientific findings are
meaningful. In order to do this, you need to explain why you are testing a hypothesis, what methodology you used,
what you found, and why your findings are meaningful.

What is the structure of Reports?

SCIENTIFIC REPORT
I. Introduction
Introductions need to logically justify, using the relevant literature, the reason for doing the experiment.
II. Body section
The body of a science report contains the bulk of the information and writing.
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III. Discussion
The discussion is an important section of your report and is often the most challenging to write. This is where you
present the analysis of what your findings mean. (The final paragraph of your discussion is the conclusion)

FIELD REPORT
I. Introduction
The introduction should describe the research problem, the specific objectives of your research, and the important
theories or concepts underpinning your field study. The introduction should describe the nature of the organization or
setting where you are conducting the observation, what type of observations you have conducted, what your focus
was, when you observed, and the methods you used for collecting the data.
II. Description of Activities
Your readers only knowledge and understanding of what happened will come from the description section of your
report because they were not witnesses to the situation, people, or events that you are writing about.
"Five W’s of Investigative Reporting
III. Interpretation and Analysis
Always place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context of the theoretical
assumptions and issues you described in the introduction.
NOTE: Only base your interpretations on what you have actually observed. Do not speculate or manipulate your
observational data to fit into your study's theoretical framework.
IV. Conclusion and Recommendations
The conclusion should briefly recap of the entire study, reiterating the importance or significance of your observations
Appendix
This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings, but that supports your
analysis [especially repetitive or lengthy information], that validates your conclusions, or that contextualizes a related
point that helps the reader understand the overall report
References
List all sources that you consulted and obtained information from while writing your field report.

BUSINESS REPORT
I. Title Page
Every business report has a title page to tell the reader what they’re about to read, who it was written by, and when it
is was written.
II. Executive Summary
The executive summary includes the topic, an overview of the data obtained, and any recommendations based on
the study. This shortened version of the report is helpful for busy managers or executives who may not have time to
read the entire document, but want the gist of the information.
III. Table of Contents
This section is vital for lengthier reports as it lists the sections and any subheads and the page location of those
sections and subheads.
IV. Introduction
The introduction highlights the topics that the report will dig into. It will state what data was collected and why, and the
overall purpose of the report.
V. Body
In the body of the report is the meaty part. The body text is where the details go when it comes to the purpose of the
report and any data supplied. A report with a great deal of information and multiple data sets will have subheads.
Pictures should have captions. Supporting data can be displayed in tables, charts, or graphs which will all have titles,
but they will all appear here in the body section.

VI. Conclusion
Very simply, the conclusion will summarize the body section of the report.
VII. Recommendations
If the findings of the report justify an argument, answer a question, or require action, the recommendation section is
the place to disclose what to do next.
References
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This section tells the reader where they can find additional information if it is needed.
Appendices
If there is an additional documentation to be included with a report—financial data, a glossary, or interview
transcripts—it would be relegated to the end of the document in the appendix.

TECHNICAL REPORT
Title page Technical reports usually require a title page. To know what to include, follow the conventions required in
your subject.
Table of Contents help your reader quickly and easily find what they are looking for by using informative headings and
careful numbering of your sections and sub-sections.
Introduction provides context for the problem being addressed, discusses relevant previous research, and states your
aim or hypothesis.

Body is structured according to the needs of your reader and the nature of the project. The writer decides how to
structure it and what to include. Ask yourself the following questions:
What does the reader need to know first?

What is the most logical way to develop the story of the project?
Tables and Figures Technical reports include a mixture of text, tables, figures and formulae. Consider how you can
present the information best for your reader.
Conclusion your conclusion should mirror your introduction.
Be sure to:
Refer to your aims
Summarize your key findings, and State your major outcomes and highlight their significance
Recommendations if your technical report includes recommendations for action. You could choose to report these as
a bullet point list. When giving an answer to your problem, be sure to include any limitations to your findings.

Summary (or abstract) should include a brief overview of your investigation, outcomes and recommendations. It must
include all the key information your reader needs to make a decision, without them having to read your full report.
Don’t treat your summary as an introduction; it should act as a stand-alone document.

References Acknowledge all the information and ideas you’ve incorporated from other sources into your paper using
a consistent referencing style. This includes data, tables and figures.
Appendices if you have data that is too detailed or lengthy to include in the report itself, include it in the appendix.
Your reader can then choose to refer to it if they are interested. Label your appendix with a number or a letter, a title,
and refer to it the text.
LESSON 8
TOPIC: Designing a Survey Questionnaire
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. describe what a survey questionnaire is;
2. explain the importance of a well-designed survey questionnaire;
3. write questions using the different survey questionnaire format; and
4. produce a final survey questionnaire design based on the tested and revised questions or items.

Designing a Survey Questionnaire The design or structure of survey questionnaires is the bloodstream of the survey
itself; it is your tool to achieve a successful collection of relevant data. “Questionnaire design is more of an art than a
science”, the appearance matters. The design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to
collect qualitative or quantitative information.

A well-designed survey questionnaire is important; so, using the appropriate format of items or questions in a survey
could accurately measure the opinions, experiences, and behaviors of the public. Creating good measures involves
both writing good questions and organizing them to form the survey questionnaire suitable for the type of information
we need:
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1. Qualitative Information is when the data to be collected is NOT to be statistically evaluated or for full exploration
using open-ended questions.
2. Quantitative Information is when the researcher is looking to test and quantify hypotheses and the data is to be
analyzed statistically. It uses a more formal and standardized questionnaire design, utilizing more of closed-ended
questions.

Steps in the Development of a Survey Questionnaire:

1. Decide the information required.

2. Define the target respondents.
3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents.
4. Decide on question content.
5. Develop the question-wording.
6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
7. Check the length of the questionnaire.
8. Pre-test the questionnaire.
9. Develop the final survey form.

Forming Survey Questionnaire Items Below are the commonly used survey questionnaire items:

1. Open-ended items allow participants to answer in whatever way they choose. It has no response options, so these
items are easier to write. However, participants may find this difficult for they take more time and effort with wordings,
likewise for the researcher, the decoding and analysis would also be demanding and challenging. The advantage is
that they are unbiased and with fewer expectations of expected responses. The following are examples of
open-ended questionnaire items: • What is the most important thing you’ve learned from the COVID19 Pandemic? •
How were you able to manage your time wisely and meaningfully during the quarantine period?

2. Closed-ended items ask a question and provide a set of response options for participants to choose from and are
used when researchers have a good idea of the different responses that participants might make. These items are
more difficult to write because they must include an appropriate set of response options. However, they are quick and
easy for participants to complete. They are also much easier for researchers to analyze because the responses can
be easily converted to numbers and entered into a spreadsheet.

For these reasons, closed-ended items are much more common.

The following are examples of closed-ended questionnaire items:
• How old are you? (Check for your answer) _____ Under 18 _____ 18 to 34 _____ 35 to 49 _____ 50 to 70 _____
Over 70
• On a scale of 0 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (extremely satisfied), what is your satisfaction rating for your DSL/Internet
service provider?

3. Likert Scale is the most widely used approach to scaling responses in survey research, it functions as a rating
scale, and is commonly used for quantitative variables. It is an ordered set of responses that participants must
choose from.
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In addition, a rough guideline for writing questionnaire items is provided by the BRUSO model (Peterson, 2000).

• Brief and to the point. This brevity makes it easier for respondents to understand and faster for them to complete.
• Relevant to the research question. If a respondent’s sexual orientation is not relevant, then it could be omitted.
• Unambiguous; they can be interpreted in only one way. Effective questionnaire items are also specific so that it is
clear to respondents what their response should be about.
• Objective in the sense that they do not reveal the researcher’s own opinions or lead participants to answer in a
particular way.

Testing and Revising Questionnaire Items

Find 5-10 people from your target group to pretest your questionnaire. Pretesting is useful as participants can share
interpretations and suggestions with the researcher. A careful review of the information generated will help you
address your evaluation questions.
Furthermore, after testing your questionnaire by the use of pre-test of pre-selected participants, you can now make
necessary adjustments and revisions in the survey questionnaires.
Review for Revisions comes with an assessment of the information provided in addressing your evaluation questions.
Response patterns to individual questions such as poor and incomplete responses can suggest needed
improvements. Moreover, in revising any written texts, you will always have to consider the properties of a well-written
text that has already been covered by the previous modules.
In revising, you have to test the efficiency of the questionnaire, close read the following checklist that will serve as
your guide.
• Each question is concise and simple.
• Do not contain highly technical terms like acronyms and jargon. (Depends on context, the use of highly technical
terms like acronyms and jargons for a specialized field is clearly explained)
• Questions are grouped together according to the topic.
• The directions on how to answer are placed before the questions.
• The rating scale is written before the line of questions.
• Sensitive questions are at the end of the questionnaire.
Take a closer look at the following examples of survey questionnaires. Then, let’s simulate a pretest. Answer the
survey below about your perception of online gaming. Why the appearance of the survey questionnaire helps in
answering the test faster and easier? How does the simplicity of design affects answering the survey in a positive
way?
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LESSON 9
TOPIC: Conducting Surveys, Experiments and Observations
After going through this lesson, you are expected to:
1. explain the use of survey, experiment and observation;
2. conduct a survey;
3. conduct an experiment; and
4. conduct an observation.

The Scientific Process

A scientific process or scientific method requires observations of nature and formulating and testing the hypothesis. It
consists of the following steps.
1. Observe something and ask questions about a natural phenomenon (scientific observation)
2. Make your hypothesis
3. Make predictions about logical consequences of the hypothesis
4. Test your predictions by controlled experiment, a natural experiment, an observational study or a field experiment.
5. Create your conclusion on the basis of data or information gathered in your experiment.
So How Does It Work?
• Make notes as you answer these questions
• Who are the subjects? What do they look like? What are they doing?
• Are the subjects interacting with each other? How?
• What is the environment like?
• Is the environment affecting behavior?
To make an observation you must look closely and notice details.
Now develop a question about what you see going on…
• Ask how, what, when, where, and why
• Be sure that the question can be answered with an experiment
Forming a Hypothesis
• After you have asked the question, give a possible answer
• Try to explain what was observed
• This is called forming a "hypothesis"
Let's Take an Example:
• You and your friend observed that white cats were found to be playing with white cats and black with black cats.
• You form a hypothesis that "Cats like to play with cats same color as theirs"
• The prediction is what you think will happened if the hypothesis is true
• Predictions in this case could be…
• H1 = White cats will play with white cats
• H2 = Black cats will play with black cats
• Now after the hypothesis is formed and predictions are made, this is the time to test them through experiment
• An experiment is a way to test a hypothesis and see if what was predicted is correct or not
HYPOTHESIS: "Cats will play with cats of same color as theirs"
Let's Experiment
1. Get cats in a variety of colors say black, white, grey
2. Put them together in a room
3. Install close circuit cameras to record their activities
Results
• After about a week, you learnt that cats would play without regarding any color. You found white cats playing with
black and vice versa.
• Our hypothesis proven incorrect and we may need to readjust it to try again
• It is important to remember that even if hypothesis is proven false does not mean that our experiment has failed.
Many discoveries were made through the process of trial and error.
If you will conduct an experiment, what would it be? How are you going to do it?
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LESSON 10
TOPIC: Gathering Information from Survey,
Experiment, and Observation

You can say that you have understood the lesson in this module if you can already:
1. explain the importance of identifying the appropriate tools used in gathering information;
2. discuss the benefits of the different tools used in gathering information;
3. gather information from a survey; and
4. gather information from an experiment and observation

Gathering of Information

Different courses require varying procedures when it comes to the gathering and handling of data. Not all tools are
effective for your paper. For example, the type of information gathering tool acceptable for a scientific study is not the
same as what works for business pursuits. Therefore, you must analyze the needs of your topic or study before
selecting a procedure or tool to use.

Gathering of information (will also be termed information gathering on this module) is the act or process of acquiring
information. There are different ways to gather information such as surveys, interviews, documentation review,
observation, focus groups, case studies, and experiments. In this module, we will only cover three: survey,
experiment, and observation.

Information Gathering Tools

1. Surveys
As mentioned in the previous module, surveys are structured questionnaires that are typically designed to gather
quantitative and qualitative information through close-ended, open-ended, and Likert. They can be administered
through in-mail or online, in-person, or even by phone.

Benefits of Surveys
• Helpful in collecting standardized data from a large group of people
• Can be fairly easily summarized with frequencies and means; data can be visually displayed
• Facilitates comparisons between subgroups; if a good sample can be generalized to a larger population
• The practical way to gather data from targeted groups in a wide variety of ways and formats 2. Experiments An
experiment is used to gather information in which a researcher change some variables and observe their effect on
other variables. The variables that you manipulate are referred to as independent while the variables that change as
a result of manipulation are dependent variables.
Benefits of Experiments
• Explore causal relationships that an observational study cannot • Required to different fields like in the field of
sociology, psychology, and sciences • Presents the processes and results • Verifies concepts, ideas, and theories
3. Observation
The data gathering procedure for qualitative research applies the sensory organs such as the eyes to see what is
going on, ears to hear the things going on, and the ears to smell. Observers should be aware of their own personal
expectations, values, and interests in the situation they are observing. Notes taken are as descriptive as possible and
include people’s behaviors and words, the physical environment, and the evaluator’s own behaviors and impressions.
The method helps the researcher to avoid bias in what people say.

Benefits of Observation
• Obtain primary information as they are happening, rather than relying on second-hand information.
• Access to and familiarity with the study, project, program, activities, and the like.
• Promote a better understanding from an abstract concept into tangible skills through immersion.
• Utilize qualitative data, as well as quantitative data if checklists are used for recording relevant information.
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LESSON 11
TOPIC: Summarizing Findings and Executing Reports

You can say that you have understood the lesson in this module if you can already:
1. write the summary of findings;
2. present report through narration; and 3. show report using visual/graphic forms.

What is summary?
The Oxford Dictionary defines summary as a brief statement or account of the main points of something. A summary
begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and main point of the text as you see it. It is
written in your own words. It contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own opinions,
interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary.

How to Write Summary of Findings?

One of the most important components of a report is the “Results and Discussion” section, also called the “Findings”
report. This portion of your paper summarizes main points but also provides interpretations of your observations or
data.
Begin your Findings report with a brief summary of your experiment’s results. You already went into detail on the
experiment’s procedure and data you collected, so this summary serves as a reminder to the reader. Use this space
to mention the highlights of your results. Do not attempt to interpret your results, but rather present information
objectively and informatively. This part of the Findings report should be no longer than one or two paragraphs.
In the experiment that you did in Module 6, for example, you could write in your summary, “The mongo beans in the
cup with the cotton grew an inch per day.” Note: Summary presents information
Now, since report as well as its structures and various kinds were already taken up in module 4, let us talk about
narrative report right away.

What is a narrative report?

A narrative report presents things or events that has happened in the past through a logical progression of the
relevant information. The main purpose of a narrative report is to present a factual depiction of what has occurred.
This report adheres and focuses on the five W questions — Who? Where? When? What? And Why? Since this report
is used as evidence, those questions are addressed and answered along with the evidence necessary to prove such
answers. Each question must be comprehensively answered and even the smallest details should be provided. In
addition, the assumptions made on the report must be based on verified facts or
evidence. You can actually write a narrative report on the experiment that you did in your module 6 (mongo beans
experiment).
Contents of a Narrative Report
1. Introduction
The introduction of your narrative report must provide a short description of the report topic. This is the first section of
the report that needs a thesis-like general statement to convey what the rest of the report is going to talk about. Just
like in any writing piece, the introduction should be able to briefly but still accurately state the main point the report is
trying to make.
2. Knowledge or Learning Acquired
This section of the report contains all the relevant information to your main topic. In the given example above, you
can write about what you have learned through the entire term in this section. You can talk about anything that you
have actually learned however it must be presented in a nonfiction format. Since the narrative report is solely based
on facts, the information you should include must be truthful as well.
3. Observations
In this section, the things you have observed and the things you have learned through observation is stated. This is
basically the art where you recount all of your observations during the period the topic of your report occurred. This
can be lengthy or short depending on the amount and depth of the observations you want to expound on. Most of the
time, this can be based on a person or activity you have observed and learned from.
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4. Recommendations
In the recommendations section you focus on concluding what has been discussed in the previous sections. This
section can also be used to express what can be done to improve certain activities or events you have attended. Say
for example, a narrative report can be done on a seminar you have attended and this section can state how
better-quality hand-out could help the audience understand the topic more or other changes to improve your learning
experience.

Report Using Visual/Graphic Forms

According to Jennifer Lombardo, “Textual and visual graphics can aid in visually presenting data to a business
audience. You must first identify the type of data you will be presenting and then decide whether it is details, patterns
or relationships being communicated.” Below are examples of some of the commonly used visual/graphic aids and
when to use them.

Visual Type When to Use

Table
A table is useful when many specific values need to be accessible
(e.g., comparing trial runs, displaying measured speeds or mass).
Bar graph
Bar graphs are typically useful in cases when the independent variable is a category (or rank) and the dependent
variable is numerical (e.g., showing number units sold in the last 4 quarters, enrollment numbers for classes).
Line graph
Line graphs are often used in situations where there is a mathematical relationship between X and Y, such as
graphing equations. In other contexts, they might be used to visualize trends (past and/or predictive) and other
dependent relationships.
Pie chart
Pie charts can be useful when you are trying to group items or populations by percent, into five or fewer categories
(e.g., categorize a city’s age demographics). Percent values should be labeled.
LESSON 12
TOPIC: Writing Reports

You can say that you have understood the lesson in this module if you can already:
1. identify the different sections of the report;
2. discuss the characteristics of a well-written report;
3. revise incorrect sentences on a report; and
4. write a report based on a given context.

The keys to writing good reports like identifying the audience and purpose; understanding how the good organization
of your report helps the reader find the information they want. The ability to write good reports will stay with you.
Good report writing principles of writing informatively for a specific audience and purpose will help you communicate
well in whichever career you choose.

Sections of a Report
Though there had been a standard structure of a specific kind of report, expectations can be different from one report
to the next, even within the same subject. So, the truth is there is no set formula for writing a report – every report is
different. Each one depends on what the purpose is, who you are writing for and the kind of research that you are
reporting.

Furthermore, there are essential sections common across the different kinds of reports.
Unlike essays, reports have formal structures. When writing an essay, you need to place your information to make a
strong argument. When writing a report, you need to place your information in the appropriate section. These
sections communicate information or ideas to the reader, close read the following to learn what each section should
contain:
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Writing concisely and clearly takes time. You have to work out exactly what your audience wants to know in order to
make sure you are writing relevant information. So how can you make sure your report does what it’s meant to do,
and does it well? Below are some tips for writing better reports.

Checklist for a Well-written Report

1. Check which sections your report should have - Reports for different disciplines will require different sections: for
instance, a business report may need a separate recommendations section but no methods section. Be clear about
which piece of information goes in which section.

2. Focus on scope and relevance - Reports tell the reader what was done and covered; so, limit and know your
scope, include only relevant material in your background and discussion.

3. Consider your audience - Pay special attention to who your projected reader is and what they want from the report.
4. Write clearly, concisely, and appropriately - Keep your expression clear and simple. If the purpose of a report is to
inform, it won't be achieving that purpose if the reader is confused by complicated phrases and jargon.

5. Spend more time on your discussion section – Present the whole piece together by showing how your findings and
methods relate to the purpose; make sure that all the issues raised in your discussion. 6. Proofread carefully – Do
your final proof reading, check for grammar, spelling, and punctuations, so you can make revisions before submitting
your final copy.