TCP/IP

 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

 It is a set of protocols or rules and procedures that governs communications among
computers on the internet.
 TCP/IP is a commonly used standard for transmitting data over networks. In simple words, it
is the suite of communication protocols which connect network devices on the internet or
used to interconnect network devices on the internet.
 It decides how the data will be exchanged over the internet through end-to-end
communications that include how the data should be arranged into packets (bundles of
information), addressed, sent, and received at the destination.
 This communication protocol can also be used to interconnect network devices in a private
network such an intranet or an extranet.

How TCP/IP works?

 As the name suggests, TCP/IP comprises two basic protocols: TCP (transmission
control protocol) and IP (Internet protocol).
 TCP: The TCP allows applications to create channels of communications across a
network. It also allows a message to be divided into smaller packets before they are
transmitted over the internet and then assembled in the right manner at the
destination address. So, it ensures the reliable transmission of data across the
network. Furthermore, it also checks errors in the packets and requests for re-
transmission if errors are found.
 IP: The IP address tells the packets the address and route so that they reach the right
destination. It has a method that enables gateway computers on the internet-
connected network forward the message after checking the IPS address. It is like a
line of workers passing coal from a mine to a mining cart.

TCP/IP model layers:

TCP/IP, which is a standard layered protocol suite comprises a set of rules and
procedures, is divided into four layers, on the basis of their functionality. Each layer has
a specific protocol.

o The application layer: This layer includes all the protocols required to communicate
directly with the end-users. Some important protocols in this layer include HTTP
 (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol), and the DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
o The transport layer: This layer ensures the transmission of the correct message or data
in proper order. It utilizes UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and TCP.
o The network access layer: It offers the functionalities to build and handle packets of
information.
o The internet layer: It performs two basic functions, routing and addressing by using IP
(Internet Protocol). It tells how the packets are to be sent to the destination.

Application/Uses of TCP/IP
Some Real-Time Applications are:
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP): It helps to send email to another email
address.
 File Transfer Protocol(FTP): It is used for sending large files.
 Dynamic Host Configure Protocol(DHCP): It assigns the IP address.
 Telnet: Bi-directional text communication via a terminal application.
 HyperText Transfer Protocol(HTTP): Used to transfer the web pages.
 Domain Name System(DNS): It translates the website name to IP addresses.
 Simple Network Time Protocol(SNTP): It provides the time of a day to the
network devices.
WORLD WIDE WEB(WWW)
 The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as
the web.
 The WWW was initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research)
in 1989.
 WWW can be defined as the collection of different websites around the
world, containing different information shared via local servers(or
computers).
History:
 It is a project created, by Timothy Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to
work together effectively at CERN. is an organization, named the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further development
of the web.
 This organization is directed by Tim Berner’s Lee, aka the father of the web.
Components of the Web: There are 3 components of the web:

1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the

web.
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser
and server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation
and content of a webpage.

Features of WWW:
 HyperText Information System
 Cross-Platform
 Distributed
 Open Standards and Open Source
 Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services
 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
 “Web 2.0”

HTTP
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
 o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext,
audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that
allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host. But,
HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control connection to
transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server. The HTTP
differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the client to the server and
from server to the client. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP
messages are delivered immediately.

Features of HTTP:
o Connectionless protocol:

a) HTTP is a connectionless protocol.

b) HTTP client initiates a request and waits for a response from the server.
c) When the server receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the
response to the HTTP client after which the client disconnects the connection.
d) The connection between client and server exist only during the current request and response
time only.

o Media independent:

a) HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent as long as both the client and
server know how to handle the data content.
b) It is required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-type header.

o Stateless:

a) HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each other only during the
current request.
b) Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and server do not retain the information
between various requests of the web pages.

Messages
HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow
the same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request
line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that
consists of a status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

o A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to
facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform Resource
Locator (URL).
o The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of
information on the internet.
o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.
 o Method:

The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a server. For example,
HTTP.

o Host:

The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the computer is given an
alias name.

Web pages are mainly stored in the computers and the computers are given an alias
name that begins with the characters "www". This field is not mandatory.

o Port:

The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional field. If the
port number is included, then it must come between the host and path and it should be
separated from the host by a colon.

o Path:

Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The path itself contain
slashes that separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.

Features of Good Search Engine

1. Relevant Search Results: A good search engine should provide highly relevant search
results that closely match the user's query. It should employ sophisticated algorithms to
understand the user's intent and deliver the most accurate and contextually appropriate
results.
2. Speed and Efficiency: Users expect search engines to deliver fast results. A good search
engine should have robust infrastructure and optimized algorithms to quickly process
and retrieve relevant information.
3. Comprehensive Indexing: The search engine should have a vast and up-to-date index of
web pages and other relevant content. It should continuously crawl the web to discover
and index new pages while ensuring that the existing index remains fresh and accurate.
4. Advanced Query Understanding: A good search engine should be capable of
understanding complex search queries, including natural language queries, and
 accurately interpreting the user's intent. It should handle spelling variations, synonyms,
and understand contextual nuances to provide more accurate results.
5. User-Friendly Interface: The search engine's interface should be intuitive and easy to
navigate, allowing users to input their queries effortlessly. It should also present search
results in a clear and organized manner, with options for filtering, sorting, and refining
results for a better user experience.
6. Personalization: A good search engine can enhance the user experience by
personalizing search results based on user preferences, search history, location, and
other relevant factors. Personalization helps deliver more relevant results and improves
user satisfaction.
7. Rich Media Support: In addition to text-based results, a good search engine should
support a wide range of media formats, including images, videos, audio, and other
interactive content. This ensures that users can find diverse and relevant information in
their search results.
8. Mobile-Friendly: With the increasing use of mobile devices, a good search engine
should be optimized for mobile platforms, providing a seamless and responsive
experience on smartphones and tablets.
9. Privacy and Security: Users are increasingly concerned about their privacy and data
security. A good search engine should prioritize user privacy, protect personal
information, and employ robust security measures to prevent unauthorized access or
data breaches.
10. Continuous Improvement: A search engine should continuously evolve and improve its
algorithms, indexing techniques, and user experience based on user feedback and
changing web dynamics. Regular updates and innovations ensure that the search engine
remains relevant and effective.

Internet
 Internet is a group of computer systems connected from all around the
world. The Internet protocol suite is a framework defined through the Internet
standards.
 Methods are divided right into a layered set of protocols on this architecture.
The Internet gives a huge variety of statistics and communique offerings,
which includes forums, databases, email, and hypertext.
 It is made of the neighborhood to global personal, public networks
connected through plenty of digital, wireless, and networking technologies.
 Working of the internet:
 a. The internet is a global computer network that connects various devices
and sends a lot of information and media.
b. It uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and Transport Control Protocol (TCP)-
based packet routing network. TCP and IP work together to ensure that
data transmission across the internet is consistent and reliable,
regardless of the device or location.
c. Data is delivered across the internet in the form of messages and
packets.
d. A message is a piece of data delivered over the internet, but before it is
sent, it is broken down into smaller pieces known as packets.
e. IP is a set of rules that control how data is transmitted from one computer
to another via the internet.
f. The IP system receives further instructions on how the data should be
transferred using a numerical address (IP Address).
g. The TCP is used with IP to ensure that data is transferred in a secure and
reliable manner.
h. This ensures that no packets are lost, that packets are reassembled in
the correct order, and that there is no delay that degrades data quality.
Uses of the Internet:
 E-mail: E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one
computer user to one or more recipients. It refers to the internet services in
which messages are sent from and received by servers.
 Web Chat: Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive
messages in real-time with others. By using Internet chat software, the user
can log on to specific websites and talk with a variety of other users online.
Chat software is interactive software that allows users to enter comments in
one window and receive responses from others who are using the same
software in another window.
 World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular
information exchange service. It provides users with access to a large
number of documents that are linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks.
 E-commerce: E-commerce refers to electronic business transactions made
over the Internet. It encompasses a wide range of product and service-
related online business activities.
 Internet telephony: The technique that converts analog speech impulses
into digital signals and routes them through packet-switched networks of the
internet is known as internet telephony.
 Video conferencing: The term “video conferencing” refers to the use of
voice and images to communicate amongst users.
Web 1.0: The Beginning of the Internet
Web 1.0, which emerged with the invention of the Internet, featured static web
pages that could only be viewed.
These early websites were essentially digital brochures, with limited interactivity
and no ability for users to contribute content.
Web 2.0: The Era of Social Media and User-Generated Content
Web 2.0, which emerged during the “Internet Boom” era of the late 1990s and
early 2000s, introduced more dynamic web pages and websites, and allowed
for user-generated content.
This era saw the rise of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube, as well as the introduction of blogs, wikis, and other forms of user-
generated content.
Web 3.0: The Future of the Internet
Web 3.0, which is still in development, promises to bring a more personalized
and intuitive experience for users.
It is expected to be more intelligent and able to understand the context and
intent of the user’s actions.
This will be achieved through the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and
Machine Learning (ML) technologies.
The goal of Web 3.0 is to make the internet more democratic, open-source, and
secure.
Advantages of the Internet:
 It is the best source of a wide range of information. There is no better place
to conduct research than the internet.
 Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas, and TV series are
quickly becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
 Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services that
keep you updated with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the
most recent news.
 Because of virtual shops where you may buy anything you want and need
without leaving your house, internet shopping is becoming increasingly
popular. Recently, virtual shops have been making a lot of money.
 With the emergence of online businesses, virtual stores, and credit card
usage, purchasing goods without going to the store has never been easier.
Disadvantages of the Internet:
 Spending too much time on the internet is hazardous for the young
generation’s physical and mental health.
 Children who use the internet develop an addiction, which is quite
dangerous.
 It is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email messages thanks to
the hacking community.
 With the emergence of online stores, people prefer to order online rather
than going to local stores which results in less social interactions among
people.