UNIT 10: Political Structures
Table of Contents
Introduction 2
Essential Questions 3
Learning Targets 3
Lesson 1: Political Organizations 3
Starting Out 3
Learn about It! 4
History Maker 9
Check Your Understanding 9
Putting Value 10
Lesson 2: Authority and Legitimacy 10
Starting Out 10
Learn about It! 11
History Maker 17
Check Your Understanding 18
Putting Value 19
Real-world Challenge 20
Society and I: Self- Check 22
Wrap Up 22
Bibliography 23
Answers to Check Your Understanding 25
Glossary 25
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GRADE 11/12 |Understanding Culture, Society and Politics
UNIT 10
Political Structures
As Aristotle once said, “man, by nature, is a social animal.” He believed that man does not live
in isolation, but always with a specific group of people. It is through this setup that he is able
to interact, socialize, or share knowledge with others. These day-to-day interactions assist in
the formation of his cultural and social identity that makes him one with the group. Group
relations are valued in society. In times of chaos and competition, group members usually
compete among themselves or with other groups.
Fig. 1. Mother and daughter showing affection towards one another
Accessed February 6, 2018. https://www.pexels.com/photo/adult-baby-blur-child-532389/
In order to control chaos and limit competition in society, rules and norms have to made.
Thus, the society is kept in control and peace by these sets of norms that group members
have to follow. In this lesson, you will discover more about these social norms and the process
of social control. You will be introduced to different political organizations as well as the
significance of authority and legitimacy in power relations in society.
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• What political organizations existed and currently exist in society?
• How are authority and legitimacy related?
Learning Targets
In this unit, you should be able to analyze political structures.
Lesson 1: Political Organizations
What are the differences between state and stateless societies?
Starting Out
Consider two societies: A and B. Life in Society A is easy—people get along well; there is ample
supply of commodities; and the government works for the betterment of its people. Social life
in this society is harmonious. People from all walks of life are able to interact without difficulty
and discrimination. On the other hand, life in Society B is chaotic. Crimes are abundant
because people lack the resources to avail basic commodities. Few jobs are available for the
working class, and government officials rely on corruption to support their needs. Any person
would prefer to live in a society where there is peace and unity. In your opinion, how did
Society A achieve this status? What could Society B do in order to improve the state of its
social environment?
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Learn about It!
As discussed earlier, societies need to be held together by a set of social norms or rules in
order to avoid chaos or competition. The system of rules and procedures organized to
regulate society is called social control.
When social control is organized to enforce law and order among members of society, a
political organization ensues. Thus, political organizations force individuals to adapt to the
rules for the goodwill of society. According to Beals and Hoizer, political organizations are
accomplished through leaders who commit to the interest of the group and who work
towards social welfare.
Types of Political Organizations
According to sociologists Evan-Pritchard and Fortes, a society may be acephalous or
cephalous. Acephalous societies, commonly known as stateless societies, lack government
and social classification. This would mean that no central authority, administrative power, and
judicial institution are available within such societies. Typically, stateless societies are small-
scale groups that create decisions through consensus or voting systems.
Could stateless societies eventually transform into state societies?
These groups are culturally homogenous, implying that cultural traditions and practices
across the society are the same for all its members. Being a relatively smaller society, stateless
societies usually enforce group norms through kin groups. Much respect is given to these
groups as they primarily hold social control and regulation.
An example of a stateless society is the Nuer group from South Sudan. They are primarily
agriculturally-dependent. They raise cattle, facilitate the production of milk and meat, and
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cultivate millet and fish. Despite being an autonomous society, there is conflict within the
Nuer group. Homicide, a common phenomenon within their group, is settled by payment of
cattle. Marriage practices are polygamous, and religious beliefs are animistic. In addition,
being a patrilineal stateless society, the Nuer place great value on males, even requiring every
male father to have a male heir. These practices may be different from what you are used to,
but it clearly provides an insight on how culturally diverse all social groups are.
All societies, stateless or not, are employing social control on its group members.
Social control happens with the establishment of social rules or norms that group
members are required to follow.
On the other hand, cephalous or state societies are societies which have a central
governmental institution, authority, and judicial power over its people. In this type of society,
wealth, status, and privilege correspond to authority and power. The judicial system, with the
addition of the police and military, ensures that the law is abided to by all members of the
group. Borders or territories are strictly guarded in order to preserve resources and protect
the society from threats of harm and violence. State societies, unlike stateless societies, are
commonly culturally heterogenous. This would mean that these societies are subdivided into
several cultural groups that have different cultural traditions and practices but coincide within
the same society together. Leaders of state societies need to foster good relationships with
leaders from other state societies in order to avoid conflict or war, to facilitate economic and
financial stability, and to acquire better opportunities for the state. In state societies, these
leaders are usually appointed or voted on by members of the group.
If state societies are culturally diverse, then how do cultural groups maintain peace
and unity with other groups?
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An example of a state society is the Philippines. Our country is made up of three branches of
government—executive, legislative, and judiciary—that work together to provide a good social
environment for its people. Within the Philippines are many ethno-linguistic groups that are
all rich in cultural traditions and practices. For example, religious beliefs among people from
the Mountain Provinces are far different from the Mangyans of Mindoro. Celebrations for
different religious icons and beliefs are also celebrated in the country throughout the year.
Popular examples of this include the Feast of the Black Nazarene in Quiapo, the Sinulog
Festival in Cebu, and the Dinagyang Festival in Ilo-Ilo. Despite these differences in beliefs and
diversity in cultural groups, members of our society are united in the view that all of us are
Filipinos and all of us are ruled by the same government system.
Classification of Societies
Societies could be classified in terms of political organization or their ability to employ an
organized political structure and authority. According to renowned anthropologist Elman
Service, society could be classified into four major categories based on political structure and
authority: band, tribe, chiefdom, and state.
Why do stateless societies exist even up to this day? Under what classification would
you put these societies into?
Bands
Among the four classifications, bands are considered to be the smallest and most primitive.
They live autonomously and are comprised of small kin groups or a pool of nuclear families to
live together in a common area. According to anthropologist Morton Fried in his book The
Notion of the Tribe, bands neither pay taxes nor support an army. Hunting and gathering is the
typical way of life in bands. Social order is achieved through informal public opinion in the
forms of gossip and avoidance.
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Tribes
Similar to band societies, tribal societies do not have a formal and organized political
structure. They are usually bigger than bands and are primarily food producers. Tribes place
great value on agriculture and husbandry than hunting and gathering. Social order is
maintained through a kinship and family system led by a community head, the eldest person
in the group who is considered the most knowledgeable and experienced among the
tribespeople.
Chiefdoms
Chiefdom societies are more complex than tribes and bands. They already have a form of
social and political structure characterized by a community leader—the chief—whose position
could be passed on through his bloodline. However, there is no bureaucracy in a chiefdom.
There is inequality in the distribution of power, and there are definite differences among
social classes. Social order is dependent upon the judgment of chief. In some societies, there
are a council of elders present to help the leader decide on appropriate sanctions, norms, and
rules to enforce to achieve order. Despite this, economic activities among chiefdoms are more
advanced and successful compared to that of tribes and bands.
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Fig. 2. The Shoshone of Utah
Accessed February 6, 2018. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shoshone_indians.jpg
The Northwestern band of Shoshone people in Utah are recognized in the United
States for their skills in hunting and gathering and migration. Based on studies of
their migration patterns, researchers concluded that they are one of the most well-
adapted and ecologically efficient Indians of the American West. Based on your
knowledge, do band societies similar to the Shoshone exist in the Philippines? How
would you describe their way of life?
States
Being the most politically organized and structurally-developed among the classifications of
society, states take part in many political, cultural, and economic activities. States are self-
governing societies. This would mean that they have full control over their members through
an organized political structure, they participate in economic activities within and outside their
group, they have political power over their geographical territories, and they could enforce,
enact, and change laws or norms according to the needs of the society. Bureaucracy is heavily
pra
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cticed by states. Its people and territories are protected by its own military.
Elman Rogers Service (1915-1996) was an American anthropologist who theorized on
cultural evolution and formulated the nomenclature in classifying societies. His
researches and examination of cultural evolution in different countries led him to write
a series of books on states and political systems.
As an educator and academician, Service taught in various higher learning institutions
including the University of Michigan and University of California. He shared his insights
on anthropology and culture through his books, most of which focused on cultural
evolution, primitive societies, states and civilizations, and ethnological issues.
Check Your Understanding
A. Identify whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Tribes are more politically organized than bands.
2. Cephalous societies are also called stateless societies.
3. The United States of America is an example of a tribe.
4. Sociologist Evan-Pritchard was responsible for the nomenclature in classifying
societies.
5. Elman Service taught at the University of Michigan and University of Colorado.
B. If chiefdoms have political structures and organization, then what sets it apart from a
state?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
C. List five reasons why the Philippines is considered a state.
1. __________________________________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________________________________
Putting Value
In this lesson, you have learned that societies are classified differently. States are the most
developed and politically-organized among all of them. However, despite a state society’s
initiatives to achieve social order, some barriers still lead to chaos, disorganization, and war. In
your opinion, what are these barriers that hinder social order?
Lesson 2: Authority and Legitimacy
How does authority differ from legitimacy?
Starting Out
You are chatting with your seatmate while classes are going on, and your teacher noticed. She
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called your attention and asked you to explain what you are doing. Having no acceptable
reason for your behavior, you just stood silent and waited for your teacher to respond. She
told you that you were misbehaving and disrespecting the whole class. As a punishment, she
asked you to write an essay assignment stating that you would not do the behavior again. You
promptly follow and feel regretful for what you did. Now, imagine yourself chatting with your
classmate at a fast food restaurant during lunch hours. You were approached by a student
your age who asked you to stop chatting with your friend because it is inappropriate. The
student also asked you to write him a note saying that you would not chat with your friend
again. How would you respond to such request? Does the student’s request have the same
bearing with what your teacher asked from you?
Fig. 4. People meeting for a project in a public place.
Accessed February 6, 2018. https://www.pexels.com/photo/people-coffee-meeting-team-7096/
Learn about It!
According to Thomas Hobbes, power could be defined as a form of control that coerces a
person to obey another. In all forms of life and societies, there is power. People follow more
powerful individuals by choice or by force. States also uphold power among their members
through laws and norms. The state uses its power to enforce its laws and to ensure social
organization. In discussing power in terms of politics and political organization, authority and
legitimacy should also be highlighted.
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Authority
When there is power, authority could be upheld. Understanding authority could be done in a
theoretical or practical sense. Theoretically, authority could refer to an individual’s expertise in
a particular topic of interest. For instance, in order to fully understand anthropology, students
could consult with various experts in the field. Students believe them because they have
proven their intellectual prowess and expertise in their chosen fields.
In practice, however, an authority is given the ability to coerce people in social activities
because of the power they hold. A state, for instance, has power and exercises it through laws
which citizens follow. Because society follows through with what the state decides on, the
state could be considered an authority figure. Authority, in the political sense therefore,
means that a certain political entity has the right to use and exercise its power over a specific
group or society.
Could a person or state be in authority without power?
In order to understand authority better, let us go back to the example given at the start of this
lesson. A teacher and a student both reprimanded you for the same reason. They both gave
you sanctions because of your behavior. Which between the two are you most likely to follow?
You will probably answer that you will follow your teacher. This is because you know and
understand that your teacher has power over you and the student does not. You view your
teacher in a position of power—someone who possesses greater ability and status than you.
Meanwhile, you might see the student as someone who has the same experience and power
that you have. Because of your teacher’s power, her right to call your attention, and your
recognition that she has more power than you, you comply with the sanctions she gave you.
Your compliance, regardless of it being voluntary or forced, is a manifestation of the teacher’s
aut
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hority over you.
Sociologist Max Weber viewed authority as a form of legitimate power. He implied that a
political organization in authority is followed by members of society because these people
recognize its rights to govern the group. Based on his concept of legitimate domination,
Weber came up with three distinct classifications of authority.
Classification of Authority Definition
Traditional Authority • A status system or hierarchy is allocated for each
member of the group. Because of this, one member
may have more authority than another.
• This classification could be associated with hereditary
power where status and power are passed on
through genetics.
Charismatic Authority • This classification is more dependent on personality
than status. People who use this type of authority
typically make personal appeals or requests to
others, inspiring loyalty among followers.
• It is not limited by rules but is more controlled by the
authority figure’s intentions. It can inspire devotion
and total control of power.
Legal – Rational Authority • This is found in more industrialized, modern societies
where power rests upon a particular office and not
upon a specific person.
• Authority and power are exercised based on laws. As
such, the law and the judiciary are seen as the highest
forms of power in society.
The classifications of society that Weber stated could still be applied at present. Traditional
authorities could be seen among members of the royal family where their status and power
are defined by their monarchic positions. Charismatic authority in modern times is epitomized
through the likes of Margaret Thatcher and the Pope, both of whom were very influential in
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driving change and gaining loyal followers all over the world. Meanwhile, legal-rational
authority is practiced by many countries led by offices of the prime minister. These
manifestations of authority imply that little has changed in terms of power relations over the
past few decades and that power, as always, could still enforce authority over societies.
Legitimacy
In our previous examples, you found out that societies follow authority figures because they
recognize the validity of the power that these figures hold. Legitimacy, according to Weber, is
the belief that a certain entity has a right to rule or to be in authority. As such, in cases where
people follow the rules set by the authority figure, they also recognize that the authority’s
power is legitimate. This would imply that power and authority is seen as something that is
rightful and acceptable to be upheld by the governing body.
Legitimacy connects power and authority. A person or organization who has authority
but is not seen as legitimate could fail in employing power over society.
According to Beetham, for a political organization or entity to be considered legitimate, it must
meet three criteria:
1. Power must be exercised according to rules.
Legitimacy is strengthened when power and authority are exercised within the scope
and limits of the law. For instance, for a statutory government to establish its legitimacy,
it should only enforce laws that are based on the constitution. Sanctions should also be
made in consideration of what was implied by the law and by the appropriate
governing body.
2. Rules must be justified both by the political government and the society.
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Even if power is exercised according to the rules, the law itself should be appropriate
and justifiable for both the government and society. This would mean that all laws
enacted and passed by the government should be beneficial to peace and social order
and be morally-sound to uphold the human rights of members of society. As such,
legitimacy is achieved when the society views rules with the understanding that they
are individualistically appropriate and socially relevant.
Was there an instance in history when a society rejected a state’s power and authority?
3. The governed should consent and agree with the power and authority of the
political organization.
The final criterion in attaining legitimacy is making the society realize that the political
organization has the right to exercise power and authority over it. Members of the
society should be able to accept the governing body and to follow the rules it sets. A
lack of consent and agreement will result to a lack of authority on the part of the
political organization. Such may lead to social disorganization.
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Fig. 5. A parent and her child.
Accessed February 5, 2018. https://www.pexels.com/photo/adult-black-and-white-books-boy-77167/
On a micro-level, parents could be seen as authority figures who hold both power
and legitimacy. Most of the time, children follow through on their parents’ orders
out of fear of being reprimanded or sanctioned. Parents set rules for their
children to regulate their environment and ensure their well-being. Some parents
would not allow their children to overnight parties; stricter parents would not
allow their children to be friends with a certain group of people. While some of
these rules have been opposed by their children, parents continue to hold power
and authority within the family. In your opinion, how do parents maintain their
position of power? Could Beetham’s criteria in acquiring legitimacy be seen
across parent-child relationships? In what ways do children show that their
parents have more authority?
It is important to remember that establishing legitimacy is equally important to exercising
authority. A socially-organized society should be able to adjust itself with the law and to
acc
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ept the validity of the authority figure. As such, command and obedience relationships could
be seen as important factors in attaining legitimacy. However, in some cases, force and
coercion are used to emphasize legitimacy or establish authority. It is relevant to realize,
therefore, that even with power and authority, no society could be organized without
legitimacy.
Max Weber (1864 – 1920) was a German sociologist known for his ideas on bureaucracy. He
was responsible for bringing the social sciences to Germany which helped him address local
issues on politics, economy, religion, formal organizations, and micro-groups.
Fig. 6. Max Weber
Accessed February 7, 2018. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber
Weber took part in numerous fieldworks in various countries, including India and China,
where he studied different cultural practices within religions. He is perhaps best known for
his published work, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (1922), which emphasized political and
economic life in the West. Today, Weber is known as one of the pillars of sociology.
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Check Your Understanding
A. Identify whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Charismatic authority is dependent upon a hierarchy system.
2. According to Thomas Hobbes, power could be defined as a form of control that coerces
a person to obey another.
3. Beetham cited four criteria in attaining legitimacy.
4. Legitimacy binds power and authority together.
5. Max Weber is known for his written works about Anglo-American history and
contemporary archaeology.
B. Compare the three forms of authority. How are they similar and different from each
other? Use the diagram below as a guide.
Traditional
Legal-Rational Charismatic
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C. In the Philippine setting, how is authority and power exercised? Do these methods differ
from other states?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Putting Value
Authority does not only exist at the macro-level. Throughout your life, you may have
encountered various authority figures who have impacted your life in some way. These may
be your former teachers, tutors, or instructors who provided you learnings that you still
appreciate at present. On a sheet of paper, list all of the authority figures you have
encountered so far. Also detail how they contributed to your personal life. You may share
your answers with the class.
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Real-world Challenge
Divide the class into three groups. Read the GRASPS situation below and perform the
following tasks. Make sure to read the rubrics for the activity.
Goal:
• Your task is to differentiate power, authority, and legitimacy from each
other.
• The goal is to determine how power, authority, and legitimacy impact social
organization.
• The problem or challenge is to make your classmates realize that social
organization could only happen when the three concepts are integrated
together.
Role:
• Each group is assigned one topic: power, authority, or legitimacy.
• All members of the group should be able to exercise either their power,
authority, or legitimacy on certain situations.
Audience:
• The target audience is your classmates and your teacher.
Situation:
• You are part of different social situations and activities (e.g. bargaining at
the market, defending a thesis to a teacher, explaining to a parent)
Product/Performance and Purpose:
• You will enact and address the situation based on your assigned topic. For
example, a group assigned with bargaining at a market and power should
showcase how power could be exercised when bargaining.
• You need to be as authentic as possible in presenting your skit. Arguments
and dialogues should therefore showcase the assigned topic.
Standards & Criteria for Success:
• Your work will be judged by the following standards on the next page.
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Criteria Beginning Developing Accomplished Score
(17-20 points)
(0-12 points) (13-16 points)
Content
(Focus on details are clearly
evident; it is clearly related
to the topic.)
Organization
(Logical progression of
details; clear transitions
Presentation
between ideas.
Conventions
(mechanics)
Creativity
(shows resourcefulness in
presentation and activities)
Audience Impact
(interesting presentation to
get the attention of
students)
Task-specific
Team Work
(contributions from all
members to the fruition of
the work)
Total Score:
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Society and I: Self-Check
Check I can…
differentiate between the classifications of political organizations
explain the relationship between power, authority, and legitimacy
discuss the different types of authority and criteria for legitimacy
apply what I learned to my personal experiences
Reflect
I find __________________________ the most interesting because ______________________.
I got ____ checks because _______________________________________________________.
I need to improve on _______________________because _____________________________.
I need to practice _________________________ because _____________________________.
I plan to _____________________________________________________________________ .
Wrap Up
● Political organizations may be classified into four types, the most organized of which is
the state.
● Social control is needed in societies in order to avoid conflict within and across groups.
● Power is a form of control that which coerces a person to obey another.
● Authority and legitimacy are both needed in order to keep social organization.
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● Social organization is achieved through a successful enactment of laws that both the
political organization and the society uphold.
Political Structures
Political Authority and
Organizations Legitimacy
Types of
Political Authority
Organizations
Classfications
of Political Legitimacy
Systems
Bibliography
Arthur Mitzman. “Max Weber.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Retrieved 6 February, 2018 from
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Max-Weber-German-sociologist#ref7814.
“Authority and Legitimacy.” Sociology Guide. Retrieved 5 February, 2018 from
http://www.sociologyguide.com/political-processes/Authority-and-Legitimacy.php.
Carl J. Friedrich. Authority and Legitimacy. In: Tradition and Authority. Key Concepts in Political
Science. Palgrave, London, 1972.
Conrad Philip Kottak. Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity (12th ed). New York, New
York: McGraw-Hill, 2008.
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“Elman Rogers Service.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Retrieved 6 February 2018 from
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Elman-Rogers-Service.
Michael Lacewing. “Authority and legitimacy.” Routeledge Taylor and Francis Group. Retrieved 5
February, 2018 from http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/alevelphilosophy/data/
AS/WhyShouldIBeGoverned/Authorityandlegitimacy.pdf.
“Nuer.” Encyclopaedia Brittanica. Retrieved 6 February, 2018 from
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nuer.
“Political Organization, State and Stateless Societies, Forms of government and Law.”
Retrieved 5 February 2018 from https://iasfreeanthrocom.files.wordpress.c
om/2016/03/political-anthropology.pdf.
“Power, Authority, and Legitimacy.” Square Space. Retrieved 6 February, 2018 from
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5624944ae4b0bca6fa63a5dd/t/56f9ab6701dbae
5a50972bf6/1459202950198/Power%2C+Authority+and+Legitimacy+ppt.pdf.
“Shoshone.” Utah American Indian Digital Archive. Retrieved 7 February 2018 from
https://utahindians.org/archives/shoshone.html.
Timothy K. Earle. “Chiefdoms in archaeological and ethnohistorical perspective.” Annual Review
of Anthropology, 16 (1987): 279-308.
Umar Farooq. “Classification of Societies, Band, Tribes, Chiefdom & State.” Study Lecture Notes.
Retrieved 6 February, 2018 from http://www.studylecturenotes.com/basics-of-
sociology/classification-of-societies-band-tribes-chiefdom-state.
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Answers to Check Your Understanding
Lesson 1: Political Organizations
Part A.
1. True
2. False
3. False
4. False
5. False
Lesson 2: Authority and Legitimacy
Part A
1. False
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
Glossary
Authority – a certain political entity has the right to use and exercise its power over a specific
group or society
Band – a type of society that lives autonomously and are comprised of a small kin groups or a
pool of nuclear families to live together in a common area
Chiefdom – a type of society that already has a form of social and political structure
characterized by a community leader—the chief—whose position could be passed on through
his bloodline
Legitimacy – the belief that a certain entity has a right to rule or to be in authority
Political organizations – organizations within society that force individuals to adapt to the
rules for the goodwill of society
Power – a form of control that which coerces a person to obey another.
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State – a type of society that has full control over their members through an organized
political structure, economic activities, and political power
State societies – societies which have a central governmental institution, authority, and
judicial power over its people
Stateless societies – societies that lack government and social classification
Social control – the system of rules and procedures organized to regulate society
Tribe – a type of society that places great value on agriculture and husbandry than hunting
and gathering and is bigger than bands
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