Where Does Infection Occur?
Localized infections: Localized infections remain in one part of the body. Examples include a cut on the hand that gets infected
with bacteria, but does not cause problems anywhere else. Localized infections can be very serious if they are internal, such as in Scientific Foundations of Health
the appendix (appendicitis) or in the heart (endocarditis).
Systemic infections: Most serious infections, however, occur when the microorganisms spread throughout the body, usually in
the bloodstream. These are called systemic infections, and they include flu, malaria, AIDS, tuberculosis, plague, and most of the
infectious diseases whose names are familiar. Module- 5
How Do Infections Lead to Illness? Preventing and fighting against diseases for good
The major causes of infection are viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, including protozoa (one-celled organisms), worms, and
insects such as mites (which cause scabies) and lice. health.
Bacteria can release toxins, or poisons. Viruses can take over cells and prevent them from doing their normal work. Bacteria and
fungi—and larger infective agents like worms or other parasites—can multiply so rapidly that they physically interfere with the
functioning of the lungs, heart, or other organs. The immune response itself—which can bring fever, pain, swelling, and
fatigue—often is the major cause of the sick feelings an infected person gets.
Do Infections Always Cause Illness?
Presented by
No, often they do not. Of people infected with tuberculosis bacteria, for instance, only about one in ten will ever get sick. Some
viruses and parasites, too, can remain in the body a lifetime without causing illness. In such cases, called latent infection, people Dr. Shwetha H J
usually get sick only if the immune system weakens. Faculty
How Do Infections Spread? Department of Biotechnology
The organisms that cause infections may spread through water, soil, food, or air; through contact with an infected person's blood, B.M.S. College of Engineering
skin, or mucus; through sexual contact; or through insect bites. Most germs spread by a couple of these routes; no one microbe
spreads in all these ways. In addition, many disease-causing microbes can spread from a pregnant woman to her fetus. When this
happens, we say the baby is born with a congenital infection.
Process of infections and reasons for it:
What Are the Symptoms of Infection? Infection is a process in which bacteria, viruses, fungi or other organisms enter the body, attach to cells, and multiply.
The symptoms vary greatly depending on the part of the body and type of organism involved. The first sign of bacterial To do this, they must evade or overcome the body's natural defenses at each step. Infections have the potential to cause illness, but
infection is often inflammation: fever, pain, swelling, redness, and pus. By contrast, viral infections less commonly cause in many cases the infected person does not get sick.
inflammation but may cause a variety of other symptoms, from a runny nose or sore throat to a rash or swollen lymph nodes * .
What Is the Treatment for Infection? How Does Infection Occur?
The main treatment is usually medication: antibiotics for bacterial infections; antiviral drugs for some viruses (for most there is Organisms that can cause illness are all around us: in air, water, soil, and food, as well as in the bodies of animals and other people.
no treatment); antifungal medications for fungus infections; and antihelmintic drugs for worms. In some cases of localized Infection occurs when some of them get past a series of natural defenses.
infection, as when an abscess or collection of pus forms, surgery may be necessary to drain the infected area. Those defenses include:
How Are Infections Prevented? •Skin: The skin physically blocks germs, but may let them in if it is cut or scraped.
Disinfecting wounds •Coughing deeply: This expels germs from the lungs and breathing passages but may be less effective for weak, sick, or injured
When a wound occurs, infection may be prevented by washing and covering the wound, using antibacterial ointment or spray, people.
and getting medical attention if the wound is serious. •Bacteria: Called "resident flora," harmless bacteria normally are present in some parts of the body. They compete with harmful
Immunization germs and crowd them out. But they can be weakened or killed by medications, allowing harmful germs to thrive and cause illness.
Many systemic infectious diseases can be prevented by immunization. Among them are chickenpox, cholera, diphtheria, •Inflammatory response: This is produced by the body's immune system. Certain kinds of white blood cells—including
hepatitis A and hepatitis B, influenza, Lyme disease, measles, mumps, pertussis (whooping cough), pneumococcal pneumonia, macrophages and neutrophils—surround and destroy or otherwise attack any kind of germs, often causing fever, redness, and
polio, rabies, rubella (German measles), tetanus, typhoid fever, and yellow fever. swelling.
Hygiene, sanitation, and public health •Antibodies: These are proteins produced by the immune system. Some are targeted to attack specific microbes. This response is
Many other systemic infections can be prevented by having a clean public water supply and a sanitary system for disposing of also called humoral immunity. Usually these antibodies are produced after a person is infected by or exposed to the microbe.
human wastes; by washing hands before handling food; by cooking meats thoroughly; by abstaining from sexual contact; and The immune system's responses may fail if the germs are too numerous, or if they are too virulent. "Virulent," from the Latin for
by controlling or avoiding ticks and mosquitos. "poisonous," describes germs that are particularly good at countering the body's defenses. For instance, some microbes can prevent
* lymph nodes are round masses of tissue that contain immune cells to filter out harmful microorganisms. During infections,
antibodies from forming against them. Another important factor is the functioning of the immune system. If it is damaged—
lymph nodes may become enlarged. weakened, for instance, by age or illness—infection is more likely. Babies tend to get more infections because their immune systems
have not yet learned to recognize and attack some microbes.
Social impacts on health are embedded in the broader environment and shaped by complex relationships between economic How to protect from different types of transmitted infections such as….
systems and social structures.
These systems and structures impact the distribution of resources, money and power in a community and around the world. •Vaccination.
This distribution, known as the socioeconomic environment, shapes how communities and individuals can gain the resources •Condoms for each sexual act.
needed to meet their basic human needs. •Limit drugs and drink alcohol excessively which may increase risk of infection.
•Sexual contact only with one uninfected partner. Avoiding sexual contact with a partner who has not
➢ The disease pandemic and resulting economic fallout caused undergone STD testing.
significant hardship.
➢ In the early months of the COVID crisis, tens of millions of
people lost their jobs.
➢ While employment began to rebound within a few months,
unemployment remained high throughout 2020.
➢ Improving employment and substantial relief measures helped
reduce the very high levels of hardship seen in the summer of
2020.
➢ Nonetheless, considerable unmet need remained near the end of
2021, with 20 million households reporting having too little to
eat in the past seven days and 10 million households behind on
rent.
➢ In early 2022, some 3 million people are employed than before
the pandemic, though steady progress has been made, including
in recent months.
➢ According to WHO, policy summary provides economic case for investing in a number of different areas of health promotion Current trends of socio economic impact of reducing your risk of disease:
and non-communicable disease prevention.
➢ It focuses predominantly on addressing some of the risk factors for health: ➢ Economic status is typically measured by income and education, social status measured by power and rank in a group,
▪ Tobacco and alcohol consumption and work status measured by occupation.
▪ Impacts of dietary behaviour ➢ Occupational status: is determined by a person’s education, income and level of power (social position, working
▪ Patterns of physical activity conditions, decision-making and psychological demands). Occupational status can determine access to resources that can
▪ Exposure to environmental harm affect exposure to hazards and risk for death and disability
▪ Risks to mental health and well-being ➢ Educational Attainment
▪ Risks of injury on roads. ➢ Access to Health Care: A 2015 report from the World Health Organization states that 36% of the world's population, or
▪ Promoting mental health preventing depression. nearly 2.5 billion people, lack access to improved sanitation facilities, putting them at risk of several diseases including
dysentery, cholera and typhoid.
➢ Recommended policy actions by national and subnational governments include: ➢ Poverty: The lowest economic status is poverty, which is heavily influenced by education and thus influences social and
▪ Define a shared vision about the future to “build back better” and ensure that social economy organisations actively work status. Poverty can be defined as insufficient resources to meet basic human needs. These needs include access to
contribute. shelter, clean water, education, food, health care and clothing
▪ Develop an action plan to achieve a transition to a more sustainable and inclusive development model, with a clear ➢ Nutrition
role for the social economy
▪ Promote social innovation practices and co-operation, including through funds to support experimentation and Risk Factors for Poverty and Low Socioeconomic Status ▪ Violence
innovation as is done for technological innovation ▪ Single parenthood ▪ Physical harm
▪ Continue to diversify the financial resources available to social economy organisations, through updates to legal ▪ High child:adult ratio ▪ Trauma
frameworks and public programmes ▪ Teenage pregnancy ▪ Low educational
▪ Create and share tools to provide data on social impact that are not onerous but can document progress and identify ▪ Unplanned pregnancy attainment
those with highest impact. ▪ Maternal social isolation ▪ Illness
▪ Low parental involvement ▪ Peer rejection
▪ Marital conflict ▪ Unstable peer group
Reducing risks and coping with chronic conditions
Management of chronic illness for Quality of life
Chronic illnesses last a long time, often for a year or more. It needs ongoing medical care and difficulties doing the things
every day. These behaviors, called activities of daily living can also affect your family. Examples of chronic diseases include
➢ According to WHO, Quality of Life is defined as individuals’ perceptions of their position in life in the context of the diabetes and chronic lung disease.
culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. Chronic illnesses have disease-specific symptoms, but may also bring invisible symptoms like pain, fatigue and mood
➢ Quality of Life is the feeling of overall life satisfaction, as determined by the mentally alert individual whose life is disorders.
being evaluated. Physical changes from a disease may affect appearance. These changes can turn a positive self-image into a poor one. Mood
➢ This appraisal is subjective, and encompasses all domains of life, including elements of a biopsychosocialspiritual disorders such as depression and anxiety are common complaints of people with chronic conditions.
modelthe degree and quality of social interaction, psychological wellbeing, somatic sensations, happiness, life
situations, life satisfaction and need for satisfaction.
Things to do to reduce the risk of developing a preventable chronic condition include:
➢ During the past decades there was an increasing predominance of chronic disorders, as a result of improved living
▪ Quitting smoking
conditions, better prevention, infectious diseases management, medical technological improvements and overall
▪ Getting enough physical activity
aging of the population.
▪ Reducing alcohol intake
➢ In general, chronic diseases are slow in progression, long in duration, and they require medical treatment. The
▪ Eating well
majority of chronic diseases hold the potential to worsen the overall health of patients by limiting their capacity to
▪ Maintaining a health weight
live well, limit the functional status, productivity and are a major contributor to health care costs. Among these
▪ Maintaining a healthy blood pressure
diseases are cancer, heart diseases, stroke, diabetes, HIV, bowel diseases, renal disease and diseases of central
▪ Maintaining correct sugar levels
nervous system.
▪ Having good cholesterol levels
➢ The literature in health psychology generally supports the hypothesis that most patients do compare themselves
▪ Avoiding negative coping mechanisms like substance abuse.
with those patients who are better off (upward comparisons). This positive focus on limitations may be
▪ Exploring stress-relief activities like meditation.
responsible for the better psychological adjustment to illness among this group, in comparison with those who
▪ Letting of obligations
make downward comparisons.
▪ Asking for help.
▪ Staying in touch with family and friends.
Treating and managing chronic conditions
➢ In the context of chronic diseases study, health related quality People living with a chronic condition should take an active role in managing the condition. Treating the symptoms of
of life is studied as a primary or secondary outcome. health chronic condition can improve the quality of life.
related quality of life is an important measure to evaluate the ▪ making regular visits to general practitioner or specialist
impact of a disease and the effects of medical intervention, ▪ having a healthy lifestyle, including eating well, exercising and getting enough sleep
thus, an improvement in health related quality of life is ▪ taking prescribed medicines
considered to be an essential primary outcome and ▪ following management plan.
determinant of therapeutic benefit. Diagnostic tests:
▪ Blood test
➢ While, it is found more usually to be the secondary outcome ▪ X-rays
that provides the researchers with hypothesisgenerating data. ▪ CT or MRI scans or ultrasounds
In some cases the outcomes of interest may involve only
certain domains such as physical functioning or emotional Counseling options include support groups, individual counseling and/or family counseling.
functioning. Information on the impact of chronic diseases on
health related quality of life can make health services more
patientcentred.
➢ Conclusively, as the number of people with chronic diseases is
increasing it is necessary for them to gain an optimal health
related quality of life. To achieve this, a study of health related
quality of life is used to evaluate the impact of a disease and
the effects of medical interventions.
Studies associated with poor health related quality of life in chronic disease
Measuring of health and wealth status.
Studied chronic disease Results
In health research, the term “wealth” refers to total financial resources amassed over a lifetime, as opposed to “income,” Diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, Coexisting chronic disease leads to poor health related quality of life
which refers to the capital obtained during a specified period of time (e.g., annual earnings in dollars). depression/anxiety (HRQoL)
Wealth may buffer the effects of temporary low income, as in the event of illness or unemployment. Asthma, arthritis, diabetes, heart disease Adverse health risk behaviours (smoking, obesity, physical inactivity, and
Compared with income, wealth may better reflect long-term family resources and hence resources available across an heavy drinking) lead to poor HRQoL
individual's lifetime. Hypertension, diabetes, congestive heart failure, Insomnia is associated with worsened HRQoL
Wealth may be particularly be important for the health of the elderly, whose incomes typically drop dramatically recent myocardial infarction, depression
following retirement, and for racial/ethnic disparities in health, because differences in wealth by racial/ethnic group are Hepatitis C patients Depressive symptoms are associated with poor HRQoL
far greater than are the corresponding differences in income. HIV psychiatric patients Suicidality has an association with poor HRQoL
Inflammatory bowel disease Symptomatic activity and theneed for hospitalization are associated with
poor HRQoL
Multiple sclerosis, coronary artery disease Subjective (perceived) cognitive impairment is associated with poor
HRQoL
Postoperative coronary artery bypass grafting Neurocognitive functioning is associated with poor HRQoL
Coronary artery disease Symptoms of depression and type D personality are associated with poor
HRQoL
Renal disease (end-stage) Sociodemographic variables, (female, older, less educated
&divorced/widowed) are associated with poor HRQoL
Stroke patients Poststroke disability is associated with poor HRQoL
Kidney transplanted patients & haemodialysis patients Sociodemographic variables (females & people with lower educational
level) are associated with poor HRQoL
Kidney, liver & heart transplanted patients Bodily pain affects HRQoL
Health and Wellness of youth : a challenge for the upcoming future
➢ Our world is home to 1.8 billion young people of age 10-24 yr, contributing about one-fourth of the total world
population.
➢ Nine out of 10 of them live in the less developed countries. India has the world's highest number of this age group
with 356 million.
➢ Of all the population groups, the young population is growing fastest, especially in the poorest nations.
➢ The young age is one of the most important phases of life, being the formative period with major impacts on the
future.
➢ The phase carries special significance for mental health, since most mental and substance use disorders (MSUDs) have
onset in young age or adolescence, and many tend to run a chronic.
➢ A world changing at a fast pace carries special significance here, since it further poses a challenge to mental health,
especially for the young who are in a formative stage of life. In this background, the theme of the world mental health
day this year ‘young people and mental health in a changing world’ is appropriate.
➢ A public health approach is needed that is focused on both controlling the risk factors as well as enhancing protective
factors. Common risk factors for mental and substance use disorders include poverty, malnutrition, child abuse, mental
illness in parents, family conflict, death of a family member, bullying, poor discipline in the family, academic failure
and exposure to violence.
➢ Consistent and engaging parental style, being in fulltime education, zero tolerance for bullying at school, involvement
in community activities, religious observance, low levels of conflict in the family and social support have been
recognized as the protective factors against mental and substance use disorders
