256 STRUCTURE There are several situations in which you should be particularly careful of parallel struc- ture. Parallel structures are required in the following situations: (1) with coordinate con- junctions, such as and, but, or; (2) with paired conjunctions, such as both...and, either... 0% neither... nor, not ont but also; and (3) with comparisons. SkiLL 24: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS The job of the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or) is to join together equal expressions. In other words, what is on one side of these words must be parallel to what is on the other side. These conjunctions can join nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, or phrases, or subordinate clauses, or main clauses; they just must join together two of the same thing. Here are exam- ples of two nouns joined by a coordinate conjunction: I need to talk to the manager or the assistant manager. She is not a teacher but a lawyer. You can choose from activities such as hiking and kayaking. Here are examples of two verbs joined by a coordinate conjunction: He only eats andsleeps when he takes a vacation. She invites us to her home but never talks with us. You can stay home or go to the movies with us. Here are examples of two adjectives joined by a coordinate conjunction: My boss is sincere and nice. The exam that he gave was short but difficult. Class can be interesting or boring. Here are examples of two phrases joined by a coordinate conjunction: There are students in the classroom and in front of the building. The papers are on my desk orin the drawer. The checks will be ready not at noon butat 1:00. Here are examples of two clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction: They are not interested in what you say orwhat you do. Tam here because I have to be and because I want to be. Mr. Brown likes to go home early, but his wife prefers to stay late.WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) The following chart outlines the use of parallel structures with coordinate conjunctions: PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS ‘and (came structure) but (same structure) or ‘and (came structure), (same structure), but (came structure) or EXERCISE 24: Each of the following sentences contains words or groups of words that should be parallel. Circle the word that indicates that the sentence should have parallel parts, Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if the sentences are cor- rect (C) or incorrect (I). —L 1. She held jobs as a typist, a housekeeper, in a restaurant. The report you are looking for could be in the file(or) on the desk. —— 3. She works very hard but usually gets below-average grades. —— 4. The speaker introduced himself, told several interesting anecdotes, and finishing with an emotional plea. —— 5. You should know when the program starts and how many units you must complete. —— 6. The term paper he wrote was rather short but very impressive. 7. She suggested taking the plane this evening or that we go by train tomorrow. —— 8. The dean or the assistant dean will inform you of when and where you should apply for your diploma. —— 9. There are papers to file, reports to type, and those letters should be answered. —— 10. The manager needed a quick but thorough response. Skit. 25: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS The paired conjunctions both...and, either...o7 neither...no, and not only... but also require parallel structures. I know both where you went and what you did. Eithert_ ck orSue has the book. The tic, 2ts are neitherin my pocket norin my purse. He is not only an excelient student but alsoan outstanding athlete. 257258 STRUCTURE ‘The following is not parallel and must be corrected: He wants either to go by train orby plane*. It is not correct because to go by train is not parallel to by plane. It can be corrected in several ways. He wants either to go by train orto go by plane. He wants to go either by train or by plane. He wants to go by either train or plan When you are using these paired conjunctions, be sure that the correct parts are used together. The following are incorrect: I want both this book or* that one. Either Sam nor* Sue is taking the course. ‘These sentences are incorrect because the wrong parts of the paired conjunctions are used together. In the first example, and should be used with both. In the second example, or should be used with either. The following chart outlines the use of parallel structure with paired conjunctions: PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS both ‘and either (same structure) or (same structure) neither nor not only but also EXERCISE 25: Each of the following sentences contains words or groups of words that should be parallel. Circle the word or words that indicate that the sentence should have parallel parts. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I). According to the syllabus, you can (¢ither) write a paper (@r)you can take an exam. 2. Itwould be noticed (and) appreciated if you could finish the work before you leave. —— 3. She would like neither to see a movie or to go bowling. —— 4. Either the manager or her assistant can help you with your refund, —— 5. She wants not only to take a trip to Europe but she also would like to travel to Asia. —— 6. He could correct neither what you said nor you wrote. —— 7. Both the tailor or the laundress could fix the damage to the dress. —— 8. Henotonly called the poli department but also called the fire department.WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) 259 —— 9. You can graduate either at the end of the fall semester or you can graduate at the end of the spring semester. —— 10. The movie was neither amusing nor was it interesting. Skit 26: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISONS When you make a comparison, you point out the similarities or differences between two things, and those similarities or differences must be in parallel form. You can recognize a comparison showing how two things are different from the -er... than or the more... than. My school is farther than your school. To be rich is better than to be poor ‘What is written is more easily understood than what is spoken. A comparison showing how two things are the same might contain as...as or expressions such as the same as or similar to. ‘Their car is as big asa small house. Renting those apartments costs about the same as leasing them. The work that I did is similar to the work that you did. The following chart outlines the use of parallel structures with comparisons: PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISONS. more ...than -er...than less ...than as ...0s the same... as similar ...to (same structure) (came structure) EXERCISE 26: Each of the following sentences contains words or groups of words that should be parallel. Circle the word or words that indicate that the sentence should have parallel parts. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if each sentence is correct (C) or incorrect (I). —€_ 1. His research for the thesis was hers. —L 2. Dining ina restaurant is to eat at home. —— 3 Iwanta new secretary who is as efficient as the previous one. —— 4. Whatyou do today should be the same as did yesterday. —— 5. This lesson is more difficult than we had before. —— 6. You have less homework than they do.260 STRUCTURE What you do has more effect than what you say, ‘Music in your country is quite similar to my country. The collection of foreign journals in the university library is more extensive than the high school library. How to buy a used car can be as difficult as buying a new car. EXERCISE (Skills 24-26): Circle the word or words that indicate that the sentence should have parallel parts. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indicate if the sen- tences are correct (C) or incorrect (1). eed After retirement he plans on traveling to exotic locations, dine in the finest restaurants, and playing a lot of golf. She was both surprised by and pleased with the seminar. What came after the break was even more boring than had come before. He would find the missing keys neither under the bed or behind the sofa. Depending on the perspective of the viewer, the film was considered laudable, mediocrity, or horrendous. He exercised not only in the morning, but he also exercised every afternoon. ‘Working four days per week is much more relaxing than working five days per week. Sam is always good-natured, generous, and helps you. Either you have to finish the project, or the contract will be canceled. The courses that you are required to take are more important than the courses that, you choose. ‘TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 24-26): Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence. 1. Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood is neither 2. Vitamin Cis necessary for the journalistically accurate prevention and of scurvy. (A) apiece of fiction (A) itcures (B) nor a fictitious work (B) cures (©) or written ina fictitious way (©) cure (D) nor completely fictitious (D) for curingWRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) 261 3. A baby’s development is influenced by 4, Because bone loss occurs earlier in both heredity and women than , the effects of jth coarse osteoporosis are more apparent in (B)_ environmentally women. (C) the influence of the environment (A) men do (D) environment (B) in men (C) asmen (D) similar to men Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct. —— 5. Fire extinguishers can contain liquefied gas, dry chemicals, or watery. CAC eee cD —— 6. The USS. Congress consists of both the Senate as well as the House of Representatives. AB ‘Carn —— 7. The prison population in this state, now at an all time high, is higher than any state. a B Cc PEERED —— 8. A well-composed baroque opera achieves a delicate balance by focusing alternately ey AHAE B c on the aural, visual, emotional, and philosophy elements, D —— 9. Manufacturers may use food additives for preserving, to color, to flavor, or to fortify A B Cc foods. D —— 10. A bankruptcy may be either voluntary nor involuntary. a pee eee Da TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-26): Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence. 1. The growth of hair cyclical 3. In Roman numerals, symbols for process, with phases of activity and numeric values. inactivity. (A) are letters of the alphabet (A) itis (B) letters of the alphabet are (B) isa (C)_ which uses letters of the alphabet (C) which is (D)_ in which letters of the alphabet are (D) aregular 4, The legal systems of most countries can 2. The fire to have started in the be classified common law or civil furnace under the house. law. (A) is believed (A) aseither (B)_ thatis believed (B) either as (C) they believe (C) either to (D) that they believe (D) toeither262 STRUCTURE 5.. One difference between mathematics 6. Your criticism of the three short stories and language is that mathematics is should not be less than 2,000 words, nor precise more than 3,000. (A) Tanguage is not (A) should it be (B)_ while language is not (B)_itshould be (C)_ but language not (C) itis (D) while is language (D) should be it Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct. —— 7. In 1870, the attorney general was made head of the Department of Justice, given an A enlarged staff, and endow with clear-cut law-enforcement functions. B Cc D —— 8. The General Sherman Tree, the largest of all the giant sequoias, are reputed to be A BC the world’s largest living thing. D —— 9. The skeleton ofa shark is made of cartilage rather than having bone. a SBcaet cee care D ——— 10. Atleast one sample of each of the brands contains measurable amounts of aflatoxin, a B and there is three which exceed the maximum. Cre. D PROBLEMS WITH COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES __ Sentences with incorrect comparatives and superlatives can appear on the TOEFL test. It is therefore important for you to know how to do the following: (1) form the comparative and superlative correctly; (2) use the comparative and superlative correctly; and (3) use the irregular -er -er structure that has been appearing frequently on the TOEFL test. SkiLt 27; FORM COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY The problem with some of the comparative and superlative sentences on the TOEFL test is that the comparative or superlative is formed incorrectly. You should therefore understand how to form the comparative and superlative to answer such questions correctly. The comparative is formed with either -er or more and than. In the comparative, -er is used with short adjectives such as tall, and more is used with longer adjectives such as beautiful. Bob is taller than Ron. Sally is more beautiful than Sharon.WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) 263 The superlative is formed with the, either -est or most, and sometimes in, of, or a that-clause. In the superlative, -est is used with short adjectives such as tall, and most is used with longer adjectives such as beautiful. Bob is the tallest man in the room. Sally is the most beautiful ofall the women at the party. The spider over there is the largest one that I have ever seen. ‘The fastest runner wins the race. (no in, of, or that) The following chart outlines the possible forms of comparatives and superlatives: THE FORM OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES, than ee ‘more (long adjective) (short adjective) + er (shore adjective) + est maybe in, ofthat SUPERLATIVE the [em (long sewn EXERCISE 27: Each of the following sentences contains a comparative or superlative. Cir- cle the comparative or superlative, Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incor- rect (1). —L 1. Oxygenis nitrogen. say to choose (the most appropriate) response. —— 3. The lesson you are studying now is the most importantest lesson that you will have. 2. The directions to the exer —— 4. Fashions this year are shorter and more colorful than they were last year. —— 5. The professor indicated that Anthony's research paper was more long than the other students’ papers. —— 6. Alaska is the coldest than all the states in the United States. —— 7. The workers on the day shift are more rested than the workers on the night shift. —— 8 She was more happier this morning than she had been yesterday. —— 9 The quarterback on this year’s football team is more versatile than the quarterback on last year’s team. —— 10. She always tries to do the best and most efficient job that she can do.264 © STRUCTURE ‘SkjL_ 28: USE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY Another problem with the comparative and superlative on the TOEFL test is that they can be used incorrectly. The comparative and superlative have different uses, and you should understand these different uses to answer such questions correctly. The comparative is used to compare two equal things. The history class is /arger than the math class. Mary is more intelligent than Sue. In the first example the history class is being compared with the math class. In the second example Mary is being compared with Sue. The superlative is used when there are more than two items to compare and you want to show the one that is the best, the biggest, or in some way the most outstanding. The history class is the largest in the school. Mary is the most intelligent of all the students in the class. In the first example the history class is compared with all the other classes in the school, and the history class is larger than each of the other classes. In the second example, Mary is compared with all the other students in the class, and Mary is more intelligent than each of the other students. The following chart outlines the uses of comparatives and superlatives: ‘THE USES OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES ‘The COMPARATIVE is used to compare two equal things. ‘The suPERLATIVE is used to show which one of many is in some way the most outstanding. EXERCISE 28: Each of the following sentences contains a comparative or superlative. Circle the comparative or superlative. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (1). —€_ 1. Harvard is probably university in the United States. 2. Rhonda is (more hard working) of the class. _— 3. The engineers hired this year have more experience than those hired last year. —— 4. The graduate assistant informed us that the first exam is the most difficult of the two. —— 5. He bought the more powerful stereo speakers that he could find. —— 6. The afternoon seminar was much more interesting than the morning lecture. —— 7. The food in this restaurant is the best of the restaurant we visited last week. —— 8. The plants that have been sitting in the sunny window are far healthier than the other plants. —— 9. The photocopies are the darkest that they have ever been. ——— 10. The first journal article is the longest of the second article.WRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) 265 Skit 29: USE THE IRREGULAR -ER, -ER STRUCTURE CORRECTLY An irregular comparative structure that has been appearing frequently on the TOEFL test consists of two parallel comparatives introduced by the. The harder he tried, the further he fell behind. The older the children are, the more their parents expect from them. The first example contains the two parallel comparatives, the harder and the further: The sec- ond example contains the two parallel comparatives, the olderand the more. In this type of sentence, the and the comparison can be followed by a number of differ- ent structures. The more children you have, the bigger the house you need. ‘The harder you work, the more you accomplish. The greater the experience, the higher the salary. In the first example, the more is followed by the noun children and the subject and verb you have, while the bigger is followed by the noun the house and the subject and verb you need. In the second example, the harder is followed by the subject and verb you work, while the more is followed by the subject and verb you accomplish. In the third example, the greater is followed only by the noun the experience, while the higher is followed only by the noun the salary. You should note that this last example does not even contain a verb, yet it is a correct structure in English. The following chart outlines this irregular -er, er structure: THE -ER,-ER STRUCTURE (came structure), THE (same structure) This type of sentence may or may not include a verb. EXERCISE 29: Each of the following sentences contains the irregular -er, -er structure. Cir- cle the two comparisons with the. Underline the parts that should be parallel. Then indi- cate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (I). . Che hotter) the food is, the weather, (the greater) the attendance at the outdoor concert. itis to eat. nw 3. The more you say, the worst the situation will be. 1 c —— 4. The more time they have to play, the happier the children are. —— 5. The thicker the walls, the noise that comes through is less. —— 6. Ifyou run faster, the earlier you'll arrive —— 7. The more you use the phone, the higher the bill will be. 8. The harder you serve, the easier it is to win the point.266 STRUCTURE —— 9. The earliest you send in your tax forms, the sooner you will receive your refund. —— 10. The more people there are at the party, you'll have a good time. EXERCISE (Skills 27-29): Circle the comparatives and superlatives in the following sen- tences. Then indicate if the sentences are correct (C) or incorrect (1). —— 1. The coffee is more stronger today than it was yesterday. —— 2 The tree that was struck by lightning had been the tallest of the two trees we had in the yard. He will buy the most fuel-efficient car that he can afford. —— 4. The closest it gets to summer, the longer the days are. —— 5. The business department is bigger of the departments in the university. —— 6. Ireally do not want to live in the Southeast because it is one of the most hot areas in the United States. Itis preferable to use the most efficient and most effective method that you can. —— 8. Tonight's dinner was more filling than last night’s. The sooner the exam is scheduled, the less time you have to prepare. —— 10. The house is now the cleanest that it has ever been. TOEFL EXERCISE (Skills 27-29): Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence. 1 2. The speed of light is sound. (A) faster (B) much faster than (C) the fastest (D) as fast the speed of The use of detail is___ method of developing a controlling idea, and almost all students employ this method. (A) more common (B) common (C)_ most common (D) the most common in Stevenson’s landscapes, the more vitality and character the paintings seem to possess. (A) The brushwork is loose (B)_ The looser brushwork (C) The loose brushwork is (D) The looser the brushwork isWRITTEN EXPRESSION QUESTIONS (Paper and Computer) 267 Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct. —— 4. Certain types of snakes have been known to survive fasts more as a year long. Sertain pes pare Been known Ld B Cc D —— 5. The grizzly bear, which can grow up to eight feet tall, has been called a more nar B Ee aera: dangerous animal of North America. —— 6. Glimate, soil type, and availability of water are the most critical factors than selecting a B Cc the best type of grass for a lawn. Dae — 7. Peter Abelard, a logician and theologian, was the -ontroversialest teacher of his age. x B Cc D —— 8. Protein molecules are the most complex than the molecules of carbohydrates. cA Bar Cc D —— 9. The leek, a member of the lily family, has a mildest taste than the onion. Pee Se Eee —— 10. The widely used natural fiber of all is cotton. a B c D TOEFL REVIEW EXERCISE (Skills 1-29): Choose the letter of the word or group of words that best completes the sentence. i , a liberal arts college specifically 3. While the discovery that many migratory for deaf people, is located in songbirds can thrive in deforested Washington, D.C. wintering spots, the fact remains (A). Gallaudet College that these birds are dying at unusual (B) Gallaudet College is bea (©) About Gallaudet College (A) itis heartening (D) Because of Gallaudet College (B)_hearten (©) heartening 2 varieties of dogs at the show, (D) is heartening including spaniels, poodles, and collies. (A). The several (B) Those (C) Several (D) There were several Choose the letter of the underlined word or group of words that is not correct. —— 4. The coyote is somewhat smaller in size than a timber wolf. a B cD —— 5. The weather reports all showed that there were a tremendous storm front moving in. x B c D —— 6. Seldom cactus plants are found outside of North America. B cD268 STRUCTURE _—— 7. Ina basketball game a player what is fouled receives one or two free throws. B c D _— 8. Until recently, California was largest producer of oranges in the United States. A B Cc D —— 9. Anunderstanding of engineering theories and problems are impossible until basic rerreeeereeA ceeceeeeECrE arithmetic is fully mastered. ct D —— 10. The earliest the CVS (chorionic villus sampling) procedure in the pregnancy, the — 5 fess greater the risk to the baby. D PROBLEMS WITH THE FORM OF THE VERB —___________ It is common in written expression questions on the TOEFL test for the verbs to be formed incorrectly. Therefore, you should check the form of the verb carefully. You should be familiar with the following verb forms: the base form, the present tense, the present par- ticiple, the past, and the past participle. The following are examples of each of these verb forms as they are used in this text: BASE PRESENT. PAST FORM PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE walk walk(s) walking walked walked hear hear(s) hearing heard heard cook cook(s) cooking cooked cooked sing sing(s) singing sang sung come come(s) coming came come begin begin(s) beginning began begun You should be particularly aware of the following three problematic situations with verbs because they are the most common and the easiest to correct: (1) check what comes after have; (2) check what comes after be; and (8) check what comes after will, would, and other modals. NOTE: A more complete list of verb forms and an exercise to practice their use are Included at the back of the text in Appendix F You may want to complete this exercise before you continue with skills 30 through 32.