Yttrium

Yttrium is a chemical element; it has symbol

Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery- Yttrium, 39Y
metallic transition metal chemically similar to
the lanthanides and has often been classified
as a "rare-earth element".[5] Yttrium is almost
always found in combination with lanthanide
elements in rare-earth minerals and is never
found in nature as a free element. 89 Y is the
only stable isotope and the only isotope found
in the Earth's crust.
Yttrium
The most important present-day use of yttrium
Pronunciation /ˈɪtriəm/ ​(IT-ree-əm)
is as a component of phosphors, especially
those used in LEDs. Historically, it was once Appearance silvery white
widely used in the red phosphors in television
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Y)
set cathode ray tube displays.[6] Yttrium is
also used in the production of electrodes, 88.905 838 ± 0.000 002
electrolytes, electronic filters, lasers, 88.906 ± 0.001 (abridged)[1]
superconductors, various medical
applications, and tracing various materials to Yttrium in the periodic table
enhance their properties.
Sc
↑
Yttrium has no known biological role. Y
↓
Exposure to yttrium compounds can cause Lu
lung disease in humans.[7] strontium ← yttrium → zirconium

Atomic number (Z) 39

Etymology Group group 3
Period period 5
The element is named after ytterbite, a mineral
first identified in 1787 by the chemist Carl Block d-block
Axel Arrhenius. He named the mineral after Electron [Kr] 4d1 5s2
the village of Ytterby, in Sweden, where it
configuration
had been discovered. When one of the
chemicals in ytterbite was later found to be a Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 9, 2
previously unidentified element, the element Physical properties
was then named yttrium after the mineral.
Phase at STP solid
Melting point 1799 K ​(1526 °C, ​2779 °F)
Characteristics
Boiling point 3203 K ​(2930 °C, ​5306 °F)
Density (near r.t.) 4.472 g/cm3
Properties when liquid (at m.p.) 4.24 g/cm3
Yttrium is a soft, silver-metallic, lustrous and Heat of fusion 11.42 kJ/mol
highly crystalline transition metal in group 3.
Heat of vaporization 363 kJ/mol
As expected by periodic trends, it is less
electronegative than its predecessor in the Molar heat capacity 26.53 J/(mol·K)
group, scandium, and less electronegative Vapor pressure
than the next member of period 5, zirconium.
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
However, due to the lanthanide contraction, it
is also less electronegative than its successor at T (K) 1883 2075 (2320) (2627) (3036) (3607)
in the group, lutetium.[8][9][10] Yttrium is the
first d-block element in the fifth period. Atomic properties
Oxidation states 0,[2] +1, +2, +3 (a weakly basic
The pure element is relatively stable in air in
bulk form, due to passivation of a protective oxide)

oxide (Y2 O3 ) film that forms on the surface. Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.22
This film can reach a thickness of 10 µm Ionization energies 1st: 600 kJ/mol
when yttrium is heated to 750 °C in water
2nd: 1180 kJ/mol
vapor.[11] When finely divided, however,
yttrium is very unstable in air; shavings or 3rd: 1980 kJ/mol
turnings of the metal can ignite in air at
Atomic radius empirical: 180 pm
temperatures exceeding 400 °C.[12] Yttrium
nitride (YN) is formed when the metal is Covalent radius 190±7 pm
heated to 1000 °C in nitrogen.[11]

Spectral lines of yttrium

Similarity to the lanthanides
Other properties
The similarities of yttrium to the lanthanides Natural occurrence primordial
are so strong that the element has been
Crystal structure ​hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
grouped with them as a rare-earth element,[5]
and is always found in nature together with
them in rare-earth minerals.[13] Chemically,
yttrium resembles those elements more closely Speed of sound 3300 m/s (at 20 °C)
than its neighbor in the periodic table,
thin rod
scandium,[14] and if physical properties were
plotted against atomic number, it would have Thermal expansion α, poly: 10.6 µm/(m⋅K) (at r.t.)
an apparent number of 64.5 to 67.5, placing it Thermal 17.2 W/(m⋅K)
between the lanthanides gadolinium and conductivity
erbium.[15]
Electrical resistivity α, poly: 596 nΩ⋅m (at r.t.)
It often also falls in the same range for Magnetic ordering paramagnetic[3]
reaction order,[11] resembling terbium and Molar magnetic +2.15 × 10−6 cm3/mol (2928 K)[4]
dysprosium in its chemical reactivity.[6] susceptibility
Yttrium is so close in size to the so-called
'yttrium group' of heavy lanthanide ions that Young's modulus 63.5 GPa
in solution, it behaves as if it were one of Shear modulus 25.6 GPa
them.[11][16] Even though the lanthanides are Bulk modulus 41.2 GPa
one row farther down the periodic table than
yttrium, the similarity in atomic radius may be Poisson ratio 0.243
attributed to the lanthanide contraction.[17] Brinell hardness 200–589 MPa
CAS Number 7440-65-5
One of the few notable differences between History
the chemistry of yttrium and that of the
Naming after Ytterby (Sweden) and its
lanthanides is that yttrium is almost
mineral ytterbite (gadolinite)
exclusively trivalent, whereas about half the
lanthanides can have valences other than Discovery Johan Gadolin (1794)
three; nevertheless, only for four of the fifteen First isolation Friedrich Wöhler (1838)
lanthanides are these other valences important
Isotopes of yttrium
in aqueous solution (CeIV, SmII, EuII, and
YbII).[11]
Main isotopes Decay

abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct

Compounds and reactions 87 87
Y synth 3.4 d ε Sr

γ –

88 88
Y synth 106.6 d ε Sr

γ –

89
Y 100% stable

90
Y synth 2.7 d β− 90
Zr

Left: Soluble yttrium γ –

salts reacts with 91
Y synth 58.5 d β− 91
Zr
carbonate, forming
white precipitate γ –
yttrium carbonate.
Right: Yttrium As a trivalent transition metal, yttrium forms various inorganic compounds,
carbonate is soluble generally in the oxidation state of +3, by giving up all three of its valence
in excess alkali electrons.[18] A good example is yttrium(III) oxide (Y2 O3 ), also known as yttria, a
metal carbonate
six-coordinate white solid.[19]
solution
Yttrium forms a water-insoluble fluoride, hydroxide, and oxalate, but its bromide,
chloride, iodide, nitrate and sulfate are all soluble in water.[11] The Y3+ ion is
colorless in solution because of the absence of electrons in the d and f electron shells.[11]

Water readily reacts with yttrium and its compounds to form Y2 O3 .[13] Concentrated nitric and hydrofluoric
acids do not rapidly attack yttrium, but other strong acids do.[11]

With halogens, yttrium forms trihalides such as yttrium(III) fluoride (YF3 ), yttrium(III) chloride (YCl3 ), and
yttrium(III) bromide (YBr3 ) at temperatures above roughly 200 °C.[7] Similarly, carbon, phosphorus,
selenium, silicon and sulfur all form binary compounds with yttrium at elevated temperatures.[11]

Organoyttrium chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon–yttrium bonds. A few of these are
known to have yttrium in the oxidation state 0.[2][20] (The +2 state has been observed in chloride melts,[21]
and +1 in oxide clusters in the gas phase.[22]) Some trimerization reactions were generated with
organoyttrium compounds as catalysts.[20] These syntheses use YCl3 as a starting material, obtained from
Y2 O3 and concentrated hydrochloric acid and ammonium chloride.[23][24]
Hapticity is a term to describe the coordination of a group of contiguous atoms of a ligand bound to the
central atom; it is indicated by the Greek character eta, η. Yttrium complexes were the first examples of
complexes where carboranyl ligands were bound to a d0 -metal center through a η7 -hapticity.[20]
Vaporization of the graphite intercalation compounds graphite–Y or graphite–Y2 O3 leads to the formation
of endohedral fullerenes such as Y@C82 .[6] Electron spin resonance studies indicated the formation of Y3+
and (C82 )3− ion pairs.[6] The carbides Y3 C, Y2 C, and YC2 can be hydrolyzed to form hydrocarbons.[11]

Isotopes and nucleosynthesis

Yttrium in the Solar System was created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process (≈72%),
but also by the r-process (≈28%).[25] The r-process consists of rapid neutron capture by lighter elements
during supernova explosions. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating
red giant stars.[26]

Yttrium isotopes are among the most common products of the

nuclear fission of uranium in nuclear explosions and nuclear
reactors. In the context of nuclear waste management, the most
important isotopes of yttrium are 91 Y and 90 Y, with half-lives of
58.51 days and 64 hours, respectively.[27] Though 90 Y has a short
half-life, it exists in secular equilibrium with its long-lived parent
isotope, strontium-90 (90 Sr) with a half-life of 29 years.[12]

All group 3 elements have an odd atomic number, and therefore

few stable isotopes.[8] Scandium has one stable isotope, and yttrium
itself has only one stable isotope, 89 Y, which is also the only
isotope that occurs naturally. However, the lanthanide rare earths
contain elements of even atomic number and many stable isotopes. Mira is an example of the type of red
Yttrium-89 is thought to be more abundant than it otherwise would giant star in which most of the
be, due in part to the s-process, which allows enough time for yttrium in the solar system was
isotopes created by other processes to decay by electron emission created
(neutron → proton). [26][a] Such a slow process tends to favor
isotopes with atomic mass numbers (A = protons + neutrons)
around 90, 138 and 208, which have unusually stable atomic nuclei with 50, 82, and 126 neutrons,
respectively.[26][b] This stability is thought to result from their very low neutron-capture cross-section.[26]
Electron emission of isotopes with those mass numbers is simply less prevalent due to this stability,
resulting in them having a higher abundance.[12] 89 Y has a mass number close to 90 and has 50 neutrons in
its nucleus.

At least 32 synthetic isotopes of yttrium have been observed, and these range in atomic mass number from
76 to 108.[27] The least stable of these is 106 Y with a half-life of >150 ns (76 Y has a half-life of >200 ns)
and the most stable is 88 Y with a half-life of 106.626 days.[27] Apart from the isotopes 91 Y, 87 Y, and 90 Y,
with half-lives of 58.51 days, 79.8 hours, and 64 hours, respectively, all the other isotopes have half-lives of
less than a day and most of less than an hour.[27]

Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or below 88 decay primarily by positron emission (proton →
neutron) to form strontium (Z = 38) isotopes.[27] Yttrium isotopes with mass numbers at or above 90 decay
primarily by electron emission (neutron → proton) to form zirconium (Z = 40) isotopes.[27] Isotopes with
mass numbers at or above 97 are also known to have minor decay paths of β− delayed neutron
emission.[28]
Yttrium has at least 20 metastable ("excited") isomers ranging in mass number from 78 to 102.[27][c]
Multiple excitation states have been observed for 80 Y and 97 Y.[27] While most of yttrium's isomers are
expected to be less stable than their ground state, 78mY, 84mY, 85mY, 96mY, 98m1 Y, 100mY, and 102mY
have longer half-lives than their ground states, as these isomers decay by beta decay rather than isomeric
transition.[28]

History
In 1787, part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock in an old quarry near the Swedish
village of Ytterby (now part of the Stockholm Archipelago).[29] Thinking it was an unknown mineral
containing the newly discovered element tungsten,[30] he named it ytterbite[d] and sent samples to various
chemists for analysis.[29]

Johan Gadolin at the University of Åbo identified a new oxide (or "earth") in
Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in
1794.[31][e] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg confirmed the identification in 1797 and
named the new oxide yttria.[32] In the decades after Antoine Lavoisier
developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed
that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a
new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this
case would have been yttrium.[f][33][34][35]

Friedrich Wöhler is credited with first isolating the metal in 1828 by reacting a
Johan Gadolin volatile chloride that he believed to be yttrium chloride with
discovered yttrium oxide potassium.[36][37][38]

In 1843, Carl Gustaf Mosander found that samples of yttria contained three
oxides: white yttrium oxide (yttria), yellow terbium oxide (confusingly, this was called 'erbia' at the time)
and rose-colored erbium oxide (called 'terbia' at the time).[39][40] A fourth oxide, ytterbium oxide, was
isolated in 1878 by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac.[41] New elements were later isolated from each of
those oxides, and each element was named, in some fashion, after Ytterby, the village near the quarry
where they were found (see ytterbium, terbium, and erbium).[42] In the following decades, seven other new
metals were discovered in "Gadolin's yttria".[29] Since yttria was found to be a mineral and not an oxide,
Martin Heinrich Klaproth renamed it gadolinite in honor of Gadolin.[29]

Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol Yt was used for the element, after which Y came into common
use.[43][44]

In 1987, yttrium barium copper oxide was found to achieve high-temperature superconductivity.[45] It was
only the second material known to exhibit this property,[45] and it was the first-known material to achieve
superconductivity above the (economically important) boiling point of nitrogen.[g]

Occurrence

Abundance

Yttrium is found in most rare-earth minerals,[9] it is found in some uranium ores, but is never found in the
Earth's crust as a free element.[46] About 31 ppm of the Earth's crust is yttrium,[6] making it the 28th most
abundant element, 400 times more common than silver.[47] Yttrium is found in soil in concentrations
between 10 and 150 ppm (dry weight average of 23 ppm) and in sea
water at 9 ppt.[47] Lunar rock samples collected during the American
Apollo Project have a relatively high content of yttrium.[42]

Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not

all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen,
lungs, and bones of humans.[48] Normally, as little as 0.5 milligrams
(0.0077 gr) is found in the entire human body; human breast milk
contains 4 ppm.[49] Yttrium can be found in edible plants in
concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with
cabbage having the largest amount.[49] With as much as 700 ppm, the
seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.[49] Xenotime crystals contain yttrium

As of April 2018 there are reports of the discovery of very large

reserves of rare-earth elements in the deep seabed several hundred kilometers from the tiny Japanese island
of Minami-Torishima Island, also known as Marcus Island. This location is described as having
"tremendous potential" for rare-earth elements and yttrium (REY), according to a study published in
Scientific Reports.[50] "This REY-rich mud has great potential as a rare-earth metal resource because of the
enormous amount available and its advantageous mineralogical features," the study reads. The study shows
that more than 16 million short tons (15 billion kilograms) of rare-earth elements could be "exploited in the
near future." As well as yttrium (Y), which is used in products like camera lenses and mobile phone
screens, the rare-earth elements found are europium (Eu), terbium (Tb), and dysprosium (Dy).[51]

Production

As yttrium is chemically similar to lanthanides, it occurs in the same ores (rare-earth minerals) and is
extracted by the same refinement processes. A slight distinction is recognized between the light (LREE) and
the heavy rare-earth elements (HREE), but the distinction is not perfect. Yttrium is concentrated in the
HREE group because of its ion size, though it has a lower atomic mass.[52][53]

Rare-earth elements (REEs) come mainly from four sources:[54]

Carbonate and fluoride containing ores such as the LREE

bastnäsite ([(Ce, La, etc.)(CO3)F]) contain an average of
0.1%[12][52] of yttrium compared to the 99.9% for the 16
other REEs.[52] The main source for bastnäsite from the
1960s to the 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine
in California, making the United States the largest producer
of REEs during that period.[52][54] The name "bastnäsite" is
actually a group name, and the Levinson suffix is used in
the correct mineral names, e.g., bästnasite-(Y) has Y as a
prevailing element.[55][56][57]
Monazite ([(Ce, La, etc.)PO4]), which is mostly phosphate,
is a placer deposit of sand created by the transportation and
gravitational separation of eroded granite. Monazite as an A piece of yttrium. Yttrium is
LREE ore contains 2% [52] (or 3%)[58] yttrium. The largest difficult to separate from other
deposits were found in India and Brazil in the early 20th rare-earth elements.
century, making those two countries the largest producers
of yttrium in the first half of that century.[52][54] Of the
monazite group, the Ce-dominant member, monazite-(Ce), is the most common one.[59]
 Xenotime, a REE phosphate, is the main HREE ore containing as much as 60% yttrium as
yttrium phosphate (YPO4).[52] This applies to xenotime-(Y).[57][60][56] The largest mine is the
Bayan Obo deposit in China, making China the largest exporter for HREE since the closure
of the Mountain Pass mine in the 1990s.[52][54]
Ion absorption clays or Lognan clays are the weathering products of granite and contain only
1% of REEs.[52] The final ore concentrate can contain as much as 8% yttrium. Ion absorption
clays are mostly in southern China.[52][54][61] Yttrium is also found in samarskite and
fergusonite (which also stand for group names).[47]

One method for obtaining pure yttrium from the mixed oxide ores is to dissolve the oxide in sulfuric acid
and fractionate it by ion exchange chromatography. With the addition of oxalic acid, the yttrium oxalate
precipitates. The oxalate is converted into the oxide by heating under oxygen. By reacting the resulting
yttrium oxide with hydrogen fluoride, yttrium fluoride is obtained.[62] When quaternary ammonium salts
are used as extractants, most yttrium will remain in the aqueous phase. When the counter-ion is nitrate, the
light lanthanides are removed, and when the counter-ion is thiocyanate, the heavy lanthanides are removed.
In this way, yttrium salts of 99.999% purity are obtained. In the usual situation, where yttrium is in a
mixture that is two-thirds heavy-lanthanide, yttrium should be removed as soon as possible to facilitate the
separation of the remaining elements.

Annual world production of yttrium oxide had reached 600 tonnes (660 short tons) by 2001; by 2014 it had
increased to 6,400 tonnes (7,000 short tons).[47][63] Global reserves of yttrium oxide were estimated in
2014 to be more than 450,000 tonnes (500,000 short tons). The leading countries for these reserves
included Australia, Brazil, China, India, and the United States.[63] Only a few tonnes of yttrium metal are
produced each year by reducing yttrium fluoride to a metal sponge with calcium magnesium alloy. The
temperature of an arc furnace of greater than 1,600 °C is sufficient to melt the yttrium.[47][62]

Applications

Consumer

The red component of color television cathode ray tubes is typically

emitted from an yttria (Y2 O3 ) or yttrium oxide sulfide (Y2 O2 S)
host lattice doped with europium (III) cation (Eu3+)
phosphors.[12][6][h] The red color itself is emitted from the
europium while the yttrium collects energy from the electron gun
and passes it to the phosphor.[64] Yttrium compounds can serve as
host lattices for doping with different lanthanide cations. Tb3+ can
be used as a doping agent to produce green luminescence. As such
yttrium compounds such as yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) are
useful for phosphors and are an important component of white
LEDs.
Yttrium is one of the elements that
Yttria is used as a sintering additive in the production of porous was used to make the red color in
silicon nitride.[65] CRT televisions
Yttrium compounds are used as a catalyst for ethylene polymerization.[12] As a metal, yttrium is used on the
electrodes of some high-performance spark plugs.[66] Yttrium is used in gas mantles for propane lanterns as
a replacement for thorium, which is radioactive.[67]

Garnets

Yttrium is used in the production of a large variety of synthetic

garnets,[68] and yttria is used to make yttrium iron garnets
(Y3 Fe5 O12 , also "YIG"), which are very effective microwave
filters[12] which were recently shown to have magnetic interactions
more complex and longer-ranged than understood over the
previous four decades.[69] Yttrium, iron, aluminium, and
gadolinium garnets (e.g. Y3 (Fe,Al)5 O12 and Y3 (Fe,Gd)5 O12 ) have
important magnetic properties.[12] YIG is also very efficient as an
acoustic energy transmitter and transducer.[70] Yttrium aluminium
garnet (Y3 Al5 O12 or YAG) has a hardness of 8.5 and is also used
as a gemstone in jewelry (simulated diamond).[12] Cerium-doped
Nd:YAG laser rod 0.5 cm (0.20 in) in
yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG:Ce) crystals are used as phosphors
diameter
to make white LEDs.[71][72][73]

YAG, yttria, yttrium lithium fluoride (LiYF4 ), and yttrium

orthovanadate (YVO4 ) are used in combination with dopants such as neodymium, erbium, ytterbium in
near-infrared lasers.[74][75] YAG lasers can operate at high power and are used for drilling and cutting
metal.[58] The single crystals of doped YAG are normally produced by the Czochralski process.[76]

Material enhancer

Small amounts of yttrium (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce the grain sizes of chromium,
molybdenum, titanium, and zirconium.[77] Yttrium is used to increase the strength of aluminium and
magnesium alloys.[12] The addition of yttrium to alloys generally improves workability, adds resistance to
high-temperature recrystallization, and significantly enhances resistance to high-temperature oxidation (see
graphite nodule discussion below).[64]

Yttrium can be used to deoxidize vanadium and other non-ferrous metals.[12] Yttria stabilizes the cubic
form of zirconia in jewelry.[78]

Yttrium has been studied as a nodulizer in ductile cast iron, forming the graphite into compact nodules
instead of flakes to increase ductility and fatigue resistance.[12] Having a high melting point, yttrium oxide
is used in some ceramic and glass to impart shock resistance and low thermal expansion properties.[12]
Those same properties make such glass useful in camera lenses.[47]

Medical

The radioactive isotope yttrium-90 is used in drugs such as Yttrium Y 90-DOTA-tyr3-octreotide and
Yttrium Y 90 ibritumomab tiuxetan for the treatment of various cancers, including lymphoma, leukemia,
liver, ovarian, colorectal, pancreatic and bone cancers.[49] It works by adhering to monoclonal antibodies,
which in turn bind to cancer cells and kill them via intense β-radiation from the yttrium-90 (see monoclonal
antibody therapy).[79]
A technique called radioembolization is used to treat hepatocellular carcinoma and liver metastasis.
Radioembolization is a low toxicity, targeted liver cancer therapy that uses millions of tiny beads made of
glass or resin containing radioactive yttrium-90. The radioactive microspheres are delivered directly to the
blood vessels feeding specific liver tumors/segments or lobes. It is minimally invasive and patients can
usually be discharged after a few hours. This procedure may not eliminate all tumors throughout the entire
liver, but works on one segment or one lobe at a time and may require multiple procedures.[80]

Also see radioembolization in the case of combined cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Needles made of yttrium-90, which can cut more precisely than scalpels, have been used to sever pain-
transmitting nerves in the spinal cord,[30] and yttrium-90 is also used to carry out radionuclide synovectomy
in the treatment of inflamed joints, especially knees, in people with conditions such as rheumatoid
arthritis.[81]

A neodymium-doped yttrium-aluminium-garnet laser has been used in an experimental, robot-assisted

radical prostatectomy in canines in an attempt to reduce collateral nerve and tissue damage,[82] and erbium-
doped lasers are coming into use for cosmetic skin resurfacing.[6]

Superconductors

Yttrium is a key ingredient in the yttrium barium copper oxide

(YBa2 Cu3 O7 , aka 'YBCO' or '1-2-3') superconductor developed at
the University of Alabama in Huntsville and the University of
Houston in 1987.[45] This superconductor is notable because the
operating superconductivity temperature is above liquid nitrogen's
boiling point (77.1 K).[45] Since liquid nitrogen is less expensive
than the liquid helium required for metallic superconductors, the
operating costs for applications would be less.

The actual superconducting material is often written as

YBCO superconductor
YBa2 Cu3 O7–d , where d must be less than 0.7 for
superconductivity. The reason for this is still not clear, but it is
known that the vacancies occur only in certain places in the crystal, the copper oxide planes, and chains,
giving rise to a peculiar oxidation state of the copper atoms, which somehow leads to the superconducting
behavior.

The theory of low temperature superconductivity has been well understood since the BCS theory of 1957.
It is based on a peculiarity of the interaction between two electrons in a crystal lattice. However, the BCS
theory does not explain high temperature superconductivity, and its precise mechanism is still a mystery.
What is known is that the composition of the copper-oxide materials must be precisely controlled for
superconductivity to occur.[83]

This superconductor is a black and green, multi-crystal, multi-phase mineral. Researchers are studying a
class of materials known as perovskites that are alternative combinations of these elements, hoping to
develop a practical high-temperature superconductor.[58]

Lithium batteries
Yttrium is used in small quantities in the cathodes of some Lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP), which are
then commonly called LiFeYPO4 chemistry, or LYP. Similar to LFP, LYP batteries offer high energy
density, good safety and long life. But LYP offers higher cathode stability, and prolongs the life of the
battery, by protecting the physical structure of the cathode, especially at higher temperatures and higher
charging / discharge current. LYP batteries find use in stationary applications (off-grid solar systems),
electric vehicles (some cars), as well other applications (submarines, ships), similar to LFP batteries, but
often at improved safety and cycle life time. LYP cells (https://www.evlithium.com/thunder-sky-winston-bat
tery/) have essentially the same nominal voltage as LFP; 3.25 V, but the maximum charging voltage is
4.0 V,[84] and the charging and discharge characteristics are very similar. [85]

Other applications

In 2009, Professor Mas Subramanian and associates at Oregon State University discovered that yttrium can
be combined with indium and manganese to form an intensely blue, non-toxic, inert, fade-resistant pigment,
YInMn blue, the first new blue pigment discovered in 200 years.

Precautions
Yttrium currently has no known biological role, and it can be highly toxic to humans, animals and plants.[7]

Water-soluble compounds of yttrium are considered mildly toxic, while its insoluble compounds are non-
toxic.[49] In experiments on animals, yttrium and its compounds caused lung and liver damage, though
toxicity varies with different yttrium compounds. In rats, inhalation of yttrium citrate caused pulmonary
edema and dyspnea, while inhalation of yttrium chloride caused liver edema, pleural effusions, and
pulmonary hyperemia.[7]

Exposure to yttrium compounds in humans may cause lung disease.[7] Workers exposed to airborne yttrium
europium vanadate dust experienced mild eye, skin, and upper respiratory tract irritation—though this may
be caused by the vanadium content rather than the yttrium.[7] Acute exposure to yttrium compounds can
cause shortness of breath, coughing, chest pain, and cyanosis.[7] The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) limits exposure to yttrium in the workplace to 1 mg/m3 (5.8 × 10−10 oz/cu in) over
an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended
exposure limit (REL) is 1 mg/m3 (5.8 × 10−10 oz/cu in) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 500 mg/m3
(2.9 × 10−7 oz/cu in), yttrium is immediately dangerous to life and health.[86] Yttrium dust is highly
flammable.[7]

See also
Chemistry portal

Notes
a. Essentially, a neutron becomes a proton while an electron and antineutrino are emitted.
b. See: magic number
c. Metastable isomers have higher-than-normal energy states than the corresponding non-
excited nucleus and these states last until a gamma ray or conversion electron is emitted
from the isomer. They are designated by an 'm' being placed next to the isotope's mass
number.
d. Ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it
was a mineral.
e. Stwertka 1998, p. 115 says that the identification occurred in 1789 but is silent on when the
announcement was made. Van der Krogt 2005 cites the original publication, with the year
1794, by Gadolin.
f. Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending.
g. Tc for YBCO is 93 K and the boiling point of nitrogen is 77 K.
h. Emsley 2001, p. 497 says that "Yttrium oxysulfide, doped with europium (III), was used as
the standard red component in colour televisions", and Jackson and Christiansen (1993)
state that 5–10 g yttrium oxide and 0.5–1 g europium oxide were required to produce a
single TV screen, as quoted in Gupta and Krishnamurthy.

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95). Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford
University Press. pp. 495–498 (https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/4
95). ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.
Gadolin, Johan (1794). "Undersökning af en svart tung Stenart ifrån Ytterby Stenbrott i
Roslagen". Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens Nya Handlingar. 15: 137–155.
Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-3365-9.
Gupta, C. K.; Krishnamurthy, N. (2005). "Ch. 1.7.10 Phosphors" (https://vector.umd.edu/imag
es/links/Extractive_Metallurgy_of_Rare_Earths_Gupta.pdf) (PDF). Extractive metallurgy of
rare earths. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-33340-5. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120623013009/http://vector.umd.edu/links_files/Extractive%20Metallurgy%20of%20Rare%2
0Earths%20%28Gupta%29.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2012-06-23.
 Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Yttrium" (https://archive.org/details/guidetoelements00stwe). Guide
to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 115–116 (https://archive.org/deta
ils/guidetoelements00stwe/page/115). ISBN 978-0-19-508083-4.
van der Krogt, Peter (2005-05-05). "39 Yttrium" (http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.ph
p?sym=Y). Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Retrieved 2008-08-06.

Further reading
US patent 5734166 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5734
166), Czirr John B., "Low-energy neutron detector based upon lithium lanthanide borate
scintillators", issued 1998-03-31, assigned to Mission Support Inc.
"Strontium: Health Effects of Strontium-90" (http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/stro
ntium.html#healtheffects). US Environmental Protection Agency. 2008-07-31. Retrieved
2008-08-26.

External links
Yttrium by Paul C.W. Chu at acs.org (http://pubsapp.acs.org/cen/80th/yttrium.html)
Yttrium (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/039.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
"Yttrium" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Yttrium).
Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Encyclopedia of Geochemistry - Yttrium (https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.100
7%2F978-3-319-39193-9_145-1)

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