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1. Set Theory
Why do we study Set Theory? The ideas (concepts) in Set Theory are used by mathematicians,
statisticians, computer scientists, biologists, business analysts and many other professionals to
solve difficult problems that arise in our world. You will see that the concepts learnt in this
chapter will be used to help you solve problems in other sections like Numbers and Functions.
This chapter will also help you to see the importance of notation and logic which we as human
beings need in our everyday lives.

1.1 The Idea of a Set

A set is a collection of things – any things.
For example, we could have a set of animals; a set of trees; a set of numbers.

Example 1
If A is the set of animals, then A may contain a cow, a goat and a pig. The cow, the goat and the
pig are the elements of the set, A, and we write:
A = {cow, goat, pig}
The curly brackets, {…..}, are notation which is read as “the set whose elements are…”.
We write,
cow ∈ A
to say that cow is an element of set A.

Time out!
Take a moment to look around. Try to make up a few sets. Are you an element of any of the sets
you made up? Is your pencil an element of any of the sets you made up?
Make up a set which you and your pencil are elements of.

Example 2
If V is the set of vowels, then we can write:
V is the set of vowels or V = {a, e, i, o, u}
i.e you may describe the elements of a set, or you may list the elements of a set.

Example 3
Consider the following sets
A = {apple, orange, banana}
B = {banana, orange, apple}
C = {orange, banana, apple}
a) What can you say about A, B and C?
b) Write another set, D, that has the same relationship to A, B and C.
c) If E is the set of types of fruit, is E = A?

Equal sets are sets that have the same elements.

Example 4
If F = {2,4,6,8}, which of the following phrases best describes the elements of F:
a) Four even numbers
b) Some small even numbers
c) The even numbers between 1 and 9
When describing a set, your descriptions should be exact.
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Test your understanding

1. List the elements of the following sets in set notation:
a) types of SA coins in everyday use b) colours of the rainbow
c) even numbers between 9 and 17 d) subjects on your timetable
e) capital letters with only one line of symmetry

2. Describe the following sets:

a) {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday} b) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
c) {sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste} d) {1 c, 2 c, 5 c}
e) {5, 10, 15, 20, 25}

3. In a) to d) below, say whether the two sets are equal.

a) A = {1, 5, 9, 13} B = {1, 9, 13, 5}
b) C = {x, y, z} D = { y, z, x}
c) E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} F is the set of odd numbers
d) K is the set of even numbers between 9 and 17 L = {12, 10, 14, 16}

4. Describe, in set notation, 3 sets of which you are a member.

5. a) If A and B are two sets and A = B, is it true that B = A?

b) If A = B and B = C, what can you say about A and C?

1.2 Venn Diagrams

Example 1
Let C = {1c, 2c, 5c} and S = {R 1, R 2, R 5}.
If we put one of each of these coins on the table, and draw a circle around the copper coins, (so
that only copper coins are in the circle), and draw a circle around the silver coins, (so that only
silver coins are in the circle), then we will have circles that look like this:

C R1
5c S
R2
1c 2c
R5

The circle around the copper coins is representing the set, C, and the circle around the silver
coins is representing the set, S.
Historical Note
The above diagram is referred to as a Venn diagram. The Venn
diagram is
Set C and set S do not have any elements in common. named after the
Set C and set S are disjoint sets. British
mathematician
Notice, that in the Venn diagram, the circles are John Venn.
separate; they do not overlap. The Venn diagram of
disjoint sets will always be non-overlapping circles.
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Example 2
F is the set of months in the first half of the year
L is the set of months with more than 5 letters in their names

If we list the elements of these two sets we have:

F = {January, February, March, April, May, June}
L = {January, February, August, September, October, November, December}

Write the separate elements of these two sets on your page, being careful not to repeat any
month. Position them so that it is possible to draw a circle around the elements of set F, and a
circle around the elements of set L. The Venn diagram will look like this:

These are intersecting (overlapping) sets.

The intersection represents a set that contains the elements January and February.
In symbols, we write: F ∩ L = {January, February}
(Read: F intersection L is the set containing the elements January and February.)
i.e The intersection contains the elements that are common to both sets .

Example 3
Now if we draw a Venn diagram of the following two sets:
E is the set of months of the year
L is the set of months with more than 5 letters in their name we will find that L is completely
inside E as shown below.

This time, L ∩ E is the whole of L

and we write L ∩ E = L.

Explain why L ∩ E ≠ E.

We say that L is a subset of E, i.e L is part of E with no part of L outside of E.

In symbols : L ⊂ E
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Example 4

If we look back at the two sets in example 1, C is the set of copper coins and S is the set of
silver coins. The Venn diagram we drew:

C R1
5c S
R2
1c 2c
R5

What is C ∩ S? Do these two sets have any elements in common?

We say that C ∩ S is the empty set.
In symbols: C ∩ S = { }, or C ∩ S = φ . Both, { } and φ , are symbols used to represent an
empty set (a set with no elements).

Test your understanding

1. Illustrate the relation between the following pairs of sets by drawing Venn diagrams:
a) A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {5, 6, 7, 8}
b) A is the set of vowels B is the set of the first five letters of the alphabet
c) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {1, 5, 3}
d) A = {ψ, ώ, ©, ж} B = {ώ, ж, *, ψ}
e) A = {3, 7, 11, 5, 9} B is the set of odd numbers between 2 and 12

2. List the elements of the set A ∩ B for each of the pairs of sets given in question 1 above.

3. Write down 3 pairs of sets for which the following Venn diagram would be suitable.

A B

4. When the elements of a set B are all elements of another set A, then B is called a subset of A
i.e If x ∈ B, then we know x ∈ A.
a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the relation “B is a subset of A”.
b) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the relation “A is a subset of B”.
c) If B is a subset of A, what is A ∩ B?

5. Copy and fill in the missing elements in the following:

a) {a, } ∩ {b, c} = {c} b) {7, 9, } ∩ {5, 2, , 3}= {9, 3}
c) {d, , , b, t} ∩ {p, , d, } = {a, , e}

6. If A is any set, what can you say about a) A ∩ A b) A ∩ { } ?

7. Let P be the set of even numbers greater than 7, and T is the set of natural numbers less than
25. Give two elements of the set P ∩ T.
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1.3 Shading of Venn Diagrams

Example 1

If A is the set of whole numbers between and including 5 and 10 and

B is the set of whole numbers from 8 to 12 then
A = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and B = {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
and the Venn diagram looks like this:

A B
A B
The shaded area
represents
A ∩ B = {8, 9, 10}

The following Venn diagram has different shading

This shading represents the union of A and B and is written A ∪ B.

A ∪ B is the set that contains all the elements which are either in A or B or both.
For the above example, A ∪ B = { 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
Note: Each element is written once only, whether it appears in only one of the sets, or in both.

Test your Understanding

1. Draw a Venn diagram for the following pairs of sets, and in each case give A ∪ B
as a list of elements.
a) A is the set of multiples of 3 less than 11
B is the set of numbers between 4 and 10
b) A is the set of factors of 12 B is the set of factors of 14
c) A is the set of factors of 12 B is the set of natural numbers between 1 and 5

2. Copy and fill in the missing elements in the following:

a) {a, b, c, d} ∪ {a, c, } = {a, b, c, d, e}
b) {3, 5, ,13} ∪ {2, , 4, 6} = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13}
c) How many different answers are there for b)?
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1.4 Some Set Terminology

Example 1

When we discussed the sets C = {1c, 2c, 5c} and S = {R 1, R 2, R 5}, we were considering only
South African coins.

We say that the universal set in this question is:

E, the set of South African coins.
The universal set is usually called E, and is a set we have chosen
which contains all the smaller sets we are talking about. Different
people could choose different universal sets. In most problems the
universal set is given to you.

If we talk about all the coins that are not in C, we mean “all the coins that are not in C but are in
the universal set”.
The notation for “all the coins that are not in C” is C′.
This is called the complement of C and
C′ = {10c, 20c, 50c, R 1, R 2, R 5}.

Similarly, S′ = {1c, 2c, 5c, 10c, 20c, 50c}

We can also write, 20c ∈ C′ or 20c ∉ C or 20c ∈ S′ or 20c ∉ S.

Test your understanding

E is the set of all South African coins.
S = {R 1, R 2, R 5} and T = {2c, 20c, R 2}
1. Draw a Venn diagram showing E,S and T and put the elements in the correct regions of the
diagram.
2. For each part of the question below, draw the same Venn diagram, but without elements,
shade:
a) S ∩ T b) S ∪ T c) S ∩ E d) S′
e) S′ ∩ T f) S′ ∪ T g) T′ ∩ S h) T′ ∪ S

The number of elements in a set, A, is called the cardinal number of the set.
The notation for this is n(A).

In the example of the coins, n(C) = 3, as there are 3 elements in the set C.

Also n(S) = 3, and n(E) = 9.

We can also find the cardinal number of C ∩ S, which we write as n(C ∩ S ).

n(C ∩ S ) = 0,
as C and S are disjoint sets; they have no elements in common; their intersection is the empty set.
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What about n(C ∪ S ) ?

n(C ∪ S ) = 6, since there are 6 elements in C ∪ S.

What does (C ∪ S )′ mean?

It means all the coins that are not in the union of C and S,
i.e (C ∪ S )′ = {10c, 20c, 50c} and n(C ∪ S )′ = 3.

Example 2
We will use the same sets as for example 2 in the section on Venn diagrams, namely:

E is the set of months of the year

F is the set of months in the first half of the year
L is the set of months with more than 5 letters in their names

July

Find: a) n(F) b) n(L) c) n( F ∩ L ) d) n( F ∪ L)

e) F′ f) L′ g) ( F ∩ L )′ h) (F ∪ L )′
i) n(F′ ) j) n(L′ ) k) n( F ∩ L )′ l) n (F ∪ L )′

Solution:
In this question, the universal set is { all months of the year }
a) n(F) = 6 b) n(L) = 7 c) n( F ∩ L ) = 2 d) n( F ∪ L) = 11
e) F′ = { July, August, September, October, November, December}
f) L′ = { March, April, May, June, July }
g) ( F ∩ L )′ = { March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October,
November, December }
h) (F ∪ L )′ = { July } i) n(F′ ) = 6 j) n(L′ ) = 5 k) n( F ∩ L )′ = 10
l) n (F ∪ L )′ = 1
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Example 3
Copy the diagram for each part of the question, and shade the required area.

a) A′ b) A′ ∩ B c) A′ ∪ C d) ( A ∩ B′ ) ∪ C e) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C′

Solution
a) b) c)

d) e)

Example 4
a) b) c) d)

Solution
When doing questions of this type, it often helps to consider what the shading is inside of, or
outside of. For example, in part c), the shading is inside the union of Y and Z but outside X.
′
a) X ∩ Y ∩ Z b) ( X ∪ Z ) ∩ Y c) (Y ∪ Z ) ∩ X ′ d) ( X ∩ Y ) ∪ ( X ∩ Z )
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Test Your Understanding

1. E is the set of all South African coins.
S = { R1, R2, R5}, T = {2c, 20c, R2} and C = {1c, 2c, 5c}
a) Draw a Venn diagram, showing all the sets given above, and put the elements in
their correct places.
b) Find:
i) S′ ii) n(S′) iii) S ∪ T iv) n(T ∩ C)
v) n(T ∪ E) vi) n(T′ ∩ S) vii) (T ∪ C)′
2.
For each part of the question, copy the diagram
alongside, and shade:
a) A ∩ B ∩ C b) A ∪ C c) A ∩ B d) C′

e) (A ∪ C)′ f) (A ∪ C) ∩ B g) (A ∪ C)′ ∩ B

h) (A ∪ C) ∩ B′

3. For each of the following Venn diagrams, describe the shaded region using the names of
the sets, and the union and intersection symbols, as in question 2, above.
a) b) c)

d) e) f)

Extend your knowledge

1. By making use of the library or internet, find out about
• the difference between equal sets and equivalent sets
• de Morgan’s Laws
• John Venn
Make up your own examples and give it to your friends as a test.

2. Use the Venn Diagram software to practice shading sets.