UNIT-II DISASTER MITIGATION

NATURAL DISASTERS:
A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth;
examples include floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic
processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage, and typically leaves
some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affected
population's resilience, or ability to recover.
An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable
population. In a vulnerable area, however, such as San Francisco, an earthquake can have
disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage, requiring years to repair.
In 2012, there were 905 natural catastrophes worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related
disasters. Overall costs were US$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a
moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% were hydrological (floods), 12% were
climatologically (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7% were geophysical events
(earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted
for 14% of all natural.

Geological Disasters
Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to
those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air, and wreak destruction across
entire cities. The seismicity, or seismic activity, of an area is the frequency, type, and size of
earthquakes experienced over a period of time. The word tremor is also used for non-
earthquake seismic rumbling.
The focus is the point where the earthquake's motion starts,
The epicenter is the point on the earth's surface that is directly above the focus.
Earthquake Magnitude is a measure of the strength of an earthquake as calculated from
records of the event made on a calibrated seismograph.
In 1935, Charles Richter first defined local magnitude, and the Richter Scale is commonly used
today to describe an Earthquake’s magnitude.
Earthquake Intensity
In contrast, earthquake intensity is a measure of the effects of an earthquake at a particular
place. It is determined from observations of the earthquake's effects on people, structures
and the earth's surface.
Among the many existing scales, the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 12 degrees,
symbolized as MM, is frequently used.

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Causes of earthquakes
The surface of the Earth is in continuous slow motion. This is plate tectonics--the motion of
immense rigid plates at the surface of the Earth in response to flow of rock within the Earth.
The plates cover the entire surface of the globe. Since they are all moving they rub against
each other in some places (like the San Andreas Fault in California), sink beneath each other
in others (like the Peru-Chile Trench along the western border of South America), or spread
apart from each other (like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). At such places the motion isn't smooth--
the plates are stuck together at the edges but the rest of each plate is continuing to move, so
the rocks along the edges are distorted (what we call "strain"). As the motion continues, the
strain builds up to the point where the rock cannot withstand any more bending. With a lurch,
the rock breaks and the two sides move. An earthquake is the shaking that radiates out from
the breaking rock.
In short earthquakes are caused by faulting, a sudden lateral or vertical movement of rock
along a rupture (break) surface.
Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards can be categorized as either direct hazards or indirect hazards.
Direct Hazards

• Ground shaking;
• Differential ground settlement;
• Soil liquefaction;
• Immediate landslides or mud slides, ground lurching and avalanches;
• Permanent ground displacement along faults;
• Floods from tidal waves, Sea Surges & Tsunamis
Indirect Hazards
• Dam failures;
• Pollution from damage to industrial plants;
• Delayed landslides.
Most of the damage due to earthquakes is the result of strong ground shaking. For large
magnitude events, trembling has been felt over more than 5 million sq. km.
Site Risks: Some common site risks are:
(I) Slope Risks - Slope instability, triggered by strong shaking may cause
landslides. Rocks or boulders can roll considerable distances.
(ii) Natural Dams - Landslides in irregular topographic areas may create
natural dams, which may collapse when they are filled. This can lead to
potentially catastrophic avalanches after strong seismic shaking.
(iii) Volcanic Activity - Earthquakes may be associated with potential
volcanic activity and may occasionally be considered as precursory
phenomena. Ash falls and/or pyroclastic flows, volcanic lava or mudflows
and volcanic gases normally follow explosive eruptions.

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How do we measure earthquakes?

Earthquakes are measured using instruments called seismometers that detect the vibrations
caused by seismic waves as they travel through the crust. Seismic waves can be both natural
(from earthquakes) or caused by human activity (explosions). The concept of a seismometer
is simple: a weight tends to stay still as the earth moves and the relative motion can be drawn
on a reel of paper as a zig-zag line. The bigger the vibration, the bigger the zig-zag. Modern
systems use electronics to give more accurate results but the principle is the same.
The strength (or ‘magnitude’) of earthquakes used to be determined according to the Richter
Scale, which compares the relative strength of different earthquakes. The scale is logarithmic,
meaning that an earthquake of magnitude 6 is ten times stronger than one of magnitude 5. A
magnitude 7 quake is 10 times stronger than a magnitude 6, and 100 times stronger than a
magnitude 5.

Effects of Earthquake
Ground shaking is the most familiar effect of earthquakes. It is a result of the passage of
seismic waves through the ground, and ranges from quite gentle in small earthquakes to
incredibly violent in large earthquakes. In the 27 March 1964 Alaskan earthquake, for
example, strong ground shaking lasted for as much as 7 minutes! Buildings can be damaged
or destroyed, people and animals have trouble standing up or moving around, and objects
can be tossed around due to strong ground shaking in earthquakes. However, you should note
that, while many people are killed in earthquakes, none are actually killed directly by the
shaking -- if you were out in an open field during a magnitude 9 earthquake, you would be
extremely scared (I know I would), but your chance of dying would be zero or damn near it. It
is only because we persist in building buildings, highways, and the like that people are killed;
it's our responsibility, not the earthquake's.
On December 26 2004, an earthquake in the Indian Ocean measuring 9.0 on the Richter scale
set off one that struck at 10 Asian and three African countries, leaving over 226,000 people
dead.

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Earthquake: As per the NDMA, earthquake zonation of Mumbai, falls underseismic zone III
which is referred as moderate risk zone. Thus the possibility and severity of the experiencing
the earthquake apparently decreases. Although there are no past records of this disaster in
this region, earthquake of intensity between 5.0 and 6.9 on the Richter scale can occur in
Zone III. Accordingly the measures proposed are enumerated in the section of mitigation and
preparedness.
Mitigation Measures: Before an Earthquake?

• Learn about causes and effects. Speak about them in a calm and composed manner.
• Keep a torch light and a working transistor radio with spare batteries.
• Keep an updated list of telephone numbers like Doctor, Fire, Police and District
Administration, Ambulance, water, electricity, etc. and all your family members will
know them.
• Arrange your home in such a manner that it is easy to move around
• Attach shelves, gas cylinders, flower pots etc., to the walls of the room.
• Place heavy objects on the floor or in lower shelves
• Teach all members of your family how to turn off electricity and gas supply.
- What to do during an Earthquake?

• Keep calm and keep others calm

• Do not panic

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Indoors
Do not rush outside, get your family into doorways, under the tables, or, if they are bedridden,
under their beds; keep away from windows and chimneys
Outdoors

• Stay away from buildings, high walls or dangling electric wires.

• Do not re-enter damaged buildings.

- If you are driving

• Move to side of the road and stop.

• Stop the vehicle away from flyovers, building walls, slopes, electricity
wires/cables/poles, advertisement boards and stay inside the vehicle- What to do
after the Earthquake?
• Keep calm, switch on the transistor radio and obey any instructions you hear on the
radio.
• Expect after shocks
• Check for injuries and first treat yourself, then help others.
• Remain calm and self-assured and help others who are distressed.
• Do not turn on switches if you have electric connection in your house.
• Use your torch
• If there is a fire try to put it out with help of people around you.
• Clean up any spillage of inflammable material like kerosene, oils, paints, alcohol, etc.
• If people are buried under the debris, call for help of the rescue teams and render your
help.
• Avoid places where electric wires are handling loose and do not touch any metal
object in contact with them.
• Do not drink water from open sources/ containers without filtering or purification.
• Eat something to make you feel better and more capable of helping others.
• When you can move out of the house carry with you essential food, water
container,torch, transistor radio and medicines you normally use at home.
• Do not go near damaged structures or ender badly damaged buildings

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• Do not go sight-seeing or wandering in the streets aimlessly to see what is happening

around.
• Keep the roads clear for the movement of relief and rescue teams.
Post-disaster preventive measures
• Maintenance of law and order, prevention of trespassing, looting etc.
• Evacuation of people
• Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal
• Medical care for the injured
• Supply of food and drinking water
• Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds etc.
• Repairing lines of communication and information
• Restoring transport routes
• Quick assessment of destruction and demarcation of destroyed areas, according to the
grade of damage.
Landslides & Debris Flow
Landslides occur in all U.S. states and territories and can be caused by many factors
including earthquakes, storms, volcanic eruptions, fire and human modification of land. The
most deadly landslides are the ones that occur quickly, often with little notice.
In a landslide, masses of rock, earth or debris move down a slope. Debris and mud flows are
rivers of rock, earth and other debris saturated with water. They develop during intense
rainfall, runoff, or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or “slurry.”
They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no warning at avalanche speeds (faster than a
person can run). They also can travel many miles from their source, growing in size as they
pick up trees, boulders, cars and other materials. Debris flows don’t always stay in stream
channels and they can flow sideways as well as downhill.
When a wildfire burns a slope, it increases the chance of debris flows for several years.
Although some landslides require lengthy rain and saturated slopes, a debris flow can start
on a dry slope after only a few minutes of intense rain. “Intense” rain means a burst of rain at
a fast rate, about half an inch in an hour. With debris flows, the rate matters more than total
rainfall.
How to protect yourself or your property depends on the type of landslide. Land-use zoning,
professional inspections, and proper design can reduce many landslide problems but
evacuation is often the only way to protect lives from a debris flow or other fast-moving
landslide. Never ignore an evacuation order.

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Causes of Landslides
• Undercutting of a slope by stream erosion, wave action, glaciers, or human activity such as
road building
• Intense or prolonged rainfall, rapid snowmelt, or sharp fluctuations in ground-water levels
• Shocks or vibrations caused by earthquakes or construction activity,
• Loading on upper slopes, or
• A combination of these and other factors
Effects of Human activity
• Slope failures can be triggered by construction activity that undercuts or overloads
dangerous slopes
• Construction activity can also redirect the flow of surface or ground-water.
• Poorly planned forest clearing may increase rates of surface water run-off or ground-water
infiltration
• Inefficient irrigation or sewage effluent disposal practices may result in increased ground
water pressures, which in turn can reduce the stability of rock and sediment.
Before a Landslide
The following are things you can do to protect yourself, your family and your property from
the effects of a landslide or debris flow:
• To begin preparing, you should build an emergency kit and make a family
communications plan.
• Make a plan for your household, including your pets, so that you and your family know
what to do, where to go, and what you will need to protect yourselves from landslides
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Connect with your local emergency services, heed evacuation warnings.

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o Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System
(EAS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather
Radio also provide emergency alerts.
• Leave if you have been told to evacuate or you feel it is unsafe to remain in your home.
Text SHELTER + your ZIP code to 43362 (4FEMA) to find the nearest shelter in your
area (example: shelter 12345).
• Prepare for landslides by following proper land-use procedures - avoid building near
steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways or along natural erosion
valleys.
• Become familiar with the land around you. Learn whether landslides have occurred in
your area by contacting local officials. However, don’t assume that what happened
last time will happen next time. Debris flows can start in places they’ve never been
and return to slopes where they’ve already been.
• Get an assessment of your property by a qualified geotechnical professional.
• Consult a professional for advice on appropriate preventative measures for your home
or business, such as flexible pipe fittings, which can better resist breakage.
• Protect your property based on of recommendations from the ‘qualified geotechnical
professional’ and/or local city/county guidance on protection from debris flow and
flooding. You can't stop or change the path of a debris flow. However, you may be
able to protect your property from floodwaters or mud by use of sandbags, retaining
walls or k-rails (Jersey barriers).
• In mud and debris flow areas, consider building channels or deflection walls to try to
direct the flow around buildings. Be aware, however, that when a flow is big enough,
it goes where it pleases. Also, if you divert a flow and it flows on a neighbor's property,
you may be liable for damages.
• If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be
covered by flood insurance policies from the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
• Gather supplies in case you have to leave immediately or if services are cut off. Keep
in mind each person’s specific needs, including medication. Do not forget the needs
of pets.
o Include non-perishable foods, cleaning supplies, and water for several days, in
case you have to leave immediately or if services are cut off in your area. If you
are able to, set aside items like soap, hand sanitizer that contains at least 60
percent alcohol, disinfecting wipes, and general household cleaning
supplies that you can use to disinfect surfaces you touch regularly. After a
landslide, you may not have access to these supplies for days or even weeks.
o Being prepared allows you to avoid unnecessary excursions and allows you to
address minor medical issues at home, alleviating the burden on urgent care
centers and hospitals.

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During a Landslide
• Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for warnings.
• Heed all warnings and evacuation notices.
o Always follow the instructions from local emergency managers. They provide
the latest recommendations based on the threat in your community.
o Make plans to shelter with friends or family in advance so that you can
evacuate to their safe location. If you are unable to do so, check with local
authorities to determine which public shelters are open. Review your previous
evacuation plan and consider alternative options to maintain social and
physical distancing to prevent the spread of COVID-19.
o If you are sheltering with people who are not part of your household, be sure
to wear a mask and maintain a distance of at least six feet between yourself
and others. Masks should not be worn by children under two years old, people
who have trouble breathing, and people who cannot remove them on their
own.
o If you are told by local authorities to evacuate to a public shelter, try to bring
items that can help protect yourself and your family from COVID-19, such
as hand sanitizer that contains at least 60 percent alcohol, general household
cleaning supplies, and two masks per person.
• During a storm that could cause a landslide, stay alert and awake. Many deaths from
landslides occur while people are sleeping.
• Be aware that by the time you are sure a debris flow is coming, that will be too late to
get away safely. Never cross a road with water or mud flowing. Never cross a bridge if
you see a flow approaching. It can grow faster and larger too quickly for you to escape.
• If you do get stuck in the path of a landslide move uphill as quickly as possible.
• Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas during times of danger.
• If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in
water flow or water that changes from clear to muddy. These can be signs that a
landslide is coming.
After a Landslide
• Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
• Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
• Watch for flooding. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they
may both be started by the same conditions.
• Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide
area. Direct rescuers to their locations.
• Report broken utility lines and damaged roadways and railways to appropriate
authorities. Reporting potential hazards will get the utilities turned off as quickly as
possible, preventing further hazard and injury.

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• Allow trained professionals to check the building foundation, chimney, and

surrounding land for damage.
• Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground
cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future.
• Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk. A professional will be able to advise you
of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.
• Continue taking steps to protect yourself from COVID-19 and other infectious
diseases, such as washing your hands often and cleaning commonly touched surfaces
with disinfecting products.
Impact of Landslides:
Short-term
• Loss of life
• Loss of property
Long- term
• Changes in landscape
• Loss of cultivable land
• Soil erosion and soil loss
• Relocation of population
Pune Landslide 2014:
• Heavy rains triggered a landslide in Pune in 2014 killing hundreds of people
• Environmentalists claimed that the landslide was a human-induced landslide.
• Deforestation and levelling of ground for cultivation were pointed out as the primary
reasons
for the landslide
• Heavy machinery such as backhoes were used to level the slopes, which has contributed to
loosening the soil to such an extent that it has impacted the hill’s drainage of water
• The windmill project had also led to large-scale erosion in the region
NDMA Guidelines on Landslide Hazard Management:
Landslide hazard management involves measures taken to avoid or mitigate the risk posed by
landslide hazards

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Fig .The components of the Landslide Disaster Management process

1. Landslide Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment: This includes delineating areas
susceptible to landslide hazards and status of landslide hazards in different areas and to
assess the resources at risk due to these hazards
2. Landslide Remediation Practice: Encouraging implementation of successful landslide
remediation and mitigation technologies.
3. Research and Development; Monitoring and Early Warning
4. Knowledge Network and Management: Establishing an effective system for gathering
information on landslides, loss assessment resulting from landslides, and the effective
dissemination of technical information and maps is an essential component of the disaster
management process.
5. Capacity Building and Training: Developing institutional capacity and training for
geoscientists engineers, and planners is necessary for effective management of the landslide
hazard.
6. Public Awareness and Education
7. Emergency Preparedness and Response: Development of coordinated landslide rapid
response capability
8. Regulation and Enforcement: Establishment of a techno-legal mechanism of landslide
hazard assessment and mitigation.
There have also been talks on formulating National Landslide Risk Management Strategies

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Tsunami
Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. Out in
the depths of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in height. But as the
waves travel inland, they build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean
decreases. The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance
from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters,
only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While tsunamis are often referred to as
tidal waves, this name is discouraged by oceanographers because tides have little to do with
these giant waves.

A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy buildings and infrastructure as
waves come in and go out. A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by
earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions, or asteroids. Tsunamis can:
• Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.
• Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power, communications, and the water
supply.
• Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the Pacific Ocean or Caribbean
have the greatest risk.
Most deaths caused by Tsunamis are because of Drowning.
How is a Tsunami formed?
• Seismicity generated tsunamis are result of abrupt deformation of sea floor resulting vertical
displacement of the overlying water.
• When earthquakes occur beneath the sea level, the water above the reformed area is
displaced from its equilibrium position.
• The release of energy produces tsunami waves which have small amplitude but a very long
wavelength.
• It may be caused by non-seismic event also such as a landslide or impact of a meteor.

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Measures for Safety from Tsunamis and Storm Surges in Coastal areas:
Structural measures:
1. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line
2. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the coast lines
to provide necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time (e.g. centers
developed by M.S. Swaminathan Foundation in Pondicherry)
3. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts
4. Development of break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion against tsunami
hazards
5. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning dissemination centres
6. Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along coastline.
7. Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone
resistance of all such buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of
new facilities like:
• Critical infrastructures e.g. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage tanks etc.
located along the coastline.
• All other infrastructure facilities located in the coastal areas
• Public buildings and private houses
• All marine structures
• Construction and maintenance of national and state highways and other coastal roads

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Non-Structural Measures:
1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide line
with elevation of less than 15 m above.
2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis up to taluka
/village level.
3. Capacity building requirements for the local people and the administration for facing the
disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone
4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly vulnerable areas
5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area
6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning dissemination and evacuation
techniques
7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen,coast guards, officials from
Fisheries department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection with
evacuation and post tsunami storm surge management activities.
8. Studies focusing on the tsunami risk in India may be taken under NCRM project.
IF YOU ARE UNDER A TSUNAMI WARNING:
• First, protect yourself from an Earthquake. Drop, Cover, then Hold On.
• Get to high ground as far inland as possible. You can protect yourself from a tsunami
while also protecting yourself and your family from COVID-19. Protect yourself from
the effects of a tsunami by moving from the shore to safe, high grounds outside
tsunami hazard areas.
• Be alert to signs of a tsunami, such as a sudden rise or draining of ocean waters.
• Listen to emergency information and alerts.
• Evacuate: DO NOT wait! Leave as soon as you see any natural signs of a tsunami or
receive an official tsunami warning.
o Understand that your regular public shelter may not be open this year as
shelter locations may have changed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. CDC,
FEMA, and the American Red Cross are advising shelter operators on safety
procedures to make sure that shelters can protect people from natural
disasters while taking COVID-19 precautions. Check with local authorities for
the latest information about public shelters or download the free Red Cross
Emergency app for a list of open Red Cross shelters in your area. In addition:
▪ Always follow the instructions from local emergency managers. They
provide the latest recommendations based on the threat in your
community.
▪ Make plans to shelter with friends and family, if possible.
▪ If you must evacuate to a public shelter, try to bring items that can help
protect yourself and your family from COVID-19, such as hand

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sanitizer that contains at least 60 percent alcohol, cleaning materials,

and two masks per person. Children under 2 years old, people who
have trouble breathing, and people who cannot remove masks on their
own should not wear them. Review the CDC’s guidelines for “Going to
a Public Disaster Shelter During the COVID-19 Pandemic.”
▪ Maintain a distance of at least six feet between yourself and those who
are not part of your household.
• If you are in a boat, go out to sea.
HOW TO STAY SAFE WHEN A TSUNAMI THREATENS
Prepare NOW
• If you live near, or regularly visit a coastal area, learn about the risk of tsunami in the
area. Some at-risk communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes. If you
are a visitor, ask about community plans.
• Learn the signs of a potential tsunami, such as an earthquake, a loud roar from the
ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or sudden
draining of water showing the ocean floor.
• Know and practice community evacuation plans and map out your routes from home,
work, and play. Pick shelters 100 feet or more above sea level, or at least one mile
inland.
• Create a family emergency communication plan that has an out-of-state contact. Plan
where to meet if you get separated.
• Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System (EAS) and
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also
provide emergency alerts. Sign up for email updates about COVID-19 from the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
• Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Standard homeowner’s insurance does not cover
flood or earthquake damage.
Survive DURING
• If you are in a tsunami area and there is an earthquake, then first protect yourself from
the earthquake. Drop, Cover, and Hold On. Drop to your hands and knees. Cover your
head and neck with your arms. Hold on to any sturdy furniture until the shaking stops.
Crawl only if you can reach better cover, but do not go through an area with more
debris. If possible, avoid touching your eyes, mouth, and nose, especially after
touching high-touch surfaces, to slow the spread of COVID-19.
• When the shaking stops, if there are natural signs or official warnings of a tsunami,
then move immediately to a safe place as high and as far inland as possible. Listen to
the authorities, but do not wait for tsunami warnings and evacuation orders.
• If you are outside of the tsunami hazard zone and receive a warning, then stay where
you are unless officials tell you otherwise.

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• Leave immediately if you are told to do so. Evacuation routes are often marked by a
wave with an arrow in the direction of higher ground.
• If you are in the water, then grab onto something that floats, such as a raft, tree trunk,
or door. There is no evidence that COVID-19 can be spread through water, however
floodwaters may contain debris, chemicals, or waste that are harmful to your health.
• If you are in a boat, then face the direction of the waves and head out to sea. If you
are in a harbor, then go inland.
Be Safe AFTER
• Listen to local alerts and authorities for information on areas to avoid and shelter
locations.
• Avoid wading in floodwater, which can contain dangerous debris. Water may be
deeper than it appears.
• Be aware of the risk of electrocution. Underground or downed power lines can
electrically charge water. Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or if you are
standing in water.
• If you become injured or sick and need medical attention, contact your healthcare
provider for further care instructions and shelter in place, if possible. If you are
experiencing a medical emergency, call 9-1-1 and let the operator know if you have,
or think you might have, COVID-19. If possible, put on a mask before help arrives. If
staying at a shelter or public facility, alert shelter staff immediately so they can call a
local hospital or clinic.
• Stay away from damaged buildings, roads, and bridges.
• Document property damage with photographs. Conduct an inventory and contact
your insurance company for assistance.
• Save phone calls for emergencies. Phone systems are often down or busy after a
disaster. Use text messages or social media to communicate with family and friends.
Tsunami Warning and Communication System
• The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) has been established at Indian National
Centre for Ocean Information Sciences, (INCOIS - ESSO) Hyderabad.
• It has the responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian Mainland and the Island
regions
Major Events
Papua New Guinea experienced 2 earthquakes on July 17, 1998, both measuring 7.0, which
produced a tsunami that ravaged 30 kilometers of northern coastline, sweeping away seven
villages with a loss of more than 2,000 lives, according to official statistics. Local sources put
the death toll at between 6,000 and 8,000.
On Dec 12, 1992, a tremor in Flores, Indonesia touched off several of them, swamping the
island of Flores with 2,000 deaths.
August 16, 1976 a tremor in the Philippines caused one to hit the Filipino island of Mindanao,
which left 5,000 dead

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Most tsunamis occur along the Pacific Rim, also know as the "Ring of Fire". The Ring of Fire
extends about 40,000 km long stretching from New Zealand, along the eastern edge of Asia,
north across the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, and south along the coast of North and South
America.
The Ring of Fire is composed over 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes which
produce 80% of the world’s tsunamis.
March 11, 2011 a large earthquake, 9.0 magnitude, struck just offshore in Japan triggering a
major Tsunami in Japan's east coast. Japan is also dealing with a possible nuclear
meltdown along with the earthquake and massive Tsunami.
The radiation fears added to the catastrophe that has been unfolding in Japan, where at least
10,000 people are believed to have been killed and millions of people have spent four nights
with little food, water or heating in near-freezing temperatures as they dealt with the loss of
homes and loved ones. Up to 450,000 people are in temporary shelters.
Hydro-Meteorological Disasters
Floods
Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. Floods can happen during
heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when snow melts quickly, or when dams or
levees break. Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover
a house to the rooftop. Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last
days, weeks, or longer. Floods are the most common and widespread of all weather-related
naturaldisasters.

Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods, because they combine the destructive
power of a flood with incredible speed. Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the
ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or
streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises
of water in a short amount of time. They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall,
limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.

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Causes
• The main causes of floods are
- heavy rainfall,
- inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge,
- Inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to streams/ rivers.
• Landslides blocking streams; typhoons and cyclones also cause floods.
• The flood hazard is compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage
congestion and synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains.
What is a flash flood?
• A flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and
basins.It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane,
tropical storm,or melt water from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields.
• It may also occur after the collapse of a natural ice or debris dam, or a human structure such
as a man-made dam.
• It is distinguished from a regular flood by a timescale of less than six hours.
Uttarakhand Floods-2013- Anthropogenic Causes
Major Anthropogenic factors which contributed to the Flood:
• Indiscriminate development in hill towns and along rivers
• The unbridled growth of tourism accompanied with proliferation of roads, hotels, shops and
multi-storeyed housing in ecologically fragile areas.
• Construction of large dams
• Reckless mining of sand
• Large-scale deforestation
Lack of an early warning system, effective evacuation plans and a responsive disaster
managementsystem further worsened the situation.
If you are under a flood warning:
• Find safe shelter right away.
• Do not walk, swim or drive through flood waters. Turn Around, Don’t Drown!
• Remember, just six inches of moving water can knock you down, and one foot of
moving water can sweep your vehicle away.
• Stay off bridges over fast-moving water.
• Depending on the type of flooding:
o Evacuate if told to do so.
o Move to higher ground or a higher floor.
o Stay where you are.

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Preparing for a Flood

Know Your Risk for Floods:
Visit FEMA's Flood Map Service Centre to know types of flood risk in your area. Sign up for
your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System (EAS) and National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also provide emergency alerts.
Preparing for a Flood:
Make a plan for your household, including your pets, so that you and your family know what
to do, where to go, and what you will need to protect yourselves from flooding. Learn and
practice evacuation routes, shelter plans, and flash flood response. Gather supplies, including
non-perishable foods, cleaning supplies, and water for several days, in case you must leave
immediately or if services are cut off in your area.
Purchase Flood Insurance: Purchase or renew a flood insurance policy. Homeowner’s
insurance policies do not cover flooding. It typically takes up to 30 days for a policy to go into
effect so the time to buy is well before a disaster. Get flood coverage under the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP).
InCase of Emergency: Keep important documents in a waterproof container. Create
password-protected digital copies. Protect your property. Move valuables to higher levels.
Declutter drains and gutters. Install check valves. Consider a sump pump with a battery.
Staying Safe During a Flood
• Evacuate immediately, if told to evacuate. Never drive around barricades. Local
responders use them to safely direct traffic out of flooded areas.
• Contact your healthcare provider If you are sick and need medical attention. Wait for
further care instructions and shelter in place, if possible. If you are experiencing a
medical emergency, call 9-1-1.
• Listen to EAS, NOAA Weather Radio or local alerting systems for current emergency
information and instructions regarding flooding.
• Do not walk, swim or drive through flood waters. Turn Around. Don’t Drown!
• Stay off bridges over fast-moving water. Fast-moving water can wash bridges away
without warning.
• Stay inside in your if it is trapped in rapidly moving water. Get on the roof if water is
rising inside the car.
• Get to the highest level if trapped in a building. Only get on the roof if necessary and
once there signal for help. Do not climb into a closed attic to avoid getting trapped by
rising floodwater
Staying Safe After a Flood
• Pay attention to authorities for information and instructions. Return home only when
authorities say it is safe.
• Avoid driving except in emergencies.
• Wear heavy work gloves, protective clothing and boots during clean up and use
appropriate face coverings or masks if cleaning mold or other debris.

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• People with asthma and other lung conditions and/or immune suppression should not
enter buildings with indoor water leaks or mold growth that can be seen or smelled.
Children should not take part in disaster cleanup work.
• Be aware that snakes and other animals may be in your house.
• Be aware of the risk of electrocution. Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or
if you are standing in water. Turn off the electricity to prevent electric shock if it is safe
to do so.
• Avoid wading in floodwater, which can be contaminated and contain dangerous
debris. Underground or downed power lines can also electrically charge the water.
• Use a generator or other gasoline-powered machinery ONLY outdoors and away from
windows.
Prevention and Mitigation of Floods:
National Flood Risk Mitigation Project (NFRMP):
• NFRMP has been envisaged for mitigation or reduction in risk, severity or consequences
of floods.
• It aims at ensuring that arrangements are in place to mobilise the resources and capability
for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery from disasters besides creating
awareness among vulnerable communities.
Flood Management Programme:
• The scheme provides financial assistance to the state governments for undertaking flood
management works in critical areas.
Structural and Non-Structural Measures for Flood Protection in India
Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.
Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
• Flood forecasting and warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Flood proofing
• Flood insurance.

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Effects of flood
The effects of flood are diverse and manifold which effects the land, roads, and other means
of communication, water, forests, wildlife, beels, agriculture livestock and all these leading to
diverse effects on biodiversity, ecology and environment.
• Soil erosion and degradation of land and water leads to damage of the production
base, thus adversely affecting the sustainable agriculture as well as development.
• Floods also leads to the damage of irrigation channels. The irrigation channels in the
flood prone areas either damaged or covered with soil.
• Large scale damages are seen on the live-stock and population. Heavy floods wash
away and kill the live-stocks such as domestic and wild animals. People are also
affected by floods in various ways such as washed way or attacked by diseases after
flood.
• Every year, Brahmaputra floods the national park, thus forcing animals to encroach
into human settlements.
This leads to man-animal conflict, making animals vulnerable to poaching and road accidents.
Drought
A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric
(below-average precipitation), surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months
or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial impact on
the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy. Annual
dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and
subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by
hastening evaporation of water vapour.
It is a natural disaster, which is hazardous to human beings because it results in water
shortage, damages to crops, and an increased death rate of livestock and wild animals.
It also results in shortage of electricity. Reports show, many people worldwide die during the
these extreme conditions.
In drought-prone areas certain measures such as construction of reservoirs, rain-harvest
system and stopping over-grazing could be taken. It causes increase in food prices and
unemployment.
Different Types of Drought:
1. Meteorological Drought:is based on the degree of dryness or rainfall deficit and the length
of the dry period.
2. Hydrological Drought: is based on the impact of rainfall deficits on the water supply such
as stream flow, reservoir and lake levels, and ground water table decline.
3. Agricultural Drought:refers to the impacts on agriculture by factors such as rainfall deficits,
soil water deficits, reduced ground water, or reservoir levels needed for irrigation.
4. Socio-Economic Drought: considers the impact of drought conditions (meteorological,
agricultural, or hydrological drought) on supply and demand of some economic goods such as

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fruits, vegetables, grains and meat. Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an
economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related deficit in water supply.

Before a Drought
The best way to prepare for a drought is to conserve water. Make conserving water a part of
your daily life.
Indoor Water Conservation Tips Before a Drought
GENERAL
• Never pour water down the drain when there may be another use for it. For example,
use it to water your indoor plants or garden.
• Fix dripping faucets by replacing washers. One drop per second wastes 2,700 gallons
of water a year.
• Check all plumbing for leaks and have any leaks repaired by a plumber.
• Retrofit all household faucets by installing aerators with flow restrictors.
• Install an instant hot water heater on your sink.
• Insulate your water pipes to reduce heat loss and prevent them from breaking.
• Install a water-softening system only when the minerals in the water would damage
your pipes. Turn the softener off while on vacation.
• Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.
BATHROOM
• Consider purchasing a low-volume toilet that uses less than half the water of older
models. Note: In many areas, low-volume units are required by law.
• Install a toilet displacement device to cut down on the amount of water needed to
flush. Place a one-gallon plastic jug of water into the tank to displace toilet flow. Make
sure it does not interfere with the operating parts.
• Replace your showerhead with an ultra-low-flow version.
KITCHEN
• Instead of using the garbage disposal, throw food in the garbage or start a compost
pile to dispose it.

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Outdoor Water Conservation Tips Before a Drought

GENERAL
• Check your well pump periodically. If the automatic pump turns on and off while water
is not being used, you have a leak.
• Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground covers, shrubs and trees. Once
established, your plants won't need as much watering. Group plants together based
on similar water needs.
• Don't buy water toys that require a constant stream of water.
• Don't install ornamental water features (such as fountains) unless they use re-
circulated water.
• Consider rainwater harvesting where practical.
• Contact your local water provider for information and assistance.
LAWN CARE
• Position sprinklers so water lands on the lawn and shrubs and not on paved areas.
• Repair sprinklers that spray a fine mist.
• Check sprinkler systems and timing devices regularly to be sure they operate properly.
• Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches or to its highest level. A higher cut
encourages grass roots to grow deeper and holds soil moisture.
• Plant drought-resistant lawn seed. Reduce or eliminate lawn areas that are not used
frequently.
• Don't over-fertilize your lawn. Applying fertilizer increases the need for water. Apply
fertilizers that contain slow-release, water-insoluble forms of nitrogen.
• Choose a water-efficient irrigation system such as drip irrigation for your trees, shrubs
and flowers.
• Turn irrigation down in fall and off in winter. Water manually in winter only if needed.
• Use mulch around trees and plants to retain moisture in the soil. Mulch also helps
control weeds that compete with plants for water.
• Invest in a weather-based irrigation controller—or a smart controller. These devices
will automatically adjust the watering time and frequency based on soil moisture, rain,
wind, and evaporation and transpiration rates. Check with your local water agency to
see if there is a rebate available for the purchase of a smart controller.
POOL
• Install a new water-saving pool filter. A single back flushing with a traditional filter
uses 180 to 250 gallons of water.
• Cover pools and spas to reduce water evaporation.

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During a Drought
Always observe state and local restrictions on water use during a drought. Contact your state
or local government for current information and suggestions.
Indoor Water Conservation Tips During a Drought
BATHROOM
• Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily. Dispose of tissues, insects and other similar
waste in the trash rather than the toilet.
• Take short showers instead of baths. Turn on the water only to get wet and lather and
then again to rinse off.
• Avoid letting the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face or shaving.
• Place a bucket in the shower to catch excess water for watering plants.
KITCHEN
• Operate automatic dishwashers only when they are fully loaded. Use the "light wash"
feature to use less water.
• Hand wash dishes by filling two containers—one with soapy water and the other with
rinse water containing a small amount of chlorine bleach.
• Clean vegetables in a pan filled with water rather than running water from the tap.
• Store drinking water in the refrigerator. Do not let the tap run while you are waiting
for water to cool.
• Avoid wasting water waiting for it to get hot. Capture it for other uses such as plant
watering or heat it on the stove or in a microwave.
• Don't rinse dishes before placing them in the dishwasher, just remove large particles
of food.
• Avoid using running water to thaw meat or other frozen foods. Defrost food overnight
in the refrigerator or use the defrost setting on your microwave.
LAUNDRY
• Operate clothes washers only when they are fully loaded or set the water level for the
size of your load.
Outdoor Water Conservation Tips During a Drought
CAR WASHING
• Use a commercial car wash that recycles water.
• If you wash your own car, use a shut-off nozzle that can be adjusted down to a fine
spray on your hose.
LAWN CARE
• Avoid over watering your lawn and water only when needed.
• A heavy rain eliminates the need for watering for up to two weeks. Most of the year,
lawns only need one inch of water per week.

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• Check the soil moisture levels with a soil probe, spade or large screwdriver. You don't
need to water if the soil is still moist. If your grass springs back when you step on it, it
doesn't need water yet.
• If your lawn does require watering, do so early in the morning or later in the evening,
when temperatures are cooler.
• Check your sprinkler system frequently and adjust sprinklers so only your lawn is
watered and not the house, sidewalk, or street.
• Water in several short sessions rather than one long one, in order for your lawn to
better absorb moisture and avoid runoff.
• Use a broom or blower instead of a hose to clean leaves and other debris from your
driveway or sidewalk.
• Avoid leaving sprinklers or hoses unattended. A garden hose can pour out 600 gallons
or more in only a few hours.
• In extreme drought, allow lawns to die in favor of preserving trees and large shrubs.
Drought Prevention and Mitigation:
Drought can be mitigated by two kinds of measures, either by adopting preventive measures
or by developing a preparedness plan

Impacts of Drought:
Environmental:
• Moisture Stress
• Drinking Water Shortage
• Damage to Natural Vegetation and Various Ecosystems
• Increased Air And Water Pollution

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Socio-economic:
• Malnutrition
• Poor Hygiene
• Ill Health
• Migration
• Increased Stress and Morbidity
• Social Strife
Well-known historical droughts include:
• 1900 India killing between 250,000 to 3.25 million.
• 1921–22 Soviet Union in which over 5 million perished from starvation due to drought
• 1928–30 Northwest China resulting in over 3 million deaths by famine.
• 1936 and 1941 Sichuan Province China resulting in 5 million and 2.5 million deaths
respectively.
• The 1997–2009 Millenium Drought in Australian led to a water supply crisis across
much of the country. As a result many desalination plants were built for the first time
(see list).
• In 2006, Sichuan Province China experienced its worst drought in modern times with
nearly 8 million people and over 7 million cattle facing water shortages.
• 12-year drought that was devastating southwest Western Australia, southeast South
Australia, Victoria and northern Tasmania was "very severe and without historical
precedent".
• In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire
calendar year. The drought caused the Bastrop fires.

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Cyclones
Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low pressure area distinguished
by swift and often destructive air circulation. They are usually accompanied by violent storms
and bad weather. There is no history of any cyclone in this area. However in such an instance,
the occupants will be advised to stay in the shelter in tightly secured windows and doors. The
glass of windows etc. will be covered with paper/cardboards to avoid glass breaking due to
flying objects outside.

Cyclones can be the most intense storms on Earth. A cyclone is a system of winds rotating
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere around a low pressure center. The swirling air
rises and cools, creating clouds and precipitation.
There are two types of cyclones: middle latitude (mid-latitude) cyclones and tropical cyclones.
Mid-latitude cyclones are the main cause of winter storms in the middle latitudes. Tropical
cyclones are also known as hurricanes.
An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone. An anticyclone’s winds rotate clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere around a center of high pressure. Air comes in from above and sinks to
the ground. High pressure centers generally have fair weather.
Mid-Latitude Cyclones

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Mid-latitude cyclones, sometimes called extratropical cyclones, form at the polar front when
the temperature difference between two air masses is large. These air masses blow past each
other in opposite directions. Coriolis Effect deflects winds to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere, causing the winds to strike the polar front at an angle. Warm and cold fronts
form next to each other. Most winter storms in the middle latitudes, including most of the
United States and Europe, are caused by mid-latitude cyclones. The warm air at the cold front
rises and creates a low pressure cell. Winds rush into the low pressure and create a rising
column of air. The air twists, rotating counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Since the rising air is moist, rain or snow falls.
Mid-latitude cyclones form in winter in the mid-latitudes and move eastward with the
westerly winds. These two- to five-day storms can reach 1,000 to 2,500 km (625 to 1,600
miles) in diameter and produce winds up to 125 km (75 miles) per hour. Like tropical cyclones,
they can cause extensive beach erosion and flooding.Mid-latitude cyclones are especially
fierce in the mid-Atlantic and New England states where they are called nor’easters, because
they come from the northeast. About 30 nor’easters strike the region each year.
Cyclones are not only present on Earth but also spotted on other planets like Mars, Jupiter,
and Neptune. The Great Red Spot is the hurricane on Jupiter which is going on from 340 years.
Great Black Spot was spotted in the Southern Hemisphere of Neptune.
How is a Cyclone formed?
When it comes to the formation or strengthening of a cyclone, Cyclogenesis plays a crucial
role. It is an umbrella term to identify several different processes that result in a cyclone.
Tropical cyclones are formed over warm ocean water near the equator. Warm moist air near
the surface of the ocean rises upwards. This creates a low-pressure area near the surface. This
results in the movement of cooler air from surrounding areas into the low-pressure area. Now
even this cool air becomes warm and moist and rises up. The above cycle keeps continuing.
The warm moist air which rises up, cools the water in the air, resulting in the formation of
clouds. This whole system of clouds and winds spins and grows. This entire cycle continues
resulting in a cyclone. When the winds reach a speed of 63 mph, it is called a tropical storm,
when the winds reach a speed of 119 kmph it is called a tropical cyclone or hurricane.
Hurricanes
Tropical cyclones have many names. They are called hurricanes in the North Atlantic and
eastern Pacific oceans, typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean, tropical cyclones in the Indian
Ocean, and willi-willi’s in the waters near Australia. By any name, they are the most damaging
storms on Earth. Hurricanes arise in the tropical latitudes (between 10 degrees and 25
degrees N) in summer and autumn when sea surface temperature are 28 degrees C (82
degrees F) or higher. The warm seas create a large humid air mass. The warm air rises and
forms a low pressure cell, known as a tropical depression. Thunderstorms materialize around
the tropical depression.If the temperature reaches or exceeds 28 degrees C (82 degrees F)
the air begins to rotate around the low pressure (counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere).
As the air rises, water vapor condenses, releasing energy from latent heat. If wind shear is
low, the storm builds into a hurricane within two to three days.Hurricanes are huge with high
winds. The exception is the relatively calm eye of the storm where air is rising upward. Rainfall
can be as high as 2.5 cm (1″) per hour, resulting in about 20 billion metric tons of water

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released daily in a hurricane. The release of latent heat generates enormous amounts of
energy, nearly the total annual electrical power consumption of the United States from one
storm. Hurricanes can also generate tornadoes.

Prepare for Hurricanes

Know your Hurricane Risk: Hurricanes are not just a coastal problem. Find out how rain, wind,
water, even tornadoes could happen far inland from where a hurricane or tropical storm
makes landfall. Start preparing now.
Make an Emergency Plan
Make sure everyone in your household knows and understands your hurricane plan. In your
hurricane plans include the office, kids’ daycare, and anywhere you frequent. Ensure your
business has a continuity plan to continue operating when disaster strikes.
Discuss the latest Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidance on Coronavirus (COVID-19) and
how it may affect your hurricane planning.
Know your Evacuation Zone
You may have to evacuate quickly due to a hurricane if you live in an evacuation zone. Learn
your evacuation routes, practice with household, pets, and identify where you will stay.
• Follow the instructions from local emergency managers, who work closely with state,
local, tribal, and territorial agencies and partners. They will provide the latest
recommendations based on the threat to your community and appropriate safety
measures.
Recognize Warnings and Alerts
Have several ways to receive alerts. Download the FEMA app and receive real-time alerts
from the National Weather Service for up to five locations nationwide. Sign up for community
alerts in your area and be aware of the Emergency Alert System (EAS) and Wireless
Emergency Alert (WEA)- which requires no-sign up.
Those with Disabilities
If you or anyone in your household is an individual with a disability identify if you may need
additional help during an emergency.

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Prevention and Mitigation:

National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
• upgrade cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems,
• build capacity in multi-hazard risk management
•Construct major infrastructures including multi-purpose cyclone shelters and embankments.
Principal Components: The major components under the scheme are:
1. Community mobilisation and training
2. Cyclone Risk Mitigation Infrastructure (construction of cyclone shelters, roads/missing links
and construction/repair of Saline Embankments etc.)
3.Technical assistance for capacity building on Disaster Risk Management (risk assessment,
damage and need assessment)
4.Capacity Building and knowledge creation along with project management and
implementation support
Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project (ICZMP)
Objective:To assist the Government in building the national capacity for implementation of a
comprehensive coastal management approach in the country and piloting the integrated
coastal zone management approach in states of Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal.
Four Components:
1. Capacity Building: It includes mapping, delineation and demarcation of the hazard lines,
and delineation of coastal sediment cells all along the mainland coast of India.
2. Piloting ICZM approaches in Gujarat: This component will support capacity building of the
state level agencies and institutions, including preparation of an ICZM plan for the coastal
sediment cell that includes the Gulf of Kachchh and pilot investments.
3. Piloting ICZM approaches in Orissa: It provides for capacity building of the state level
agencies and institutions, including preparation of an ICZM plan for the coastal sediment cells
(the stretches of Paradip-Dhamra and Gopalpur-Chilika), including a regional coastal process
study, and pilot investments.
4. Piloting ICZM approaches in West Bengal

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Thunderstorms & Lightning

Lightning is a leading cause of injury and death from weather-related hazards. Although most
lightning victims survive, people struck by lightning often report a variety of long-term,
debilitating symptoms.
Thunderstorms are dangerous storms that include lightning and can create or cause:
• Powerful winds over 50 mph
• Hail
• Flash flooding and/or tornadoes

Prepare for Thunderstorms & Lightning

Know Your Risk
Know your area’s risk for thunderstorms. In most places they can occur year-round and at any
hour. Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System
(EAS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also
provide emergency alerts.
Strengthen Your Home
Cut down or trim trees that may be in danger of falling on your home. Consider buying surge
protectors, lightning rods or a lightning protection system to protect your home, appliances
and electronic devices.
Make an Emergency Plan
Create an emergency plan so that you and your family know what to do, where to go and
what you will need to protect yourselves from the effects of a thunderstorm. Identify sturdy
buildings close to where you live, work, study and play.
Stay Safe During Thunderstorms & Lightning
If you are under a thunderstorm warning:
• When thunder roars, go indoors! Move from outdoors into a building or car with a
roof.
• Pay attention to alerts and warnings.
• Avoid using electronic devices connected to an electrical outlet.
• Avoid running water.

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• Turn Around. Don’t Drown! Do not drive through flooded roadways. Just six inches of
fast-moving water can knock you down, and one foot of moving water can sweep your
vehicle away.
Stay Safe After Thunderstorms & Lightning
• Pay attention to authorities and weather forecasts for information on whether it is
safe to go outside and instructions regarding potential flash flooding.
• Watch for fallen power lines and trees. Report them immediately.
Avalanche
An avalanche is a large amount of snow moving quickly down a mountain, typically on slopes
of 30 to 45 degrees. When an avalanche stops, the snow becomes solid like concrete and
people are unable to dig out. People caught in avalanches can die from suffocation, trauma
or hypothermia.
Avalanches can:
• Be caused by people, new snow and wind.
• Move at speeds of 60 to 80 MPH.
• Peak during the period of December through March.

How to Protect Yourself from an Avalanche

The most important actions you can take to survive an avalanche are done before it happens.
Know your Avalanche risk
Learn about your local avalanche risk. Know the signs of increased danger, including recent
avalanches and shooting cracks across slopes. Avoid areas of increased risk, such as slopes
steeper than 30 degrees or areas under steep slopes. Get training on how to recognize
hazardous conditions and avalanche-prone locations. Sign up for alerts from a U.S. Forest
Service Avalanche Center near you. Your community may also have a local warning system.
Preparing for Avalanche
Get proper equipment to protect yourself from head injuries and create air pockets. Receive
first aid training so you can recognize and treat suffocation, hypothermia, traumatic injury
and shock. Wear a helmet to help reduce head injuries and create air pockets. Wear an
avalanche beacon to help rescuers locate you. Use an avalanche airbag that may help you
from being completely buried. Carry a collapsible avalanche probe and a small shovel to help
rescue others.

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Consider Overlapping Hazards: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Remember, there is no

evidence that cold weather and snow can kill the coronavirus disease. Be sure to have several
clean masks to use in case your mask becomes wet or damp from snow. Cloth masks should
not be worn when they become damp or wet. Be sure to wash your mask regularly.
Masks may make it difficult to breathe, especially for those engaging in high intensity
activities. Remove your mask if you are having difficulty breathing. If you are unable to wear
a mask, maintain a distance of at least six feet between yourself and others.
Signs of Avalanches
Learn the signs of an avalanche, and how to use safety and rescue equipment.
Follow avalanche warnings on roads. Roads may be closed, or vehicles may be advised not to
stop on the roadside.
Stay Safe During an Avalanche
• Use and carry safety equipment and rescue gear.
• If your partner or others are buried, call 9-1-1 and then begin to search if it is safe to
do so.
• If you have the proper training, treat others for suffocation, hypothermia, traumatic
injury or shock.
Returning After an Avalanche
Know the signs and ways to treat hypothermia.
• Hypothermia is an unusually low body temperature. A body temperature below 95
degrees is an emergency.
o Signs: Shivering, exhaustion, confusion, fumbling hands, memory loss, slurred
speech and drowsiness.
o Actions: Go to a warm room or shelter. Warm the center of the body first—
chest, neck, head and groin. Keep the person dry and wrapped up in warm
blankets, including the head and neck.
• Engage virtually with your community through video and phone calls. Know that it’s
normal to feel anxious or stressed. Take care of your body and talk to someone if you
are feeling upset.
Heat and cold waves
Changes in temperature extremes tend to follow mean temperature changes in many parts
of the world. IPCC indicate that cold extreme cold extremes warm faster than warm extremes
by about 30% – 40% globally averaged (Andreas Strerl et al, 2008). Many areas of society are
susceptible to the effects of extreme temperatures. Unusually high summer temperatures
raise power demand for air conditioning, increase heat stress on crops, and may create
dangerous conditions for human health. Low winter temperatures may cause damaging frosts
and freezes, increase heating demands, and may disrupt transportation
Extreme heat and cold occur somewhere in the world every year and can afflict nearly every
location on Earth. Heat waves are periods of unusually high temperatures, usually lasting
three days to three weeks. Typically, heat waves are characterized by temperatures of 35°C

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(95°F) or higher, although lower temperatures accompanied by high humidity levels can also
be considered a heat wave. Cold snaps are commonly three days to three weeks in duration,
with temperatures usually falling below -15°C (5°F).
Temperature extremes are most common in the mid-latitude regions, especially near the
interior of large continents, such as North America. Here, without the moderating effects of
the oceans, winter minimum temperatures can drop below -20°C (-4°F) and above 40°C
(104°F) for several weeks.
1. Heat Wave
Heat wave or extreme heat is the temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above the
average high temperature for the region and last for several weeks are defined as extreme
heat. Humid or muggy conditions, which add to the discomfort of high temperatures, occur
when a "dome" of high atmospheric pressure traps hazy, damp air near the ground.
Excessively dry and hot conditions can provoke dust storms and low visibility. Droughts occur
when a long period passes without substantial rainfall. A heat wave combined with a drought
is a very dangerous situation
A basic definition of a heat wave implies that it is an extended period of unusually high
atmosphere-related heat stress, which causes temporary modifications in lifestyle and which
may have adverse health consequences for the affected population. Thus, although a heat
wave is a meteorological event, it cannot be assessed without reference to human impacts
Impacts/damages
People living in urban areas may be at greater risk from the effects of a prolonged heat wave
than people living in rural regions. Heat wave impacts are widespread. While a large number
of deaths may not occur in a single city every year, the cumulative impacts across broad
regions over several days to weeks can result in heavy loss of life. Many more hundreds of
deaths are associated with excessive heat attributed to heart attack, stroke, and also
respiratory stress. Most deaths occur in urban areas where concrete, asphalt, and physical
structures raise temperatures in urban heat islands, and nighttime temperatures remain
above average. Heat waves also impact farming and ranching through loss of cattle and other
livestock. Below are several impacts caused by heat waves:
1. Illnesses caused by exposure to high temperatures include heat cramps, fainting, heat
exhaustion, heatstroke, and death.
2. Population at increased risk especially older and younger people, risk of dehydration,
low fitness/excessive exertion, etc.
3. Another reason of death during heat wave is because of living alone. Studies designed
to investigate why some people died during the 1995 and 1999 heat waves in Chicago
found that the strongest risk factor was living alone, particularly for those who did not
leave home daily.
Effects
The worst heat wave in recent history was the European Heat Wave of 2003.
A summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelled the massive
bushfires in 2009. Melbourne experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding

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40°C (104°F) with some regional areas sweltering through much higher temperatures. The
bushfires, collectively known as "Black Saturday", were partly the act of arsonists.
The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer resulted in severe heat waves, which killed over
2,000 people. It resulted in hundreds of wildfires which causing widespread air pollution, and
burned thousands of square miles of forest.
Heat waves can occur in the ocean as well as on land with significant effects (often on a large
scale) e.g. coral bleaching.
Emergency Action
What you should do if the weather is extremely hot:
• Stay indoors as much as possible and limit exposure to the sun.
• Stay on the lowest floor out of the sunshine if air conditioning is not available.
• Consider spending the warmest part of the day in public buildings such as libraries,
schools, movie theaters, shopping malls, and other community facilities. Circulating
air can cool the body by increasing the perspiration rate of evaporation.
• Eat well-balanced, light, and regular meals. Avoid using salt tablets unless directed to
do so by a physician.
• Drink plenty of water. Persons who have epilepsy or heart, kidney, or liver disease; are
on fluid-restricted diets; or have a problem with fluid retention should consult a doctor
before increasing liquid intake.
• Limit intake of alcoholic beverages.
• Dress in loose-fitting, lightweight, and light-colored clothes that cover as much skin as
possible.
• Protect face and head by wearing a wide-brimmed hat.
• Check on family, friends, and neighbors who do not have air conditioning and who
spend much of their time alone.
• Never leave children or pets alone in closed vehicles.
• Avoid strenuous work during the warmest part of the day. Use a buddy system when
working in extreme heat, and take frequent breaks.
Deaths due to Heat Waves in India:
In recent years, heat wave induced casualties have increased.

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2. Cold Wave
A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by marked cooling of the air, or
the invasion of very cold air, over a large area. It can also be prolonged period of excessively
cold weather, which may be accompanied by high winds that cause excessive wind chills,
leading to weather that seems even colder than it is. Cold waves can be preceded or
accompanied by significant winter weather events, such as blizzards or ice storms. Other
names of a cold wave include cold snap and deep freeze.
Impacts/damages
Some impacts of cold wave
• Sudden cold waves can have detrimental effects on human beings. A cold wave that
is unexpected can cause frost bites, hypothermia or other serious medical aliments.
• A lot of damage is caused to animals and wildlife. When a cold wave comes along with
heavy and incessant snowfall, animals may not be able to graze and thus die out of
starvation. In order to feed livestock, farmers have to pay high prices for buying their
food.
• There can be cases of damage when water pipelines freeze and burst.
• There is a rise in the demand for fuels and electricity.
Emergency Action
Emergency response guidelines on cold wave:
• Stay indoors as much as possible.
• Listen to the radio or television for weather reports and emergency information.
• Conserve fuel, if necessary, by temporarily closing off heat to some rooms.
• Eat to supply heat to the body and drink non-alcoholic beverages to avoid
dehydration.
• Wear several layers of loose fitting, lightweight; warm clothing rather than one layer
of heavy clothing. The outer garments should be tightly woven and water repellent.
• Carry a "basic vehicle emergency kit" in the trunk of your vehicle.
Hailstorm
A hailstorm is an unusual weather phenomenon in which balls of ice, called hail, fall from the
sky. The ice balls are nothing more than solid precipitation that will form under certain
conditions.

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Fast Facts about Hail

• Hail is formed at high altitudes within massive clouds when supercooled water
droplets adhere to each other and form layers of ice.
• The average velocity of a falling hailstone is approximately 106 miles per hour (mph).
What causes a hailstorm to occur?
Several conditions are required in the atmosphere in order for hailstorms to occur. Highly
developed Cumulonimbus clouds need to be present. These are the massive anvil or
mushroom shaped clouds that are seen during thunderstorms which can reach heights up to
65,000 feet. There must also be strong currents of air ascending through these clouds. These
currents are commonly known as updrafts. The updrafts contain ice particles, as a large
number of water droplets become solid ice at the low temperatures found at high altitudes
within the massive clouds. The last remaining condition is that the clouds will need to contain
high concentrations of supercooled liquid water.
How does hail form?
A hailstone begins as a water droplet that is swept up by an updraft inside of a thundercloud.
Inside the cloud, there are a large number of other supercooled water droplets already
present. These supercooled particles will adhere to the water droplet’s surface, forming layers
of ice around it. As the water droplet reaches higher elevations within the cloud it comes into
contact with more and more supercooled particles. This is because it is at the highest parts of
the cloud, where the temperature is too low (at least 32 degrees Fahrenheit) for water
molecules to remain in either a liquid or gaseous state. The hail embryo will grow larger and
larger as it reaches higher altitudes in the updraft.
The hailstone will reach a size and weight where gravity will begin to act on it and pull it down.
However, this is not necessarily the end of its formation, as it could be pulled into another
strong updraft and remain in the upper part of the cloud. A stone the size of a golf ball would
need an updraft flowing at 60 miles per hour (mph) to keep it elevated in the cloud. The size
the hailstone reaches depends on the amount of time it spends surrounded by supercooled
water droplets, but eventually gravity causes the stone to fall to the Earth.
During this process hailstones can become considerably large. In 2010, the largest hailstone
found in the United States (Vivian, South Dakota) was 8 inches in diameter, 18.5 inches in
circumference, and weighed approximately two pounds. As gravity takes over, they will fall
to Earth at approximately 106 miles per hour. The exact velocity each stone falls at will vary
depending on several conditions, such as weight, air friction and collisions with other
suspended objects.
A particularly damaging hailstorm hit Munich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about 2
billion dollars in insurance claims.

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Biological Disaster
Biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a large scale
among humans, animals and plants due to micro-organisms like bacteria, or virus or toxins.
Biological disasters may be in the form of:-
Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population,
community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague;
Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even
worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging diseases and pestilences, example being
Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).

• The 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, killing an estimated 50 million people worldwide
• The 1957–58 Asian flu pandemic, which killed an estimated 1 million people
• The 1968–69 Hong Kong water flu pandemic
• The 2002-3 SARS pandemic
• The AIDS pandemic, beginning in 1959
• The H1N1 Influenza (Swine Flu) Pandemic 2009–2010
What is biological hazard or bio-hazard ?
• These refer to biological substances or organic matters produced by parasites, viruses,
bacteria, fungi and protein that pose a threat to health of living organisms, primarily that of
humans.
• This can include :
- Medical waste
- Samples of a micro organism
- Virus or toxin (from a biological source)
- Substances harmful to other animals

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Effects of Biohazards:
The harmful effects posed to human health by biohazards are mainly of three types:
- Infection
- Allergy
- Poisoning
Impact of Biological Disaster:
- Loss of life
- Disability
- Quarantine
- Over whelming of local medical capabilities
- Long term environmental consequences
- Long term economic consequences.
Biological Disasters – Classifications
Charles Baldwin developed the symbol for biohazard in 1966.

The US Centres for Disease Control classifies biohazards into four biosafety levels as follows:
1. BSL-1: Bacteria and Viruses including Bacillus subtilis, some cell cultures, canine
hepatitis, and non-infectious bacteria. Protection is only facial protection and gloves.
2. BSL-2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to humans, or are difficult to
contract via aerosol in a lab setting such as hepatitis A, B, C, mumps, measles, HIV, etc.
Protection – use of autoclaves for sterilizing and biological safety cabinets.
3. BSL-3: Bacteria and viruses causing severe to fatal disease in humans. Example: West
Nile virus, anthrax, MERS coronavirus. Protection – Stringent safety protocols such as
the use of respirators to prevent airborne infection.
4. BSL-4: Potentially fatal (to human beings) viruses like Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Lassa
fever virus, etc. Protection – use of a positive pressure personnel suit, with a
segregated air supply.

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Prevention of Biological Disaster

1. Vulnerability Assessment and Risk Management
2. Environmental management
(i) Safe water supply and proper maintenance of sewage pipeline.
(ii) Awareness about personal hygiene
(iii) Vector control.
o Environment engineering work and generic integrated vector control measures.
o Elimination of breeding places
o Regular spraying of insecticides
o Burial disposal of dead bodies.
3. Prevention of post disaster epidemics
4. integrated disease surveillance systems
5. Detection and containment of or outbreak- this would include :
• Recognition and diagnosis by primary health care practitioners
• Communication of surveillance information to public health authorities
• Epidemiological analysis of the surveillance date
• Delivery of appropriate medical and public health measures.
6. Pharmaceutical interventions – immunization and other preventive measures
7. Bio safety and Bio security
• System for inventory control I n the laboratories dealing with bacteria, viruses or toxins
which can be source of potential causative agents for biological disasters
Legislations:
There are a number of legislations that control and govern the nation’s health policies.
1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
2. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
3. The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986, and the Rules (1986): This Act also provides for
the
Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 with a view to controlling the
indiscriminate disposal of hospital/ biomedical wastes.
4. Disaster Management Act of 20o5
Role of World Health Organization (WHO):
WHO contributes to global health security by:
1. strengthening national surveillance programmes, particularly in the field of epidemiology
and laboratory techniques;

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2. disseminating verified information on outbreaks of diseases, and also by providing technical

support for response;
3. Collecting, analysing and disseminating information on diseases likely to cause epidemics
of global importance.
Do’s and Don’ts
Before The Disaster
Plan for Family Biological Disaster Plan.
Preparation by ensuring Prevention measures:-
• Personal cleanliness - daily bath, don’t grow long nails and wear clean clothes.
• Hand Hygiene (Wash hands with soap and water before preparing food or eating, after
passing stools, coughing or sneezing). The steps of hand washing are:-

Step 2: Wash back of hands. Step 3: Wash fingers and

Step 1: Wash palms and fingers

Step 4: Wash thumbs Step 5: Wash fingertip Step 6 : Wash wrists

• Eat nutritious and balanced food.

• Immunisation state should be upto date.
• Prevent overcrowding.
• Good ventilation.
• Protect from hot and cold weather.
• Health Education.
• Surveillance.

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To handle biological disasters, the following is necessary:

1. Medical and paramedical staff: It is important to train medical staff and paramedics
properly in universal safety precautions, use of PPE, communication, triage, barrier nursing,
and collection and dispatch of biological samples. A team of specialists must be made
available to handle infectious diseases affecting various body systems and they will be suitably
immunised against agents such as anthrax and smallpox.
2. Expansion of casualty area: If the hospital casualty ward is unable to accommodate a
large number of casualties, provision will be made to use the patients’ waiting hall, duly
reoriented, to receive the casualties. Each major hospital will cater to at least 50 additional
patients at times of disaster.
3. Isolation wards: Many biological agents cause infective diseases of various body
systems which can spread the infection to other patients. Therefore, adequate number of
isolation wards are required to be planned with surge capacity to accommodate a large
number of patients. If required, side rooms, seminar rooms, other halls can be improvised
for this purpose.
4. Security arrangements: Hospital security staff will prepare SOPs to prevent
overcrowding of hospitals by visitors, relatives, VIPs, and the media at the time of a disaster.
Help of the district administration will be sought, if required.
5. Identification of patients: The process will start at the time of giving first aid and
triage. A system of labelling and identifying patients during spot registration by giving a serial
number to the patient and putting an identification tag around the wrist can be done. In mass
casualties, it can be supplemented by giving colour coded tags, such as red for serious
patients, yellow for moderately serious patients, blue for those in need of observation and
black for the dead.
6. Brought dead: All those brought in dead and patients who die while receiving
resuscitation will be segregated and shifted to the mortuary through a separate route.
Temporary mortuary facilities will be created to cater for a mass casualty incidence.
7. Diagnostic services: All laboratories and radio diagnostic services will be kept fully
operational and utilised as and when required. These services will be available within the
emergency treatment areas.
8. Communication: Both extramural and intramural communication facilities will 57 be
made available. These can be further augmented by the use of mobile phones.
9. Medical supplies: Adequate supply of essential drugs and non-drug items will be made
available for at least 50 patients in the emergency complex itself for immediate use.
Additionally, hospital medical stores will have adequate buffer stocks.
10. Blood bank services: The services will cater for an adequate supply of safe blood and
its components. Voluntary blood donations will be encouraged to fulfil the increased demand
of blood. k. Other logistic support: Adequate, uninterrupted supply of water and electricity
will be ensured for proper management of casualties.

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Dos and Don’ts

DIARRHEA GROUP OF DISEASES INCLUDING CHOLERA
Do’s
1. Hand Hygiene.
2. Encourage drinking of water from a safe source or water that has been disinfected
(chlorinated). Add bleaching powder in all community wells at regular intervals. Use
water pumped out from India Mark II hand pumps, if installed in the
village/community.
3. Drink boiled potable water in an emergency that has been boiled for at least 15
minutes and consumed it the same day.
4. Promote storage of water in narrow mouthed container.
5. Cook food thoroughly especially meat, poultry, eggs and seafood until it is steaming
and eat it while it is still hot.
6. Ensure cooked meat and poultry is safe and no part of the meat discoloured or foul
smelling, or in the case of egg, their shells are not cracked.
7. If food is not eaten immediately, reheat cooked until it is steaming hot prior to serving.
8. Keep food items covered.
9. Increase fluid intake as soon as diarrhoea starts by drinking ORS solution or home-
made preparation of Table Salt 5 grams (1 teaspoon) in and 20 grams (4 teaspoons) of
Sugar dissolved in 1 litre of drinking water.
10. Encourage banana eating, which provides potassium.
11. Continue feeding children when they are sick
12. Refer the diarrhoea case to the nearest health facility in case of the following : Child
is irritable, restless or lethargic or unconscious: eating or drinking poorly; child has
marked thirst; child has fever or blood in stool.
Don’ts
1. Do not drink water from unsafe sources.
2. Do not eat uncooked food unless it is peeled or shelled.
3. Do not leave cooked food at room temperature longer than 2 hours.
4. Do not consume cut fruits from vendors.
5. Do not defecate in open area.
6. Do not give access to rats and houseflies in your premises.

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2. RESPIRATORY GROUP OF DISEASES LIKE TUBERCULOSIS, INFLUENZA, CHICKENPOX,

MENINGITIS
Do’s and Don’ts:
1. Avoid close contact with people who are having respiratory illness.
2. The sick person should stay at home, and avoid going into the community,
school/office, public places for at least 24 hours after symptoms have resolved.
3. Sick persons at home should keep distance from others.
4. Respiratory Hygiene/Cough Etiquette:-
5. Cover the nose/mouth with a handkerchief/ tissue paper when coughing or sneezing
which should be disposed off in dustbins;
6. Perform hand hygiene (e.g., frequent hand washing with soap and water,
alcohol- based hand rub, or antiseptic hand wash) and thoroughly dried preferably
using disposable tissue/ paper/ towel after contact after having contact with
respiratory secretions and contaminated objects/materials.
7. Triple layer surgical Mask of standard and certified make should be worn by
Suspected/ probable/confirmed cases of influenza or by the care provider in home
care settings and close family contacts of such cases undergoing home care.
8. Get plenty of sleep, be physically active, manage your stress, drink plenty of fluids, and
eat nutritious food.
9. Avoid smoking.
10. Persons who have difficulty breathing or shortness of breath should seek immediate
medical attention and report to the nearby hospital.
11. If sick persons must go into the community (e.g., to seek medical care), then they
should wear a face mask or use a handkerchief or tissues to cover any coughing and
sneezing so as to reduce the risk of spreading the infection in the community.
12. Immunization status should be upto date as per National Universal Immunisation
Programme.
3. MOSQUITO BORNE DISEASES LIKE MALARIA, DENGUE, FILARIA, CHIKUNGUNYA
Do’s
1. Follow “sun-down sleeves-down” approach. Wear clothes that cover arms and legs.
2. Prevent water collections on ground and other places to prevent malaria breeding.
3. Empty water containers at least once a week.
4. Remove water from coolers from time to time.
5. Cover and seal any septic tanks.

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6. Use Mosquito Nets preferably Insecticide Treated Bed Nets (ITBN).

7. Apply insect repellants while sleeping to keep away mosquitoes.
8. Seek medical advice in case of rashes, mental irritation or unconsciousness..
Don’ts
1. Do not encourage children to wear shorts and half sleeved clothing.
2. Do not allow water to stagnate.
3. Do not allow discarded items to accumulate such as tires, tubes, empty coconut shells,
household items and objects wherein water may collect.
4. Do not bathe in village ponds and allow cattle to take bath in the same pond.
Pandemics
A pandemic is a disease outbreak that spans several countries and affects a large number of
people. Pandemics are most often caused by viruses, like Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-
19), which can easily spread from person to person.
A new virus, like COVID-19, can emerge from anywhere and quickly spread around the world.
It is hard to predict when or where the next new pandemic will emerge.
If a Pandemic is declared:
• Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20 seconds and try not to
touch your eyes, nose or mouth.
• Keep a distance of at least six feet between yourself and people who are not part of
your household.
• Cover your mouth and nose with a mask when in public.
• Clean and disinfect high-touch objects and surfaces.
• Stay at home as much as possible to prevent the spread of disease.
• Follow the guidance of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
How to Prepare Yourself for a Pandemic
• Learn how diseases spread to help protect yourself and others. Viruses can be spread
from person to person, from a non-living object to a person and by people who are
infected but don’t have any symptoms.
• Prepare for the possibility of schools, workplaces and community centers being
closed. Investigate and prepare for virtual coordination for school, work (telework)
and social activities.
• Gather supplies in case you need to stay home for several days or weeks. Supplies
may include cleaning supplies, non-perishable foods, prescriptions and bottled water.
• Buy supplies slowly to ensure that everyone has the opportunity to buy what they
need.

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• Create an emergency plan so that you and your family know what to do and what you
will need in case an outbreak happens. Consider how a pandemic may affect your
plans for other emergencies.
• Review your health insurance policies to understand what they cover, including
telemedicine options.
• Create password-protected digital copies of important documents and store in a safe
place. Watch out for scams and fraud.
Stay Safe During a Pandemic
Follow the latest guidelines from the CDC. Refer to your local and state public health
departments for vaccine and testing updates.
Get vaccinated once available. Vaccines stimulate your immune system to produce
antibodies, so vaccines actually prevent diseases.
• Take actions to prevent the spread of disease. Cover coughs and sneezes. Wear a
mask in public. Stay home when sick (except to get medical care). Disinfect surfaces.
Wash hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds. If soap and water are not
available, use a hand sanitizer that contains at least 60 percent alcohol. Stay six feet
away from people who are not part of your household.
• If you believe you’ve been exposed to the disease, contact your doctor, follow the
quarantine instructions from medical providers and monitor your symptoms. If you’re
experiencing a medical emergency, call 9-1-1 and shelter in place with a mask, if
possible, until help arrives.
• Share accurate information about the disease with friends, family and people on
social media. Sharing bad information about the disease or treatments for the disease
may have serious health outcomes. Remember that stigma hurts everyone and can
cause discrimination against people, places or nations.
• Know that it’s normal to feel anxious or stressed. Engage virtually with your
community through video and phone calls. Take care of your body and talk to
someone if you are feeling upset.
Stay Safe After a Pandemic
• Continue taking protective actions, like:
o Staying home when you are sick (except to get medical care).
o Following the guidance of your health care provider.
o Covering coughs and sneezes with a tissue.
o Washing your hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds.
• Be sure to evaluate your family emergency plan and make timely updates.
• Work with your community to talk about the lessons you learned from the pandemic.
Decide how you can use these experiences to be more prepared for future pandemics.

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FOREST FIRE
The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests
themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime to
fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a
region. During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests become littered with
dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark.
The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning regularly during
the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.
Forest fire causes imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by reducing faunal and
floral wealth. Traditional methods of fire prevention are not proving effective and it is now
essential to raise public awareness on the matter, particularly among those people who live
close to or in forested areas.
CAUSES OF FOREST FIRE
Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Man made causes
• Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which set
trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without causing much damage.
High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable
circumstance for a fire to start.
• Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or
bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable
material.
Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. Themenace has been aggravated with
rising human and cattle population and the consequent increase in demand for Forest
products by individuals and communities. Causes of forest fires can be divided into two broad
categories: environmental (which are beyond control) and human related (which are
controllable).
Environmental causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature, wind
speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere and duration of dry spells. Other
natural causes are the friction of bamboos swaying due to high wind velocity and rolling
stones that result in sparks setting off fires in highly inflammable leaf litter on the forest floor.
Human related causes result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, for example:
• graziers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain good
grazing grass as well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce like flowers
of Madhuca indica and leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon
• the centuries old practice of shifting cultivation (especially in the North-Eastern region
of India and inparts of the States of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh).
• the use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals
• fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation

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• fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette butts.
The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The problem has been accentuated by
the growing human and cattle population. People enter forests ever more frequently
to graze cattle, collect fuelwood, timber and other minorforest produce. It has been
estimated that 90% of forest fires in India are man-made
Classification of Forest Fire
Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;
• Natural or controlled forest fire.
• Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer
through carelessness of people (human neglect) and
• Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.
Types of Forest Fire
There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire
Surface Fire
A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the surface
litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is engulfed by
the spreading flames.
Crown Fire
The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often
sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous forest
because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts
downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope
spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading
downwards.

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EFFECT OF FOREST FIRE

Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide ranging adverse ecological,
economic and social impacts, including:
• loss of valuable timber resources
• degradation of catchment areas
• loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
• loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife
• loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover
• global warming
• loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in atmosphere
• change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
• soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
• ozone layer depletion
• health problems leading to diseases
• loss of livelihood for tribal people and the rural poor, as approximately 300 million
people are directly dependent upon collection of non-timber forest products from
forest areas for their livelihood.

Prevention and Mitigation

National Plan for Forest Fire Management
The main objectives are:
1. To strengthen the Organizations responsible for forest fire management
2. To coordinate the States/UT's plans for systematic forest fire management.
3. To provide input regarding training, research, extension, and publicity
4. To coordinate international transfer of technology and training in the field of forest fire
management
5. Creation of a strong database for: number of fires, area burnt, damage to flora and fauna,
effect of fire on land and soil and measures taken
6. Assessment of ecological, social, and economic impact of fires

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7. Strong national extension strategy for people's awareness and their participation in forest
fire management through JFM, VFC, and NGOs
8. To assess technical and financial assistance required by various States/UTs for forest fire
Management
9. To develop necessary mechanism for monitoring and evaluating management practices
10. To provide strong legal base by amending Indian Forest Act, National Code for writing
Working Plans and giving due importance to forest fire management in the National
Forestry ActionProgramme
In November 2017, National Green Tribunal (NGT) had asked the Environment Ministry to
evolve a nationalpolicy for prevention and control of forest fires.
Forest Fire Dos & Don’ts
Do’s
• Know your forest fire risk.
• Make a forest fire emergency plan
• Familiarize yourself with local emergency plans.
• Be informed and make others aware about mobile, email. radio, TV alerts/warnings
systems
• accessible in your locality for forest fire.
• Be aware of weather updates. emergency instructions or evacuation orders.
• Educate you family members and neighbours on plan, Dos and Don’ts in case of forest
fire
• Teach all household members the technique of ' stop,drop and roll ‘ in case cloth
catches fire
• Pre-plan evacuation route and keep evacuation checklist and emergency kit (including
a flashlight, mobile phone with power-bunk/charger. batteries. cash, water bottles
first aid supplies) ready before the fire season sets in.
Don’ts
Preventing Forest Fire
• NEVER leave a fire unattended without completely extinguishing, checking and
rechecking the ashes near vegetation.
• Do NOT leave/throw cigarettes, matches, and other smoking materials from a moving
vehicles near forest area without completely extinguishing it.
• Do NOT leave behind flammables during outdoor camping in forests

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Technological Disasters
Disasters caused by technology involve the failure or breakdown of systems, equipment and
engineering standards that harms people and the environment. The term itself includes a
wide range of modern issues and consequences of technology mismanagement and
engineering mistakes. Technology disasters include structural collapses, such as bridges,
mines and buildings, but also industrial accidents, such as chemical or nuclear explosions. The
effects of pollution, like smog and acid rain, are long-term manmade disasters. Taking care of
sudden disaster may be straightforward, but chronic problems sometimes divide
communities or put the public at odds with the government. It may be hard to pinpoint who
is ultimately responsible for the cause of a complex disaster and paying for the costs of
recovery. Technological disasters can be considered a man-made disaster.
All types of disasters are challenging, but technological disasters tend to be even more
difficult
for the following reasons:
· The threat cannot be anticipated. A technological disaster is sudden, unexpected, and
unpredictable.
· People are responsible. Victims of technological disasters tend to feel anger toward
people who were responsible for accidents that may have been prevented.
· Community breakdowns and conflict may result. Technological disasters can create
disputes within communities.
· Longer Recovery—Community members tend to concentrate on litigation and blame and
less on cleanup and recovery.
· Media Exposure—Media covering a technological disaster can be constant adding to
already heightened stress levels.

Effects of Technological Disasters

Technological disasters are stressful, especially because they are unpredictable. Individuals,
families, and communities are affected. Some of the results include income loss, loss of job
security, uncertainty about the future, family conflict, and stress.

Industrial and Chemical disaster

What are industrial disasters?
• Industrial disasters are disasters caused by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical or other
process failures
• These may occur due to accident, negligence or incompetence, in an industrial plant which
may spill over to the areas outside the plant or within
• Such disasters cause damage to life, property and environment

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Industrialdisaster,whichare disasters causedby industrial companies,eitherby

accident, negligence or incompetence.
Other disasters can also be considered industrial disasters, if their causes are rooted in the
products or processes of industry. For example, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 was made
more severe due to the heavy concentration of lumber industry facilities, wood houses, and
fuel and other chemicals in a small area.
The Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents is designed to protect
people and the environment from industrial accidents. The Convention aims to prevent
accidents from occurring, to reduce their frequency and severity, and to mitigate their effects.
The Convention addresses primarily industrial accidents in one country that affect the
population and the environment of another country.

Ways in which Chemical and Industrial emergencies may arise:

• Explosion in a plant
• Accidents in storage facilities of chemicals
• Accidents during transportation of chemicals, misuse of chemicals
• Improper waste management
• Accident in treatment plants
• Technological system failures
• Failures of plant safety design
• Arson and sabotage
• Human Error

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Chemical Disaster:
Chemical, being at the core of modern industrial systems, has attained a very serious concern
for disaster management within government, private sector and community at large.
Chemical disasters may be traumatic in their impacts on human beings and have resulted in
the casualties and also damages nature and property. The elements which are at highest risks
due to chemical disaster primarily include the industrial plant, its employees & workers,
hazardous chemicals vehicles, the residents of nearby settlements, adjacent buildings,
occupants and surrounding community. Chemical disasters may arise in number of ways, such
as:-
1. Process and safety systems failures
o Human errors
o Technical errors
o Management errors
2. Induced effect of natural calamities
3. Accidents during the transportation
4. Hazardous waste processing/ disposal
5. Terrorist attack/ unrest leading to sabotage

Chemical disasters are occurrence of emission fire or explosion involving are or more
hazardous chemicals in course of industrial activity. Storage or transportation, or due to
natural events.
What are the causative factors behind chemical disaster?
• Ageing of process plants and inadequate steps to pace with modern technologies in Indian
chemical industry has increased the vulnerability to chemical disasters.
• Human error as a result of non-compliance of standard operating procedures (SOPs) that
have been put into place by a company.

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• Defects in design, absence of SOPs to mitigate an early warning in process. Poor

coordination between different departments in a company.
• Improper maintenance of equipments
• Natural disasters like floods and earth quakes.
• Non availability of an emergency response team to mitigate accidents during the
transportation of hazardous chemicals has also resulted in major disasters in several locations
in India.
Status of Chemical Disaster Risk in India
India has witnessed the world’s worst chemical (industrial) disaster “Bhopal Gas Tragedy” in
the year 1984. The Bhopal Gas tragedy was most devastating chemical accident in history,
where over 2500 people died due to accidental release of toxic gas Methyl Iso Cyanate (MIC).
Such accidents are significant in terms of injuries, pain, suffering, loss of lives, damage to
property and environment. India continued to witness a series of chemical accidents even
after Bhopal had demonstrated the vulnerability of the country. Only in last decade, 130
significant chemical accidents reported in India, which resulted into 259 deaths and 563
number of major injured.
There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 298 districts and 25
states & 3 Union Territories, in all zones of country. Besides, there are thousands of registered
and hazardous factories (below MAH criteria) and un-organized sectors dealing with
numerous range of hazardous material posing serious and complex levels of disaster risks.
Safety initiatives taken in India to address chemical risk
The comprehensive legal/ institutional framework exists in our country. A number of
regulations covering the safety in transportation, liability, insurance and compensations have
been enacted.
Following are the relevant provisions on chemical disaster management, prevailing in
country:-
Explosives Act 1884 - Petroleum Act 1934
Factories Act 1948 - Insecticides Act 1968
Environment Protection Act 1986 - Motor Vehicles Act 1988
Public Liability Insurance Act 1991 - Disaster Management Act 2005
Government of India has further reinforced the legal framework on chemical safety and
management of chemical accidents by enacting new rules such as MSIHC Rules, EPPR Rules,
SMPV Rules, CMV Rules, Gas Cylinder Rules, Hazardous Waste Rules, Dock Workers Rules and
by way of amendments to them.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) of India had come out with very
specific guidelines on Chemical Disaster Management. The guidelines have been prepared to
provide the directions to ministries, departments and state authorities for the preparation of

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their detailed disaster management plans. These guidelines call for a proactive, participatory,
multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach at various levels for chemical disaster
preparedness and response. Further, NDMA has provided specific inputs to the GOM for
avoidance of future chemical disasters in the country, along with suggested amendments on
the existing framework. NDMA is also working on revamping of CIFs ( Chief Inspectorate of
Factories) to strengthen chemical safety in India. In addition, MoEF and NDMA are in process
of finalizing the National Action Plan on Chemical Industrial Disaster Management (NAP-
CIDM), which will act as the roadmap for chemical disaster management in India.
Common Hazardous Chemicals
Guiding Instructions of most commonly used hazardous chemicals
Acetone (177KB)
Acetylene Gas (177KB)
Ammonia Gas (179KB)
Argon Gas (181KB)
Benzene (180KB)
Chlorine Gas (178KB)
Hydrochloric Acid (179KB)
Hydrogen (176KB)
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) (180KB)
Methanol (Methyl Alcohol) (178KB)
Prevention and Response
1. Role of Industry
a) Identification of hazardous activities:
• Good knowledge about the safety aspects of the industrial operations would enable
prevention and mitigation
• Use of appropriate hazard identification tools such as checklists analysis, safety audit,
HAZOP, FTA/ETA would help in mitigating the hazards.
b) Maintenance of plant facility and equipment
• Proper maintenance of all the equipment and machinery at regular intervals
• Regular site safety and health inspection
c) Installation of vapour / gas detection systems.
d) Compliance with existing rules and regulations
e) Development of human resource management
f) Emergency preparedness

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Role of government
a) Setting up of accident investigation board and chemical accident database
• An accident investigation board should be set up in India to investigate the chemical
disasters and bring out guidelines based on lessons learnt in each incident.
• This would help to prevent its reoccurrence.
b) Awareness Campaigns
• This would help workers in reducing unsafe acts and in tackling the disaster if it were to
happen
c) Research and development
• Research into new methods of producing the product with less toxicity can to a large extent
reduce the adverse effect if any accident were to happen.
d) Offsite Emergency Planning
• This would ensure that the local authority adequately discharges his duty to minimize the
consequences of major accident to people and environment.
e) Transportation of Hazardous chemicals
• Swift and timely availability of emergency response during transportation of hazardous
chemical.

Did You Know?

• Recently Indian Chemical Council (ICC) has initiated a program called “Nicerglobe” which
provide GPRS tracking of trucks right form its origin to the place of destination.
• The Nicerglobe platform is well linked to the emergency response providers.
Do's and Dont's
Precautions to be taken during and after the Chemical (Industrial) Accidents
Before Chemical and industrial Hazard

• Avoid housing near the industries producing or processing poisonous chemicals, if

possible.
• The people living near industrial units should gather information about the nature of
industrial units located near their houses.
• Read literature, leaflets, newsletters and televisions / radio publishing about the
properties and characteristics of hazardous chemicals.
• Participate in all the capacity building programmes organized by the government/
voluntary organizations / industrial units.
• Take part in preparing disaster management plan and identify safe shelter along with
safe and easy access routes.

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• Prepare a family disaster management plan and explain it to all the family members.
• Make the family aware of the basic characteristics of various poisonous chemicals and
the first aid required to treat them.
After Chemical and industrial Hazard

• When you notice any chemical leak/accident evacuate calmly and quickly against the
wind direction.
• Keep a wet handkerchief or piece of cloth on face during evacuation.
• As far as possible try to attract other’s attention on your way to the scene of chemical
disaster.
• Avoid visiting and become audience to the risky areas.
• Don’t be obstacle to the people who are managing the disaster.
• Keep the sick, elderly, weak, handicapped and other people who are unable to
evacuate inside house and close all the doors and windows tightly.
• Inform Fire & Emergency Services, Police and medical services from safe location by
calling101, 100 and 108 respectively.
• Obey any instruction of the District authorities who will be doing their best to ensure
the safety of you, your family and society as a whole and also try to save the property
and the environment.
• Provide correct and accurate information to government official.
• Turn on local radio/ TV channels for advice from District Emergency Operation
Centre/health authorities
• Inform others on occurrence of event at public gathering places (like school, shopping
centre, theatre etc.).
• Wait for other instructions by authorised people after reaching at safe place.
• Don’t pay attention to the rumours and don’t spread rumours.
Nuclear and Radiological Disaster
• The growth in the application of nuclear science and technology in the fields of power
generation, medicine, industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an
increase in the risk of occurrence of Nuclear and Radiological emergencies.
• India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique
geo climatic conditions and it has, of late, like all other countries in the world, become
equally vulnerable to various man-made disasters.
• Any radiation incident resulting in or having a potential to result in exposure and/or
contamination of the workers or the public in excess of the respective permissible
limits can lead to a nuclear/radiological emergency.

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• Sad memories of the use of nuclear weapons dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
and the wide publicity given to the reactor accidents at Three Mile Island (TMI) in USA
and Chernobyl in erstwhile USSR, have strongly influenced the public perception of
any nuclear emergency or disaster to be most often linked, erroneously though, to
only these events. Even though such situations may not easily be repeated, one must
be prepared to face nuclear/radiological emergencies of lower magnitudes and ensure
that the impact of such an emergency (which,for a given magnitude, is likely to be
much greater today because of higher population densities coupled with an enhanced
urban infrastructure due to economic prosperity) is always kept under control.
• For improving the quality of life in society, India has embarked upon a large
programme of using nuclear energy for generation of electricity. As on date, India has
17 power reactors and five research reactors in operation along with six power
reactors under construction. It is also planned to explore setting up Thorium based
reactors to meet its ever increasing energy needs. Further, the country utilises
adioisotopes in a variety of applications in the non-power sector, viz., in the field of
industry, agriculture, medicine, research, etc. Due to the inherent safety culture, the
best safety practices and standards followed in these applications and effective
regulation by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board, the radiation dose to which the
persons working in nuclear/radiation facilities are exposed to, is well within the
permissible limits and the risk of its impact on the public domain is very low.
• However, nuclear emergencies can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the
operating agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone,
flood, etc. Such failures, even though of very low probability, may lead to an on-site
or off-site emergency. To combat this, proper emergency preparedness plans must be
in place so that there is minimum avoidable loss of life, livelihood, property and impact
on the environment.

Nuclear Accident

• A nuclear accident is still possible even though the construction and operation of
nuclear power plants are closely monitored and regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).
• Nuclear power plants use the heat generated from nuclear fission in a contained
environment to convert water to steam, which powers generators to produce
electricity. It is the by-product of this activity that creates the biggest hazard.

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• They operate in most states in the country and produce about 20 percent of the
nation’s power. Nearly 3 million Americans live within 10 miles of an operating nuclear
power plant.
Examples of Technological Disasters
Bhopal Gas tragedy
Recalling the night of December 2-3 1984 in Bhopal still sends a shiver down the spine of
those who were there that fateful night when toxic Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas leaked
from the factory owned by Union Carbide. The gas silently spread out engulfing the
densely populated areas around the factory.
People woke up and ran outside desperately gasping for breath only to take in more of
the deadly gas. Many died in their sleep while others went blind. Over time, several people
suffered from post trauma diseases, while many continue to suffer even today.
This was one of the worst chemical disasters globally that resulted in over 10,000 losing
their lives (the actual number remains disputed) and over 5.5 lakh persons affected and
suffering from agonizing injuries.

The tragedy was a result of human error and poor supervision at the factory.
Unfortunately, several industries in India still continue to operate with very little
government pressure on implementation of safety protocols as per Standard Operating
Procedures laid down by the authorities.
Nuclear power plant accidents
One of the worst nuclear accidents to date was the Chernobyl disaster which occurred in
1986 in Ukraine. That accident killed 30 people directly, as well as damaging
approximately $7 billion of property. A study published in 2005 estimates that there will
eventually be up to 4,000 additional cancer deaths related to the accident among those
exposed to significant radiation levels.Radioactive fallout from the accident was
concentrated in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Approximately 350,000 people were
forcibly resettled away from these areas soon after the accident. Benjamin K. Sovacool
has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at nuclear power plants from
1952 to 2009 (defined as incidents that either resulted in the loss of human life or more
than US$50,000 of property damage, the amount the US federal government uses to
define major energy accidents that must be reported), totaling US$20.5 billion in property
damages.Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and almost
two-thirds (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the USA. There
have been comparatively few fatalities associated with nuclear power plant accidents.
Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past
three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations,
invasions and campaigns.

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Do's and Dont's

The probability of a major accident at nuclear facilities leading to the release of large
quantities of radioactivity into the environment is always ensured to be negligibly small.
However, even in the event of a major release into the environment, the prompt and
effective implementation of countermeasures can reduce the radiological consequences
for the public.
Preparedness for Nuclear/Radiological Emergencies
• The handling of nuclear emergencies requires coordination among different service
groups of the nuclear facility. In the event of potential radiological consequences in
the public domain, all the authorities at the three levels, i.e., district, state and central,
will play a vital role.
Major Responsibilities of Nuclear Power Plant Operators
• This includes the arrangements required to promptly classify an emergency, mitigate
the emergency, notify and recommend protective actions off the site consistent with
international guidelines, protect those on site, obtain off-site assistance, conduct
environmental monitoring of the affected area and assist off-site officials in keeping
the public informed.
Major Responsibilities of Off-Site Officials
• This includes the arrangements required to promptly implement protective actions
and countermeasures in the affected area.
Emergency Preparedness for Nuclear Power Plants
• Since the proper implementation of countermeasures can significantly reduce the
consequences of an emergency situation, it is mandatory for all nuclear facilities that
there must be a comprehensive emergency preparedness plan. Prior to the issuance
of a license for the operation of a nuclear facility, the AERB ensures that the facility
has the Emergency Response Manuals for the three main types of emergencies, viz.,
plant, on-site and off-site, and that the plans are in place to handle these types of
emergencies. The operators of nuclear facilities must make an assessment of the type

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and quantum of release of radioactivity under various accident conditions and the
extent to which it can spread into the environment.
Handling a Plant Emergency
When the radiological consequences of an abnormal situation are expected to remain
confined to the plant boundary or a section of the plant, it is described as a plant
emergency. Nuclear facilities in the country already have the following provisions for the
detection, classification, notification and mitigation of any emergency situation:
• Emergency operating procedures for the assessment of an emergency condition and
its mitigation.
• Pre-identification of any facility-specific, abnormal situation for classification of a plant
and site emergency.
• Facility-specific, approved nuclear emergency response plans specifying the jobs of all
the functionaries who have assigned roles during the emergency.
• Alerting the plant personnel by sounding the emergency siren and making an
emergency announcement.
• Adequate means for communicating a notification to the emergency response
organisations at the facility, the district and state authorities, CMG of DAE and the
central government authorities.
• Identified assembly locations for plant personnel and casual visitors for their
accounting, and assessment of persons trapped in the radiological areas.
• Formation of rescue teams and activation of a treatment area and decontamination
centre.
• Radiation survey around the plant and outside the plant and site boundaries.
• Assessment of wind speed, wind direction and the affected sector around the nuclear
facility.
• Whenever required, the nuclear facility is able to mobilise the services of the
ambulance and paramedical staff at its site.
• Equipment and materials for handling a nuclear emergency are kept at a designated
place of the nuclear facility and ERC.
Impacts
Benjamin K. Sovacool has reported that worldwide there have been 99 accidents at
nuclear power plants. Fifty-seven accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster,
and 57% (56 out of 99) of all nuclear-related accidents have occurred in the USA.Serious
nuclear power plant accidents include the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011),
Chernobyl disaster (1986), Three Mile Island accident (1979), and the SL-1 accident
(1961).Stuart Arm states, "apart from Chernobyl, no nuclear workers or members of the
public have ever died as a result of exposure to radiation due to a commercial nuclear
reactor incident."Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19 reactor accident
(1961),the K-27 reactor accident (1968),and the K-431 reactor accident (1985).Serious

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radiation accidents include the Kyshtym disaster,Windscale fire, radiotherapy accident in

Costa Rica,radiotherapy accident in Zaragoza,radiation accident in Morocco,Goiania
accident,radiation accident in Mexico City, radiotherapy unit accident in Thailand,and the
Mayapuri radiological accident in India.
List of few Nuclear and Radiological Accidents
• Chernobyl, Ukraine 1986 Nuclear disaster
• Kyshtym, Russia 1957 Nuclear disaster
• 2019 Radiation release during explosion and fire at Russian nuclear missile test site
• 2017 Airborne radioactivity increase in Europe in autumn 2017
• 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
• 2001 Instituto Oncologico Nacional radiotherapy accident
• 1999 and 1997 Tokaimura nuclear accidents
• 1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident
Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors
• From the outset, there has been a strong awareness of the potential hazard of both
nuclear criticality and release of radioactive materials from generating electricity with
nuclear power.
• As in other industries, the design and operation of nuclear power plants aims to
minimise the likelihood of accidents, and avoid major human consequences when
they occur.
• There have been two major reactor accidents in the history of civil nuclear power
– Chernobyl and Fukushima Daiichi. Chernobyl involved an intense fire without
provision for containment, and Fukushima Daiichi severely tested the containment,
allowing some release of radioactivity.
• These are the only major accidents to have occurred in over 18,500 cumulative
reactor-years of commercial nuclear power operation in 36 countries.
• The evidence over six decades shows that nuclear power is a safe means of generating
electricity. The risk of accidents in nuclear power plants is low and declining. The
consequences of an accident or terrorist attack are minimal compared with other
commonly accepted risks. Radiological effects on people of any radioactive releases
can be avoided.
In relation to nuclear power, safety is closely linked with security, and in the nuclear field
also with safeguards. Some distinctions apply:
Safety focuses on unintended conditions or events leading to radiological releases from
authorised activities. It relates mainly to intrinsic problems or hazards.

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Security focuses on the intentional misuse of nuclear or other radioactive materials by

non-state elements to cause harm. It relates mainly to external threats to materials or
facilities (ee information page on Security of Nuclear Facilities and Material).
Safeguarding focuses on restraining activities by states that could lead to acquisition or
development of nuclear weapons. It concerns mainly materials and equipment in relation
to rogue governments (see information page on Safeguards to Prevent Nuclear
Proliferation).

Manmade Disasters
Man-made disasters are those for which human beings themselves are responsible.
Building collapse
Building collapse refers to the failure of the structure or the component. The failure of a
building depends on the materials, designs, methods of construction, environmental
conditions, and building use.
Some of the main reasons of building collapse are as follows ;
• Defective building design
• Faulty construction & More extra loads
• Failure of foundation
• Unexpected failure mode
• Soil liquefaction
• Demolition through explosives
• Earthquake
• Tsunami
• Typhoon and winds with high speed.
• Landslides or settlement of Sub-base soil due to over drainage.
• Soil with less bearing capacity.
• Errors in structural design.
• Inferior quality of cement and integrants is used.
• Use after the expiry of the life of buildings.
• Maintenance not done properly.
• Proper Foundation not provided.
• Less amount of reinforcement provided.
• Reinforcement corroded.

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1. Lack of maintenance… A lack of maintenance will lead to things like not noticing a
problem before it becomes catastrophic
2. Use of inferior materials/chemicals… Such as older (1960s – 1980s) fire retardant
treated wood roof assemblies made with cheap ammonium phosphate are prone to
collapse after 25 years of service
3. Bad engineering… Structural engineers make mistakes, everyone does, but in small
firms, a lack of multiple people checking designs can lead to bad calculations and
structural failures
4. Under-designed… Don’t confuse this with bad engineering, under-designed means
you followed the code correctly and performed good calculations, but it still was
inadequate for the loads
5. Fire… Fire reduces steel yield strengths, causes concrete to undergo chemical changes
that weaken it, causes masonry to spall/crack, and will consume wood materials… All
of which can result in collapse
6. Bad construction… The most common reason for an attached and self-supported deck
to collapse is the contractor only provided nails between the deck ledger and the
structure of the house, resulting in the deck pulling away
7. Impact damage… Such as someone driving a car into a house, which can result in
partial collapses
8. Storm damage… Winds generally don’t result in a collapse as things are lifted away
and not falling downwards, but floods can cause buildings/bridges to collapse
9. Soils… Development of a sinkhole (human-made or natural) can cause a
building/bridge to collapse
10. Seismic… Earthquakes can make just about anything collapse if it is not designed for
the magnitude of accelerations occurring.
Accident-related Disasters
Road, rail and air accidents are some of the disasters that one faces every day. The rapid
development and expansion of the road network for better connectivity and the increase
in number of motor vehicles have led to a substantial rise in levels of both passenger and
freight movement. The number of road accidents and fatalities has been growing in recent
years.
Road Accident
In India about eighty thousand people are killed in road crashes every year which is
thirteen percent of the total fatality all over the world. More than half of the people killed
in traffic crashes are young people within the age group of 15-44 years who are often the
bread winners of the family. In most of the cases crashes occur either due to carelessness,
restlessness, overspeed, violation of traffic rules, drunken driving, poor maintenance of
the vehicle, bad weather conditions etc. All these add to the rising number of accidents
and road fatalities. It has been estimated that in the year 2000 more than 3percent of the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was lost due to accidents. Hence, road safety education is

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as essential as any other basic skills of survival. The Road Safety Week is observed in
January, every year throughout the country. The theme of the Road Safety Week in 2006
was ‘Road Safety and no Accident’.
Factors Responsible for Road Accidents:
According to the Report, the major factors responsible for road accidents are:
• Driver’s fault was the most important factor for road accidents- 84% of all road
accidents
• Intake of alcohol/drugs resulted in 3.7% of road accidents
• Act of talking on mobile phones while driving was another important factor
• Overloaded vehicles accounted for 12.8% road accidents.
Prevention and Mitigation:
The main thrust of accident prevention and control across the world include:
1. Education
2. Enforcement
3. Engineering
4. Environment and Emergency care of road accident victims
Measures taken by the Government of India to reduce road accidents:
1. Road Engineering: These are design/specification related aspects of roads and
highways to enhance road safety.
2. Enforcement: The state governments and UTs are to take measures for enforcing the
statutory provisions provided under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and the Central Motor
Vehicle Rules, 1989.
3. Education and Training: These primarily involve spreading road safety awareness and
imparting training to drivers.
4. Faster Relief and Evacuation of Road accident victims:
National Highway Accident Relief Service Scheme:
• Under this scheme, ambulances and cranes are provided to state Governments to take
the accident victims to the nearest hospital and to evacuate the damaged vehicles from
the road accident site on the NHs.
• Ambulances at every toll plaza on the completed corridor of NHs are also provided
5. Road Safety Audit: The specific aim of the road safety audit is to minimise the risk and
safety of accidents on the national highways and expressways.
THE MOTOR VEHICLE (AMENDMENT BILL), 2017
The main provisions of the Bill are:
1. It makes Aadhaar mandatory for getting a driving licence and vehicle registration.

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2. For deaths in hit-and-run cases, the government will provide a compensation of Rs 2

lakh or more to the victim's family. Currently, the amount is just Rs 25,000.
3. In traffic violations by juveniles, the guardians or owner of the vehicle would be held
responsible unless they prove the offence was committed without their knowledge or
they tried to prevent it. The registration of the motor vehicle in question will be cancelled.
The juvenile will be tried under the Juvenile Justice Act.
4. The minimum fine for drunk driving has been increased from Rs 2,000 to Rs 10,000.
5. The fine for rash driving has been increased from Rs 1,000 to Rs 5,000.
6. A Motor Vehicle Accident Fund will provide compulsory insurance cover to all road
users in India for certain types of accidents.
7. Contractors, consultants and civic agencies will be accountable for faulty design,
construction or poor maintenance of roads leading to accidents.
Do’s
• Drive if you have a legal license and have attained the age of 18.
• Always walk on the footpath.
If no proper footpath, walk on the extreme right hand side of the road.
• Cross only at Zebra crossing and at traffic signals. Where such facilities are not
available look for a safe place to cross and look on either side before crossing the road
• Know the road signals and honour them.
• Be at the bus stop 5 minutes before, leave home well in time. Board the bus when it
has come to a halt and without rushing or pushing follow the queue.
• Hold on to the railing of the bus, if at all you have to travel standing in the moving bus.
• If you are riding a two wheeler then do wear helmets so that your head is protected.
• When exiting the bus, be careful that clothing and book bags with straps don’t get
caught in the handrail or door. Cross the vehicles from the front only, not from back.
Don’ts
• Don’t be impatient on the road and don’t run on the road
• Never cross the road at a corner/curve as the motorist while taking the turn will
not be able to see you in time.
• Don’t run to catch the bus/ rickshaw as you might slip and fall.
• Don’t board a bus other than the one decided by the school.
• Don’t shout or make noises in the bus as it distracts the bus driver and diverts the
attention.
• Don’t sit or stand on the footboard of the bus.
• Don’t put any part of your body outside a moving or stationary vehicle.
• If you drop something near or under the bus, tell the bus driver. Never try to pick
it up. The driver may not see you and begin to drive away.

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The following people should not be driving vehicles:

• Having consumed alcohol.
• Have been taking any medicine or drug that affects their responses.
• Are tired, as tiredness affects the driving skills and reaction time.
• Are sick or injured.
• Are angry or upset.
You as a student or a volunteer can do wonders to reduce the number of deaths by
creating more awareness on road safety. In case you see a victim, you may call for 108.
You can seek the help of the policemen or the local people and ask for medical help if
necessary.
Worst Road Accidents
The worst space disaster to date occurred on February 15, 1996 in Sichuan, China, when
a Long March 3B rocket, carrying the Intelsat 708 telecommunications satellite, suffered
a guidance system failure two seconds after liftoff and crashed into a nearby village. The
Chinese government officially reported six deaths and 57 injuries, but some U.S. estimates
run as high as 200 deaths.
The second worst disaster was the Nedelin catastrophe which occurred in the Soviet
Union on October 24, 1960, when anR-16 intercontinental ballistic missile exploded on
the launch pad, killing around 120 (best estimate) military ground support personnel. The
Soviet government refused to acknowledge the incident until 1989, then claiming only 78
deaths.
Road Accidents in India- Statistics
• There has been a 3 % reduction in road accidents between January to July 2017, along
with a 4.75 % reduction in road accident fatalities.
• During 2016, 13 States accounted for 86 per cent of the total road accidents in the
country.
• Chennai had the highest number of road accidents
• Delhi had the highest number of due to road accidents.
• The National Highways accounted for 29.6 per cent of total road accidents and 34.5 per
cent
• The 18-35 age-groups accounted for 46. 3% of total road accidents.

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Rail Accidents
Railway transportation appeared at earlier times to be safe due to slower speeds,
shorter trips and lower density traffic.
With the largest network in the world, the number of railway accidents has increased
in India. The most common type of rail accidents are derailment which takes place due to
lack of proper maintenance, human error or sabotage. This causes huge losses to life
and inflicts injuries and disabilities to many more. The transportation of various highly
inflammable products like coal, oil etc. also leads to accidents.
The 150 year old shabby Ulta Pool bridge in Bhagalpur district of Bihar collapsed
apparently due to poor maintenance and the Howrah-Jamalpur Superfast passenger train
passing below the bridge killing at least 35 people on December 1st 2006.
.

• Railway Disaster is
a serious train accident or an untoward event of grave nature, either on railway premises
or arising out of railway activity.
• This may occur due to natural or human-made causes, which may lead to loss of many
lives and /or grievous injuries to a large number of people, and/or severe disruption of
traffic etc.
• Thus, necessitating large scale help from other government/non-government and
private organizations
Rail Accidents in the last decade and causative factors:

• The number of rail accidents has declined from 325 in 2003-04 to 106 in 2015-16.
Major Rail Accidents in 2017:
• Vasco-da-Gama -Patna Express derailment, November 23, 2017
• Utkal Express derailment, Aug 18, 2017.
• Meerut-Lucknow Rajya Rani Express derailment, April 15, 2017.

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Derailments:
• In 2015-16, a majority of train accidents were caused due to derailments (60%), followed
by accidents at level crossings (33%).
• Between 2003-04 and 2015-16, derailments were the second highest reason for
casualties. The Standing Committee on Railways had noted that one of the reasons for
derailments is defect in the track or rolling stock.
Unmanned Level Crossings:
• Unmanned level crossings (UMLCs) continue to be one of the biggest causes of
maximum casualties in rail accidents.
• In 2014-15, about 40% of the accidents occurred at UMLCs, and in 2015-16, about 28%.
Safety Measures taken on Indian Railways:
• Measures taken to ensure rail safety envisage accident prevention and mitigation
directed towards continuous reduction in risk level to its passengers.
• In the Budget 2017-18, setting up of a Rashtriya Rail Sanraksha Kosh (RRSK) had been
announced.
Many new technologies have been introduced:
• Train Protection Warning System (TPWS)/ Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) as
means of Automatic Train Protection on pilot section to prevent accident due to over
speeding & passing signal at danger.
• Vigilance Control Device (VCD) to check alertness of Loco Pilot
• Electrical/Electronic Interlocking System with Centralized operations of points to
eliminate human failure,
• Complete Track Circuiting,
• Axle Counter for Automatic Clearance of Block Section (BPAC),
• Interlocking of manned Level Crossing gates
• Replacement of filament type signal with Light Emitting Diode (LED) Signals
To improve safety of railway tracks following measures have been taken:
• Usage of pre-stressed concrete sleepers
• Provision of Thick Web Switches (TWS) for all important routes
• Track Management System
• Condition based monitoring system for rolling stock and track is being tried
• Ultrasonic broken rail detection system to be made operational
Do's
• Allow passengers from train to alight first.
• Mind the gap between platform and train while boarding or alighting.
• Follow instructions of Station staff at the platforms.

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• Passenger please takes care of your loose items like Saree, Dupatta, Dhoti
and Bag etc. while boarding and alighting the train.
• Take care of your Bag/Purse.
• Inform train operator in case any passenger/article stuck between train
doors by pressing Passenger Emergency Alarm button/Handle.
• Extra vigilant while travelling with children & infants.
• Stand away from doors to allow passengers to board the train.
• At railway crossings pay attention to signal and the swing barrier.
Don’ts
• Don’t get underneath the signal barriers and cross them.
• Don’t stop the train on a bridge or tunnel where evacuation is not possible.
• Don’t carry flammable materials.
• Don’t stand or lean out of the door in a moving train.
• Don’t put any part of your body outside a moving or stationary train.
• Don’t smoke in the train. If you see anyone doing so you can request them not to
do it.
• Don’t cross the railway tracks. Use the foot bridge to change platforms.
• Don’t touch objects which are suspicious. Never play on the tracks or in the
railroad yards. Raiload cars can move suddenly and unexpectedly.
• Never throw anything at the train. Severe injuries and even deaths have occurred
from objects thrown at trains.
• Do not push co-passengers while boarding or alighting.
Rail disasters
One of the most devastating rail disasters occurred in 2004 in Sri Lanka when 1,700 people
died in the Sri Lanka tsunami-rail disaster. Other notable rail disasters are the 1989 Ufa
accident in Russia which killed 574, and the 1917 Modane train accident in France which
killed 540.
Fire
• Fires can start due to human activities or from natural causes.
• The most common fires are the residential and non-residential structural fires caused
usually by human activities.
• Most industrial and chemical fires are triggered by human activity.
• They are sometimes caused by human errors, faulty designs, or mechanical failures. Fire
can also be the secondary effect of a disaster like earthquake.
• Secondary fires after a disaster like earthquakes constitute a substantial and heavy risk.

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• Damage to natural gas systems during an earthquake can lead to major fires and
explosions.
Damages to electrical systems during a disaster can ignite major fires.
As long as fire is under our control, it serves a lot of useful purposes for us, but, once it
goes out of our control, it can create a lot of destruction.
The 2004 fire in a school in Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu sparked off debates and arguments
on the safety of schools in the country. 93 innocent lives were charred to death. The main
causes of this fire were lack of awareness amongst children and teachers as to what to do
in case of a fire, lack of preparedness,kitchen close to the classroom etc. However,
incidents like these are not new.
Such incidents show huge loss to life and property because of human negligence or lack
of awareness. Fire is a phenomenon of combustion manifested in intense heat and
light in the form of a glow or flames. Around 30,000 precious lives are lost because
of fire related incident every year. Heat, fuel, and oxygen/ are the three ingredients
which cause a fire. By cutting the supply of any one we can control
fire.

Top fire causes

Mitigation Measures:
Fire extinguisher equipment will be evaluated periodically to ensure that it is in working
conditions by Security Manager. If any faulty equipment is observed then it will be
repaired or replaced by Society. Proper evacuation plan will be chalked for the building.
The map for the evacuation plan will be provided to all the occupants.For each building
we will be providing the following Firefightingequipment:

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• Fire pump
• booster pump
• Fire Hydrant system
• Automatic fire alarm system
• External hydrants
• Potable fire extinguisher
• OHT & UGT firefighting water storage
• Fire escape masks
• Water curtain system provided

Urban Fire
Urban fire occurs primarily in cities or towns with the potential to rapidly spread to
adjoining structures. These fires damage and destroy homes, schools, commercial
buildings, and vehicles.

It is estimated more than 150,000 people die from fires or burn-related injuries every year.
Over 95% of fire deaths and burn injuries are in low- and middle-income countries.
Meanwhile, urban growth is said to be one of the 21st century’s most transformative
trends, posing massive sustainability challenges in terms of housing, infrastructure and
basic services, amongst others. Low-income countries have seen a 300% increase in the
overall area of built-up spaces and a 176% increase in population in the past 40 years.
This paper focuses on the risks posed to residents within informal settlements and
refugee camps, two spaces that are a testament to the fact that risk reflects structural
patterns of oppression and marginalisation. The authors introduce these two forms of
space before exploring three case studies that emphasise the importance of international,
national and local factors in shaping fire risk in informal settlements in New Delhi, India;
Cape Town, South Africa; and in refugee camps across Lebanon.
Urban fires, particularly those in informal and low-income settlements, have been shown
to be a significant extensive risk, created by a complex interaction of political, economic,
socio-cultural, and physical or technical factors. Yet urban fires are still relatively invisible
and neglected in disaster management policy and practice. This neglect is due in large part
to the lack of accurate, consistent and comprehensive data on fire incidence and causal
factors; partly to the lack of formal fire management capabilities and resources; and partly
because tackling fire in a comprehensive manner would require a political response from

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all levels of government, led by community needs and interests. Both communities and
fire services must play integral roles in mitigating fire risk.
Rural areas
Rural communities face unique fire risks. The distance between communities and
between residents within those communities results in challenges related to fire. Fire
death rates in rural areas are very high. Additionally, loss of property and livestock have
an extreme emotional and economic impact on residents in the local area.

Common fire problems in rural areas

• Heating is a common cause of residential structure fires and deaths.
• Fixed heaters, including wood stoves, are involved in most rural residential heating
fires.
• Damaged electrical equipment is often the source of fire in barns and other farm
buildings.
• Many homes do not have working smoke alarms increasing risk of death in a fire.
Do’s
• If you see smoke or flames, raise the alarm.
• Get out of the building as soon as possible. Cover yourself if you can. Use steps
instead lift in case of fire. Keep the escape routes clear in the corridors.
• Find a phone and call 101. Ask for the fire brigade, and then give your address
slowly and clearly to reach soon.
• If there’s smoke, crawl along the floor, as the air is cleanest there. Hot air rises up. If
your escape route is blocked, go into a room with a window, put things round the
door to stop smoke getting in, open the outside window and call for help.
• A closed door slows down the spread of a fire. While evacuating it is necessary
that we close the doors.
• Switch off all the electrical appliances. The best thing one could do is to
turn off the main switchboard.
• Check for worn or tape up cables or leads. These are dangerous and you

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should replace them. In case the plug points are at a very low level it is
necessary that they are taped especially in the primary section of the school
as the children might put their fingers inside which might lead to an accident.
• Wherever you are watch out for damaged wiring in the school. In case there
are walls that soak or wet then the walls should be immediately repaired and
the wires must be replaced.
Don’ts
• Don’t go back into the building - not for toys or even pets. Fire fighters can search the
house much more quickly than you can.
• Never hide in a cupboard or under a bed. You need to raise the alarm and get out.
• The cables shouldn’t be put under the carpets or mats where they can become worn
out. This is mainly seen in the administrative unit of the school.
• Lights shouldn’t be positioned near the curtains and other materials that could burn
easily.

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Global Disaster Trends

Development and relief agencies have long recognized the important role played by data
and information in mitigating the impacts of disasters on vulnerable populations.
Systematic collection and analysis of these data provides invaluable information to
governments and agencies in charge of relief and recovery activities. It also aids the
integration of health components in development and poverty alleviation programs.
However, there is a lack of international consensus regarding best practices for collecting
these data. Together with the complexity of collecting reliable information, there remains
huge variability in definitions, methodologies, tools and sourcing.
CRED has a long history of standardized data compilation, validation and analysis. It
provides free and open access to its data through its website. One of CRED’s core data
products is the EM-DAT the International Disaster Database.
EM-DAT provides an objective basis for vulnerability assessment and rational decision-
making in disaster situations. For example, it helps policymakers identify disaster types
that are most common in a given country and have had significant historical impacts on
specific human populations.
In addition to providing information on the human impact of disasters, such as the number
of people killed, injured or affected, EM-DAT provides disaster-related economic damage
estimates and disaster-specific international aid contributions.

More than 90 per cent of natural disaster related deaths are to be found in developing
countries. Disaster impact statistics show the global trend

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Natural disasters reported 1900-2011

Number of people reported killed by natural disasters 1900-2011

Number of people reported affected by natural disasters 1900-2011

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Estimated damage (US$) caused by reported natural disasters 1900-2011

Natural disaster summary 1900-2011

While no country in the world is entirely safe, lack of capacity to limit the impact of
hazards remains a major burden for developing countries, where more than 90 per cent
of natural disaster related deaths are to be found.

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Twenty-four of the 49 least developed countries (LDCs) still face high levels of disaster
risk. At least six of them have been hit by between two and eight major disasters per year
in the last 15 years, with long-term consequences for human development (UNDP, 2001).
These figures do not include the consequences of the many smaller and unrecorded
disasters that cause significant loss at the local community level.
There were 20 of these, costing the world US$ 38 billion (at 1998 values) between 1950
and 1959. However, between 1990 and 1999, there were 82 such major disasters and the
economic losses had risen to a total of US$ 535 billion. That is, disasters had multiplied
fourfold but economic losses were 14 times higher. And in each decade between, both
the number of great disasters and the economic loss involved had risen steadily. However,
losses in 2000 and 2001 were down.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, another ISDR Task
Force member, confirms the worsening trend of human suffering and economic loss
during the last decade. The total number of people each year affected by natural disaster
– that is, who at least for a time either lost their homes, their crops, their animals, their
livelihoods, or their health, because of the disaster – almost doubled between 1990 and
1999, by an average of 188 million people per year (CRED 2002). This is six times more
than the average of 31 million people affected annually by conflict (OCHA).
Comparing the last three decades, the trend shows an increase in the number of natural
hazard events and of affected populations. Even though the number of disasters has more
than tripled since the 1970s, the reported death toll has decreased to less than half. This
is among othr factors due to improved early warning systems and increased
preparedness. This statistic varies enormously depending on region and figures used. One
needs to bear in mind that large disasters are rare events that defeat any statistical
analysis in the short term. Perhaps more significant in the life of many are those daily
disasters, generally underreported and not reflected at all in global figures on losses, but
accumulating to probably large tolls of both economic and health losses.

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Emerging Risks of disaster

Climate, on the other hand, refers to the long-term regional or even global average of
temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades.
What is Climate Change?
Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to
define Earth’s local, regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of
observed effects that are synonymous with the term.
Changes observed in Earth’s climate since the early 20th century are primarily driven by
human activities, particularly fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping
greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere, raising Earth’s average surface temperature.
These human-produced temperature increases are commonly referred to as global
warming. Natural processes can also contribute to climate change, including internal
variability (e.g., cyclical ocean patterns like El Niño, La Niña and the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation) and external forcings (e.g., volcanic activity, changes in the Sun’s energy
output, variations in Earth’s orbit).
Scientists use observations from the ground, air and space, along with theoretical models,
to monitor and study past, present and future climate change. Climate data records
provide evidence of climate change key indicators, such as global land and ocean
temperature increases; rising sea levels; ice loss at Earth’s poles and in mountain glaciers;
frequency and severity changes in extreme weather such as hurricanes, heatwaves,
wildfires, droughts, floods and precipitation; and cloud and vegetation cover changes, to
name but a few.

This graph illustrates the change in global surface temperature relative to 1951-1980
average temperatures, with the year 2020 tying with 2016 for warmest on record
Urban disasters
The urbanisation of the world’s population is accelerating. By 2008, more than 50 per cent
of the global population was already urban with more than one billion people living in
slums (UNFPA, 2014). The megatrend of urbanisation will continue with estimates
suggesting that by 2050 more than 67 per cent of the world’s population will be city
dwellers (ECOSOC, 2011).
With climate change and conflict posing significant threats to the urban poor, urban
populations are particularly vulnerable to risks, especially children.

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We must develop the competencies necessary to respond to the rising urbanisation trend
to meet the needs of the world’s most vulnerable children in urban contexts.
We are seeing two distinct but intertwined trends becoming readily evident in the 21st
century. The first is urbanization. 2008 marked the first time in history where more people
lived in urban centres than outside of them (see Chart 1).
Drawn to economic, educational, and social opportunities, the migration towards cities is
undeniable and irreversible. According to the United Nation’s (UN) Population Division’s
projections, nearly all of the world’s population growth in the next few decades will be in
urban areas in low-and middle-income countries. By 2030 this number will swell to almost
5 billion (see Chart 2). Most of this urban growth will be concentrated heavily in Africa
and Asia. The second trend we see in the 21st century is the increasing numbers of
disasters and the increasing numbers of people affected by those disasters (see Chart 3).
From the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 to the Pakistan floods of 2010, disasters are
affecting significantly more people now than they did 50 years ago. The Centre for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) maintains an emergency disaster
database called

EM-DAT. An event is categorized as a natural disaster if it kills 10 or more people or leaves

at least 100 people injured, homeless, displaced or evacuated. According to the EMDAT,
the total natural disasters reported each year has been steadily increasing in recent
decades, from 78 in 1970 to 348 in 2004. hese disasters include droughts, tsunamis,
hurricanes, typhoons and floods and have been increasing over the past 25 years. In 1980,
there were only about 100 such disasters reported per year but that number has risen to
over 300 a year since 2000.

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What these two trends tell us is this: the world’s growing population is concentrating in
urban centres. At the same time, the number of disasters is increasing and the numbers
of people affected by those disasters are too. The intersection of these two trends is the
face of disaster response in the 21st century: humanitarian responses increasingly being
mounted in complex urban environments.
The Paradigm Shift
The 21st century urban disaster will present unique challenges to the traditional
approaches to disaster response. We can break down the challenge into three primary
areas:
1. From household to neighborhood— the focus of assistance: In the past, aid
organizations identified the individual household as the primary unit of intervention
based on sparse populations living on discrete land parcels in rural areas. Because each
household was mostly self-sufficient in terms of livelihood pattern, food production,
housing and sanitation, aid organizations could design their interventions around
individual households. In an urban context, there is significantly more integration and
interconnectedness of households. Targeting at the household level is rarely possible
because few urban households own the land on which they live and fewer still produce
enough food for the family. In most urban areas, households do not maintain individual
water sources and sanitation outlets but are connected by common water and sewer
infrastructure. The 21st century urban disaster presents difficulties in designing aid
programs around the individual household. A different neighborhood based approach
becomes necessary.

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2. Urban livelihoods: Urban livelihoods can take on many forms but the primary objective
of that livelihood is to earn money to enable the family to purchase those household items
most urgently needed. This approach differs significantly from the rural livelihood which
revolves around producing sufficient food for the family and selling whatever surplus
remains. In an urban context, where families rely on purchasing those items the family
needs most, any interruption to a family’s ability to earn income can be disastrous. Urban
disasters lead to loss of employment and frequently result in price increases for food,
water, and essential commodities. The urban family is hit disproportionately hard by
disaster because those items the family most needs are increasing in price at the same
time when the family has less money to spend on them. The urban poor, particularly
migrants, often lack financial social and physical assets (i.e. money, connections and
property) to rely upon when there is a reduction of or interruption in income or when a
price shock reduces the purchasing power of that income. 3 Urban livelihoods patterns
are oftentimes more complex and interrelated than farm-based rural livelihoods and rely
on the functioning of markets (see “The importance of markets” right). The 21st century
challenge.
3. The importance of markets: Urban populations rely almost exclusively on buying
whatever goods they need from the market. In an urban setting, markets are integral to
survival. Small businesses and shop owners are the drivers of the economy in many cities
in developing countries. Aid organizations are increasingly recognizing the significance of
supporting markets in the wake of disaster. In rural contexts following a disaster, many
aid organizations distribute food and goods (blankets, water containers, plastic sheeting,
etc.) directly to vulnerable families bypassing area markets. The thinking is that either the
market is unable to provide the needed items or is too far away to allow the family to get
what it needs quickly. In urban contexts markets are more robust and proximate. The 21st
century challenge for aid organizations will be how to best utilize area markets in relief
programs so that the drivers of economic recovery, small businesses, are supported
during the administering of relief and not bypassed. The quicker markets can be restored,
the more effective they can become in meeting the recovery needs of disaster-affected
families.

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