Control of Electric Machine (EPM431)

“Electrical Drive Systems”

Lecture No. 4
23/10/2023
by:
Dr: Naema Mansour
 Four quadrant operation

𝑻 + 𝑻 +
𝝎 - 𝝎 +
𝑷 - 𝑷 +
Reverse breaking Forward motoring

𝑻 - 𝑻 -
𝝎 - 𝝎 +
𝑷 + 𝑷 -
Reverse motoring Forward breaking
Four quadrant operation on 𝑽 − 𝑰 plane
Electrical vs Mechanical Braking
Braking is a technique to reduce the speed of the motor.
There are two types of braking systems: electrical and mechanical.
The electrical is always better than mechanical. The braking method that is
preferred to stop a DC Motor is Electrical Braking and not Mechanical
Braking. In other words, the motor is stopped by the voltage and current
action in the circuit.
Electrical brakes are faster and more efficient all around.
Electrical brakes also save more money. This is because they produce less
heat that can result in failure and result in lower maintenance costs over time.
In some instances, they return some of the generated energy back to the
power supply, lessening costs.
Electrical braking systems also allow for higher speeds and loads to be
managed.
Electric Braking Of DC Motors
 A running motor may be brought to rest quickly by either mechanical braking or electrical braking.
Smooth braking of a motor can be achieved by electric braking.
Electric Braking of DC Motors: Controlled slowing or stopping of a motor and its driven load is as
important as starting in many applications like cranes and electric traction. Electric braking is better
than other breaking systems due to its greater economy and absence of brake wear.
Electric Braking of DC Motors
 The DC motor is still being widely used due to its excellent braking characteristics and ability of
smooth transition from the motor to generator mode and vice versa.
 During the breaking period, the motor is operated as a generator and the kinetic or gravitational
potential energy (cranes or hoists) is dissipated in resistors or returned to the supply. There are
three methods of electric braking of DC motors:
Electric Braking types
The electric braking of a DC motor is of three types:-
1) Regenerative braking.
2) Rheostatic or dynamic braking.
3) Plugging or reverse current braking.
1) Regenerative braking:
Regenerative braking is used when the driven load causes the DC motor to run at speeds higher
than its no-load speed. This results in the reversing of the motor current and turns it into an electric
generator.
In Regenerative Braking, the power or energy of the driven machinery which is in kinetic form is
returned back to the power supply mains. This type of braking is possible when the driven load or
machinery forces the motor to run at a speed higher than the no-load speed with a constant
excitation.
 When applied voltage to the motor is reduced to less than
back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝑬𝒈 , obviously armature current 𝑰𝒂 will get
reversed, and hence armature torque is reversed. Thus, the
speed falls.
 As generated 𝒆𝒎𝒇 is greater than applied voltage (machine
is acting as a DC generator), power will be returned to the
line, this action is called as regeneration. Speed keeps
falling, back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝑬𝒈 ( 𝑬𝒈 = 𝒌𝒗 𝒊𝒇 𝝎 ) also falls until it
becomes lower than applied voltage and direction of
The arrangements for regenerative
braking armature current again becomes opposite to 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑬𝒈 .
Regenerative braking also results in some of the energy generated returning to the source
supply. If, though, the capacity of loads connected to the line is less than the regenerated
power, the power may not be absorbed and can breakdown the insulation.
Applications of Regenerative Braking
1) Regenerative braking is used especially where frequent braking and slowing of drives is
required. Regenerative braking is used to control the speed of motors driving loads such as
in electric locomotives, elevators, cranes and hoists.
Sometimes the motor speed may increase above the rated speed – this usually happens when
the load itself drives the motor like in the case when a loaded hoist is being lowered or a
vehicle is moving downhill (Load torque 𝑻𝑳 > 𝑻𝒅 ). At speeds above the rated speed, the
back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 is greater than the terminal voltage. The back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 will now drive the current
through the armature conductors in the reverse direction. Reversing the direction of the current
reverses the electromagnetic torque which will now oppose the load torque.
As we know that Back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝑬𝒈 = 𝒌𝒗 𝒊𝒇 𝝎 , as the field flux cannot be increased beyond the
rated as the core will saturate, therefore, for a fixed supply voltage, Regenerative Braking is
only possible at a speed higher than the rated speed but if we have variable supply voltage
then Regenerative Braking at a speed below rated speed can also be achieved.
1) Regenerative Braking (continu)
 In this method, most of the breaking energy is returned to the supply and is used especially where the duty
cycle requires the breaking or slowing of the machine very frequently and is most useful in holding a
descending load of high potential energy at a constant speed. The condition for regeneration is that the
rotational 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 is more than the applied voltage so that the current is reversed and mode of operation
changes from motoring to generating.
Regenerative breaking of separately excited DC Motor
High inertia loads like electric trains, hoists and cranes are used to control the downward speed while
lowering the loads. We know that a separately excited Dc motor will behave like a generator if it’s back
𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 becomes more than applied voltage, 𝑽. This situation comes in the scenario when the speed of the
motor becomes more than its ideal no-load speed while lowering the load of high inertia. When this
happens, the machine starts working as a generator. Now generator mode is helping us in two ways –
controlling the downward moving load and at the same time, it is converting the potential energy of the load
into electricity (energy saving).
Regenerative breaking of DC Series Motor
We know that when the speed of a DC series motor increases, the current and hence, the field flux
decreases. Therefore, we cannot get more back 𝒆. 𝒎. 𝒇 than applied voltage, 𝑽 as we were getting in the case
of shunt motor while the downward movement of the load. Therefore, regenerative braking is not possible
with ordinary DC series motor. However, in electric traction, where the regenerative braking of the DC
series motor is used, the motors are reconnected as separately excited machines while breaking, .
Why Regenerative Braking in not possible in DC Series Motor?
In case of DC Series motor, as the speed of motor increases, the armature
current and hence the field flux will decrease and therefore back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 can
never be greater than the supply voltage 𝑽. Therefore, regenerative braking is
not possible in DC Series Motor.
In case of regenerative braking, DC shunt motor acts as a generator and hence
regenerative braking is employed when the load has an overhauling
characteristic. Regenerative braking is used in applications where the motor is
stopped frequently, or the deceleration time is fixed.

What are the advantages of regenerative brakes?

The advantages of regenerative braking include increased efficiency, lower fuel
consumption.
2) Rheostatic or dynamic braking:
 Another one of the types of braking is dynamic braking, which is also called rheostatic braking. This method of braking is
generally less efficient because the generated energy dissipates as heat.
 Dynamic braking occurs when two things happen:-
1) The armature circuit is disconnected from the power supply.
2) The braking resistor is quickly connected across the armature. The kinetic energy that’s stored in the motor gets
converted into electrical energy that turns into heat.
 In case of DC shunt motors, armature is disconnected from the supply and a rheostat (variable resistor) is connected across it.
The field winding is left connected across the supply. Obviously, now armature is driven by the inertia and hence machine
starts acting as a generator. Thus, the machine will now feed the current to the connected rheostat and heat will dissipate at
the rate of 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑 . Braking effect is controlled by varying the resistance connected across the armature.
 In case of DC series motor, motor is disconnected from the supply and field connections are reversed and a rheostat is
connected in series. The field connections are reversed to make sure that the current through field winding will flow in the
same direction as before.

 Dynamic Braking is an inefficient method of

braking as all the generated energy is dissipated
as a heat in resistances

 It is similar to those of regenerative braking,

except the supply voltage 𝑽𝒂 is replaced by a
braking resistance 𝑹𝒃 . The kinetic energy of the
motor is dissipated in 𝑹𝒃 .
The arrangements of dynamic braking mode
Dynamic or Rheostatic Braking
n Dynamic Braking, a braking resistor 𝑹𝒆𝒙 is connected across the armature as soon as the DC
motor is disconnected from the supply mains. The motor now works as a generator, producing
the braking torque. The field winding reversal in a DC series motor will lead to reversal of
direction of the motor due to change in direction of magnetic field.

 The field connections are reversed so that the

current through the field winding flows in
the same direction as before i.e. from F1 to
F2 so that the back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 produces the
residual flux. The machine now starts
working as a self-excited series generator. In
self-excitation, the braking operation is slow
3) Plugging or Reverse current braking:
Plugging, or reverse current braking, occurs when the
armature terminals or supply polarity of a separately excited
DC motor are reversed.
Plugging is a type of braking. The armature terminals are
reversed while running. The supply voltage 𝑽𝒂 and the induced
voltage 𝑬𝒈 act in the same direction.
The armature current is reversed 𝑰𝒂 = −𝒗𝒆, thereby producing a
braking torque. The field current is positive 𝑰𝒇 = +𝒗𝒆.
For a series motor, either the armature terminals or field The connections for plugging mode
terminals should be reversed, but not both.
 In this method, armature connections are reversed
This mode of operation is mostly used for plugging in order to
stop the motor rapidly. During plugging, the armature and hence motor tends to run in opposite direction.
terminals are suddenly reversed, which causes the back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 to Due to reversal of the armature terminals, applied
force an armature current to flow in reverse direction. voltage 𝑉𝑎 and back 𝒆𝒎𝒇 𝐸𝑔 starts acting in the same
Now the effective voltage across the motor becomes 𝟐𝑽 (𝑽𝒂 direction and hence the total armature current
+ 𝑬𝒈 ). A braking resistor in series with the motor has to be exceeds. To limit this armature current a variable
connected to limit this current. resistor is connected across the armature. This is
Braking by plugging gives greater torque and more rapid similar for both series and shunt motor.
stop, but the current drawn from the supply and energy stored in  Plugging gives greater braking torque as compared
mechanical parts must be dissipated in resistance. to rheostatic braking.
Plugging is considered inefficient because both the power  This method is generally used in controlling
supplied by the load and the source is wasted in resistances. machine tools, printing presses etc.
Plugging
 This method involves the sudden reversal of the connections of either the field or the armature
winding of the motor. A strong breaking torque is achieved by maintaining the supply voltage
to the armature reversed. To limit the heavy inrush of the current to the armature, the breaking
resistor (𝑅𝑒𝑥 ) must be brought into the circuit. The kinetic energy of the moving system is
dissipated in the armature and breaking resistance.
Electric breaking of any type becomes less effective as speed decreases with a consequent
decrease in braking torque. The supply must be switched off close to zero speed and applying
back-up mechanical or hydraulic breaks to bring the motor to a halt. As the large initial current
and the resultant high mechanical stress occurs in the motor during the plugging, the
application of plugging is restricted.
 Reversing the armature circuit or the field circuit

For operating the motor in a particular

mode, it is often necessary to use
contactors for reversing the armature
circuit or the field circuit as shown in the
figure.

Field and armature reversals using contactors.

5) Four quadrants.
 An armature controlled DC machine is inherently capable of operating at different
modes or quadrants, generally it is known as four-quadrant operation of a motor.
 The figure shows the polarities of the supply voltage 𝑽𝒂 , back emf 𝑬𝒈 , and armature
current 𝑰𝒂 for a separately excited motor.
 In forward motoring (quadrant I), 𝑽𝒂 , 𝑬𝒈 , and 𝑰𝒂 are all positive. The torque and
speed are also positive in this quadrant.

 During forward braking (quadrant II), the motor runs in the forward
direction and the induced emf 𝑬𝒈 continues to be positive. For the torque
to be negative and the direction of energy flow to reverse, the armature
 During reverse braking (quadrant
current must be negative 𝑰𝒂 = −𝒗 𝒆.
IV), the motor runs in the reverse
 The supply voltage 𝑽𝒂 should be kept less than 𝑬𝒈 . 𝑽𝒂 < 𝑬𝒈
direction.
 In reverse motoring (quadrant III), 𝑽𝒂 , 𝑬𝒈 , and 𝑰𝒂 are all negative. 𝑽𝒂 =  𝑽𝒂 and 𝑬𝒈 continue to be
− 𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒈 = −𝒗𝒆 , and 𝑰𝒂 = −𝒗𝒆 negative.
 The torque and speed are also negative in this quadrant 𝑻𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝎𝒎 =  For the torque to be positive and
− 𝒗𝒆. the energy to flow from the motor
 To keep the torque negative and the energy flow from the source to the to the source, the armature
motor, the back emf 𝑬𝒈 must satisfy the condition current must be positive.
𝑽𝒂 > 𝑬𝒈  The induced emf 𝑬𝒈 must satisfy
 The polarity of 𝑬𝒈 can be reversed by changing the direction of field the condition.
current or by reversing the armature terminals. 𝑽𝒂 < 𝑬𝒈
A four-quadrant or multiple-quadrant operation is required in industrial as
well as commercial applications. These applications require both driving and
braking, i.e., motoring and generating capability.
Some of these applications include electric traction systems, cranes.
In multi-quadrant operation or four quadrant operation, motor accelerates or
decelerates depending on whether motor torque is lesser or greater than load
torque.
Multiquadrant Operation
* A motor operate in 2 modes – Motoring and braking
* Motoring - electrical energy to mechanical energy, support its motion.
* (generator) braking – mechanical energy to electrical energy, oppose the motion.
Multi-quadrant Operation – Operation of elevator in
Four Quadrant
Application of four-quadrant operation of DC
motor:-
Pulley driven by a
 Consider an elevator system shown in the DC motor
figure. Counter-weight.
 It consists of:-
1) A carriage.
2) A counter-weight.
3) A pulley driven by a DC motor.
 The counter-weight is usually set to around Carriage
50% of the fully loaded weight of the carriage
to maximize overall efficiency.
This system goes through all the 4 quadrants of
operation, namely: Forward Braking Forward Motoring

1) Forward Motoring:
𝝎𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆 and 𝑻𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆
2) Forward Regeneration Braking:
𝝎𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆 and 𝑻𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆
3) Reverse Motoring:
𝝎𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆 and 𝑻𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆
4) Reverse Regeneration Braking:
𝝎𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆 and 𝑻𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆.

Reverse Motoring Reverse Braking

1) Forward motoring:-
Occurs when :-
a) The carriage is loaded more than the counter-
weight. Forward regeneration Forward motoring

b) The carriage needs to be pulled up.

 In this case the DC motor must produce torque
along the direction of rotation to compensate for
the lower counter-weight.
2) Forward regeneration:-
 Occurs when:-
a) The carriage is loaded less than the counter-
weight.
b) The carriage needs to be pulled up.
In this case the DC motor must produce torque
against the direction of rotation to prevent the
carriage from being drawn too fast by the heavier
counter-weight.
3) Reverse motoring:-
Occurs when:-
a) The carriage is loaded less than the counter-
weight.
b) The carriage needs to be pulled down.
In this case the DC motor must produce torque
along the direction of rotation to compensate for
the lower weight of carriage.
4) Reverse regeneration:-
Occurs when:-
a) The carriage is loaded more than the counter-
weight.
b) The carriage needs to be pulled down.
In this case the DC motor must produce torque
against the direction of rotation to prevent the
Reverse motoring Reverse regeneration
carriage from being lowered too fast due to its
heavier weight.
 Multi-quadrant Operation – Operation of Hoist in Four Quadrant

 A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to a motor shaft. One end of a rope is tied to
a cage which is used for transporting material. Other end of the rope has a counter-weight.
The four-quadrant operation of a motor driving a
hoist load
 This hoist system consists of :
1) A cage:
 With or without any load.
2) A rope,
 Generally made up of a steel wire is wounded on a
drum that is coupled to a motor shaft to raise the
cage.
3) A balance weight (counter-weight).
 This balance weight or counterweight magnitude is
greater than that of empty cage, but less than the
loaded cage.
 The four-quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

1) Loaded cage moving up (Forward motoring) Forward motoring

 The direction of rotation of motor, 𝝎𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆.

 𝑻𝑳 acts in opposite direction to the direction of 𝑻𝒎
.
 To raise the hoist to upwards, the motor torque,
𝑻𝒎 must act in the same direction of motor speed,
𝝎𝒎 .
𝝎𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆 𝑻𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆
 To make these as positive, the power taken from
the supply should be positive. This is called
forward motoring.
2) Loaded cage moving down (revers breaking)
 Since the loaded cage is moving downward (of
which weight is more than counterweight), the
motion takes place without use of any motor.
But there will be a chance to go downward at a
dangerous speed because of loaded cage.
 To limit the speed of the cage within a safe
range, the electrical machine must act as a brake.
 The direction of the motor, 𝝎𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆 and
hence the motor torque 𝑻𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆 to decrease
the speed of the motor.
 Thus, 𝑷𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆 that means the electrical
machine delivering power to the supply. This
phenomenon is called as regenerative action. Revers breaking
3) Empty cage moving up (Unloaded cage is Forward breaking
moving upwards). (forward breaking)

 The counterweight is heavier than the unloaded

cage and hence hoist can move upwards at a
dangerous speed.

 To prevent this, motor must produce a torque 𝑻𝒎

in the opposite direction of motor speed, 𝝎𝒎 in
order to produce brake to the motor.

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝎𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆 𝑻𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆

𝑷𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆
4) Empty cage moving down (revers motoring)

 The downward journey of empty cage is

prevented by the torque exerted by the
counterweight.
 So, the direction of 𝑻𝒎 should be in the same
direction of motor rotation 𝝎𝒎 .
 Due to the downward movement of the cage, the
direction of rotation is reversed, i.e.,

𝝎𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆 and 𝑻𝒎 → −𝒗𝒆

 Since the machine acting as motor in reverse

direction, it receives the power from the supply
and hence Revers motoring
𝑷𝒎 → +𝒗𝒆.
 DC drives
A drive, besides having a precise speed control, should assure:-
1) Stable operation in the complete range of speeds.
2) Good transient behavior.
3) Continuous, smooth control of the speed efficiently and economically.
For DC motors:-
 The speed control below the base speed is achieved by variation of applied voltage whereas
the reduction of field current provides speed control above the base speed.

DC motor speed control

Below the rated speed Above the rated speed

𝟏
𝝎𝒎 𝜶 𝑽𝒂 𝝎𝒎 𝜶
𝑰𝒇
Torque and Power limitations in Combined Armature Voltage and Flux controls
Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control:(Armature Voltage Control)
Even before the power semiconductors were available, a DC machine had
been widely used for the application area where adjustable torque or speed
is essential. At that time, the adjustable speed drive of the DC machine was
implemented in electromechanical means based on multiple electric
machines
Ward Leonard control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in
1891.
Ward Leonard method of speed control is used for controlling the speed of
a DC motor.
Ward Leonard Method of speed control is achieved by varying the applied Ward–Leonard system.
voltage to the armature. So, it is a basic armature control method.
This control system is consisting of:-
DC motor M1 powered by a DC generator G.
In this method the speed of the DC motor (M1) is controlled by
applying variable voltage across its armature 𝑽𝒂 .
This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-generator set which
consists of a motor M2 (either AC or DC motor) directly coupled
with the generator G.
The driving motor may be an induction or a synchronous.
It was a very widely used method of speed control of DC motor.
In this system, the speed of the DC motor is adjusted
by controlling the terminal voltage of the motor, 𝑉𝑡 ,
through the control of the field current of the DC
generator 𝐼𝑓𝑔 , and simultaneously by controlling the
field current of DC motor 𝐼𝑓𝑚 .
With control of 𝑉𝑡 and 𝑉𝑓𝑚 , the operating region of the
DC motor can be expanded to all quadrants of the
torque–speed plane. Ward–Leonard system.
Ward–Leonard system has some advantages such as:-
1) No harmonic currents to an AC source.
2) The higher over-load rating.
3) Smooth speed control of DC motor over a wide range in
both the direction is possible.
4) It has an inherent braking capacity.
5) The lagging reactive volt-amperes are compensated by
using an overexcited synchronous motor as the drive and
thus, the overall power factor improves.
Ward–Leonard system has some disadvantages such as:-

1) The initial cost of the system is high as there is a motor-generator set

installed, of the same rating as that of the main DC motor.
2) Larger size and weight.
3) Requires large floor area.
 Due to its disadvantage, a
4) Maintenance of the system is frequent. traditional Ward–Leonard
5) Higher losses. system is no longer installed
6) Lower efficiency. as adjustable speed drive
7) The drive produces more noise. system.
Application of Ward Leonard drives
The Ward Leonard drives were used where smooth speed control of the DC
motors over a wide range in both the directions is required. Some of the
examples are as follows:
1) Rolling mills.
2) Cranes.
3) Paper mills.

 Availability of high power thyristors brought about a minor revolution in

industrial equipment and drive system performance. The motor generator
set that was used in variable speed DC drives has been largely replaced
by thyristor converters.
Drawbacks of the thyristor drives:-
1) The higher ripple content of the thyristor
converter output adds to motor heating and
commutation problems. So, the addition of a Advantages of The thyristor
reactor in the armature circuit may be required drives:-
to smooth out the ripple current.
2) Under high firing angle operating conditions, 1) Have fast response.
the power factor in the AC supply is low. (In 2) Reliable operation.
the M-G set system, if a synchronous motor is 3) High operating efficiency.
used, the supply power factor can be kept high 4) Minimal maintenance.
by adjusting the field excitation of the 5) Small size, less weight and
synchronous motor). packaging flexibility of DC drives
3) The overload capability of thyristor converter is result in reduced space requirements.
lower than that of a comparable M-G set. 6) Low initial cost and low installation
4) Distortion of the supply voltage and and operating costs.
electromagnetic interference may be produced
due to the switching action of thyristors.
A power electronic circuit is used to interface an AC source or a DC source
with fixed parameters to an electric machine that requires variable and
adjustable AC or DC supply at its terminals.

Power electronic interface between a fixed source and an

electric machine
Components of a DC Drive
The main components of a DC drive system are shown in the figure.

1) DC Drive Input: Some thyristor-based DC drives

operate on:-
a) A single phase supply and use four thyristors for
full wave rectification.
b) For larger motors, three phase power supply is
needed because the waveforms are much
smoother. In such cases, six thyristors are needed
for full wave rectification.

2) Rectifier Bridge:
 From the power component of a controlled DC drive is a full wave bridge rectifier which
can be driven by three phase or single-phase supply. The number of thyristor may vary
depends on the supply voltage. The firing angle control of these thyristors varies the
voltage to the motor.
3) Field Supply Unit:
 The power to be applied to the field winding is much
lower than the armature power, so, most often single-
phase supply is provided.
 A separate thyristor bridge or diode rectifier is used
for supplying the power to the field winding of the
motor.
 The function of the field supply unit is to provide a
constant voltage to the field winding to create a
constant field or flux in the motor.
 In some cases, this unit is supplied with thyristors to
reduce the voltage applied to the field so as to control
the speed of the motor above the base speed. In case
of permanent magnet DC motors, the field supply unit
is not included in the drive.
4) Speed Regulation unit: It compares the operator instruction
(desired speed) with feedback signals and sends appropriate signals
to the firing circuit.
 In analog drives, this regulator unit consists of both voltage and
current regulators.
 The voltage regulator accepts the speed error as input and
produces the voltage output which is then applied to the current
regulator.
 The current regulator then produces required firing current to
the firing circuit. If more speed is required, additional current is
called from the voltage regulator and hence thyristors conducts for
more periods.
 Generally, this regulation (both voltage and current) is
accomplished with proportional-integral-derivative controllers. The Firing Circuit:
field current regulator is also provided where speed greater than the  It supplies the gate pulses
base speed is required. to thyristors so that they
 In modern digital microprocessor based drives, the speed control turned ON for particular
is achieved with a lookup table to determine the current for the periods to produce
firing circuit with additional digital circuitry. variable armature voltage.
DC drives can be classified, in general, into three types:
1) Single-phase drives.  The armature current of half-wave converter
a) Single-phase half-wave converter drives drives is normally discontinuous. This type of
b) Single-phase semi-converter drives drive is not commonly used.
c) Single-phase full-converter drives  A semi-converter drive operates in one quadrant
d) Single-phase dual-converter drives. in applications up to 1.5 kW.
2) Three-phase drives.  The full converter and dual drives are more
a) Three-phase half-wave-converter drives. commonly used.
b) Three-phase semi-converter drives.  Three phase half-wave converters are not
c) Three-phase full-converter drives. normally used in industrial applications with high
d) Three-phase dual-converter drives. rating.
3) DC–DC converter drives.
Single-phase drives are used in low-power applications to 100 kW.
Three-phase drives are used for applications in the range 100 kW to 500 kW.
The power range can go as high as 1 MW for high-power drives. These drives
generally require harmonic filters and their size could be quite bulky.