CN(3150710) Laboratory Manuals L21129011606

Laboratory Manuals
Subject: Computer Networks Subject Code: 3150710
Batch: 2023-2024 Semester: 5th
Faculty: Prof. S.H.Chavda
Branch: CE/IT
List of Experiments
Sr. No. Title Plan Date Actual Date

1 Introduction to Networking Simulator

Packet Tracer.
2 LAN Trainer Kit – Bus & Ring Topology

3 LAN Trainer Kit – Star & Mesh Topology

4 Hub, Switch , Router, Bridge

5 NIC, Repeater, Gateway

6 Straight-through, Crossover and Rollover

wiring

7 Linux / Windows Commands

8 Configure DNS

9 Configure static routing

10 Link State Vector Routing Algorithm

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Practical 1: Introduction to Networking Simulator Packet Tracer.

Objective:
1. To become familiar with the network simulator Packet Tracer.
2. To use the packet tracer to simulate a simple network.

What is Packet Tracer?

Packet Tracer is a protocol simulator developed by Dennis Frezzo and his team at Cisco
Systems. Packet Tracer (PT) is a powerful and dynamic tool that displays the various
protocols used in networking, in either Real Time or Simulation mode. This includes layer 2
protocols such as Ethernet and PPP, layer 3 protocols such as IP, ICMP, and ARP, and layer
4 protocols such as TCP and UDP. Routing protocols can also be traced.
Purpose:
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with the Packet Tracer interface. Learn how to
use existing topologies and build your own.
Requisite knowledge:
This lab assumes some understanding of the Ethernet protocol. At this point we have not
discussed other protocols, but will use Packet Tracer in later labs to discuss those as well.
Version:
This lab is based on Packet Tracer 4.0 Beta, Test1.

Introduction to the Packet Tracer Interface using a Hub Topology

Step 1: Start Packet Tracer and Entering Simulation Mode

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Step 2: Choosing Devices and Connections

We will begin building our network topology by selecting devices and the media in which to
connect them.
Several types of devices and network connections can be used. For this lab we will keep it
simple by using End Devices, Switches, Hubs, and Connections.
Single click on each group of devices and connections to display the various choices.

Step 3: Building the Topology – Adding Hosts Single click on the End Devices.

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Move the cursor into topology area. You will notice it turns into a plus “+” sign. Single click
in the topology area and it copies the device.

Step 4: Building the Topology – Connecting the Hosts to Hubs and Switches.

Adding a Hub Select a hub, by clicking once on Hubs and once on a Generic hub.

Perform the following steps to connect PC0 to Hub0:

1. Click once on PC0
2. Choose FastEthernet
3. Drag the cursor to Hub0
4. Click once on Hub0 and choose Port 0
5. Notice the green link lights on both the PC0 Ethernet NIC and the Hub0 Port 0
showing that the link is active.

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Adding a Switch Select a switch, by clicking once on Switches and once on a 2950-24
switch.

Add the switch by moving the plus sign “+” below PC2 and PC3 and click once.

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Click once Connect PC2 to Hub0 by first choosing Connections.

Perform the following steps to connect PC2 to Switch0:

1. Click once on PC2
2. Choose FastEthernet
3. Drag the cursor to Switch0
4. Click once on Switch0 and choose FastEthernet0/1
5. Notice the green link lights on PC2 Ethernet NIC and amber light Switch0
FastEthernet0/1 port. The switch port is temporarily not forwarding frames, while it
goes through the stages for the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) process.
6. After a about 30 seconds the amber light will change to green indicating that the port
has entered the forwarding stage. Frames can now forwarded out the switch port.

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Step 5: Configuring IP Addresses and Subnet Masks on the Hosts

Before we can communicate between the hosts we need to configure IP Addresses and
Subnet Masks on the devices.
Click once on PC0.

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Choose the Config tab . It is here that you can change the name of PC0. It is also here where
you would enter a Gateway IP Address, also known as the default gateway. We will discuss
this later, but this would be the IP address of the local router. If you want, you can enter the
IP Address 172.16.1.1, although it will not be used in this lab.

Click on FastEthernet. Although we have not yet discussed IP Addresses, add the IP
Address to 172.16.1.10. Click once in the Subnet Mask field to enter the default Subnet
Mask. You can leave this at 255.255.0.0. We will discuss this later.

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Also, notice this is where you can change the Bandwidth (speed) and Duplex of the Ethernet
NIC (Network Interface Card). The default is Auto (autonegotiation), which means the NIC
will negotiate with the hub or switch. The bandwidth and/or duplex can be manually set by
removing the check from the Auto box and choosing the specific option.
Bandwidth - Auto
If the host is connected to a hub or switch port which can do 100 Mbps, then the Ethernet
NIC on the host will choose 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet). Otherwise, if the hub or switch port
can only do 10 Mbps, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose 10 Mbps (Ethernet).
Duplex - Auto
Hub: If the host is connected to a hub, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Half
Duplex.
Switch: If the host is connected to a switch, and the switch port is configured as Full Duplex
(or Autonegotiation), then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Full Duplex. If the switch
port is configured as Half Duplex, then the Ethernet NIC on the host will choose Half
Duplex. (Full Duplex is a much more efficient option.)
The information is automatically saved when entered.

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Repeat these steps for the other hosts. Use the information below for IP Addresses and
Subnet Masks.
Host IP Address Subnet Mask
PC0 172.16.1.10 255.255.0.0
PC1 172.16.1.11 255.255.0.0
PC2 172.16.1.12 255.255.0.0
PC3 172.16.1.13 255.255.0.0

Verify the information

To verify the information that you entered, move the Select tool (arrow) over each host.

Deleting a Device or Link

To delete a device or link, choose the Delete tool and click on the item you wish to delete.

Step 6: Connecting Hub0 to Switch0

To connect like-devices, like a Hub and a Switch, we will use a Cross-over cable. Click once
the Cross-over Cable from the Connections options.

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Move the Connections cursor to Switch0.

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Click once on Switch0 and choose FastEthernet0/4 (actual port does not matter).

The link light for switch port FastEthernet0/4 will begin as amber and eventually change to
green as the Spanning Tree Protocol transitions the port to forwarding.

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Network Simulation
In this part, we are going to use the simulator to simulate traffic between hosts. For this
scenario, delete the switch and host PC3, then connect host PC2 to the hub.

Task 1 Observe the flow of data from PC0 to PC1 by creating network traffic.

a. Switch to Simulation Mode by selecting the tab that is partially hidden behind the
Real Time tab in the bottom right-hand corner. The tab has the icon of a stopwatch on
it.

NOTE: When Simulation Mode is chosen, a Simulation Panel will appear on the right side of
the screen. This panel can be moved by moving the cursor at the top of the panel until it
changes and then double-clicking on it. The panel can be restored to the original location by
double-clicking on the Title bar. If the panel is closed, click on the Event List button.

b. Click on Edit Filters, and then select All/None to deselect every filter. Then choose
ARP and ICMP and click in the workspace to close the Edit Filters window.

c. Select a Simple PDU by clicking the closed envelope in the Common Tools Bar on the
right.

Move to PC0 and click to establish the source. Move to PC1 and click to establish the
destination. Notice that two envelopes are now positioned beside PC0. This is referred to as a
data traffic scenario. One envelope is an ICMP packet, while the other is an ARP packet. The

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Event List in the Simulation Panel will identify exactly which envelope represents ICMP and
which represents an ARP.

A scenario may be deleted by clicking on the Delete button in the Scenario panel.

Multiple scenarios can be created by clicking on the New button in the Scenario panel. The
scenarios can then be toggled between without deleting.

d. Select Auto Capture / Play from the Simulation Panel Play Controls.

Below the Auto Capture / Play button is a horizontal bar, with a vertical button that controls
the speed of the simulation. Dragging the button to the right will speed up the simulation,
while dragging is to the left will slow down the simulation.

e. Choose the Reset Simulation button in the Simulation window.

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Notice that the ARP envelope is no longer present. This has reset the simulation but has not
cleared any configuration changes or MAC / ARP table entries.

f. Choose the Capture / Forward button.

Notice that the ICMP envelope moved forward one device and stopped. The Capture /
Forward button will allow you to move the simulation one step at a time.

g. Choose the Power Cycle Devices button on the bottom left, above the device icons.
h. Choose yes

Notice that both the ICMP and ARP envelopes are now present. The Power Cycle Devices
will clear any configuration changes not saved and clear the MAC / ARP tables.

Task 2 View ARP Tables on each PC.

a. Choose the Auto Capture / Play button and allow the simulation to run completely.
b. Click on PC-0 and select the Desktop tab.

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c. Select the Command Prompt and type the command arp -a.
d. Notice that the MAC address for PC2 is in the ARP table (to view the MAC address
of PC2, click on PC2 and select the Config tab).
e. To examine the ARP tables for PC1 and PC2in another way, click on the Inspect
Tool.

Then click on PC1 and the ARP table will appear in a new window.

Note that PC2 does not have an entry in the ARP table yet. Close the ARP Table

window. f. Click on PC2 to view the ARP table. Then close the ARP Table

window.

NOTE: To deactivate the Inspect Tool, click on the Select Tool

Task 3 Adding routers and installing modules

a. In the Network Component Box, click on the router.

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b. Select an 1841 router.

c. Move the cursor to the Logical Workspace and click on the desired location.

NOTE: If multiple instances of the same device are needed press and hold the Ctrl button,
click on the desired device, and then release the Ctrl button. A copy of the device will be
created and can now be move to the desired location.

d. Click on the router to bring up the Configuration Window. This window has three
modes.

Physical, Config, and CLI (Physical is the default mode).

The Physical mode is used to add modules to a device, such as a WAN Interface Card (WIC).
The Config mode is used for basic configuration. Commands are entered in a simple GUI
format, with actual equivalent IOS commands shown in the lower part of the window. The
CLI mode allows for advanced configuration of the device. This mode requires the user to
enter the actual IOS commands just as they would on a live device.

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e. In the Physical mode, click on the router power switch to turn the device off.

f. Select the WIC-2T module and drag it to Slot 0 on the router. Then drag a WIC Cover
to Slot1.

g. Power the device back on.

h. Click on the Network Component Box and select Connections. Then select a Copper
Straight-through connection to connect the router to the hub.

NOTE: The Smart Connection can be used to automatically select the appropriate cable type.
However, the user will have no choice as to which interface the connection is assigned to; it
will take the first available appropriate interface.

i. Click on the hub and choose Port 3. Then click on the router and choose interface
FastEthernet 0/0.

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Task 4 Basic router configuration

a. Click on the Config mode tab of Router0 to begin configuring the device.
b. After the device has finished booting, change the display name of the router to
CISCO_1. Changing the display name does not affect the configuration.

NOTE: If the device hangs up in the booting process, save the activity. Then close the
application and reopen the file.
c. Click in the Hostname field and type CISCO_1, then press the TAB key. Note the
equivalent IOS command is entered in the lower portion of the window.
d. Click on interface FastEthernet 0/0 and assign the IP address 192.168.1.1, then press
the TAB key. Enter the subnet mask 255.255.255.0.

Task 5 Create a copy of the existing router complete with WIC modules already in place

a. Make sure that the existing router is selected (it will be grayed out).
b. In the Main Tool Bar click on the Copy tool.

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c. Click on the Paste tool and the copied device will appear in the work area.

d. Drag the new device to the desired location.

e. Click on the Network Component Box and select Connections. Then select the Serial
DCE connection.

f. Click on the CISCO_1 router and connect to the Serial 0/0/0 interface.
g. Click on the new router (copy CISCO_1) and connect to the Serial 0/0/0 interface.

Task 6 Configuring the WAN link

a. Click on the CISCO_1 router and select the Config mode.
b. Select interface Serial 0/0/0.
c. Configure the interface Serial 0/0/0 with the IP address 192.168.2.1, then press the
TAB key and enter the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 on the interface.
d. Set the clock rate to 56000.
e. Click the Port Status to On to enable the port (no shutdown).
f. Click on the new router and select the Config mode.
g. Change the Display Name and Hostname to CISCO_2.
h. Configure the interface Serial 0/0/0 with the IP address 192.168.2.2, then press the
TAB key and enter the subnet mask 255.255.255.0 on the interface.
i. Click the Port Status to On to enable the port (no shutdown).
NOTE: The link lights on the serial link should change from red to green to indicate the link
is active.

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Task 7 Configure the routing protocol

a. Click on the CISCO_1 router and select the Config tab. Then click on RIP and add the
network address 192.168.1.0 and 192.168.2.0.
b. Click on the CISCO_2 router and select the Config tab. Then click on RIP and add the
network address 192.168.2.0.
c. Go to each PC and set the Default Gateway to 192.168.1.1.

Task 8 Set the default gateway on the PCs

a. Click on PC0 and select the Config tab. Enter the default gateway address
192.168.1.1.
b. Click on PC1 and select the Config tab. Enter the default gateway address
192.168.1.1.
c. Click on PC2 and select the Config tab. Enter the default gateway address
192.168.1.1.

Task 9 Test the connectivity of the network

a. Click on the Simulation mode.

b. Select a Simple PDU and click on PC-A as the source, then click on Cisco_2 as the
destination. The ping should be successful.

Task 10 Save the Packet Tracer file

a. Save the Packet Tracer file as PT Basic.

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Practical 2: LAN Trainer Kit – Bus & Ring Topology

1. Bus Topology

Alternatively referred to as a line topology, a bus

topology is a network setup in which each computer and
network device are connected to a single cable or
backbone. The following sections contain both the
advantages and disadvantages of using a bus topology
with your devices.
Advantages
 It works well when you have a small network.
 Easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
2. Ring Topology

In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make a
closed loop. Each workstation is connected to two other components on either side, and it
communicates with these two adjacent
neighbours. Data travels around the
network, in one direction. Sending and
receiving of data takes place by the help of
TOKEN.
Token Passing (in brief) : Token contains a
piece of information which along with data
is sent by the source computer. This token
then passes to next node, which checks if
the signal is intended to it. If yes, it receives
it and passes the empty to into the network,
otherwise passes token along with the data
to next node. This process continues until
the signal reaches its intended destination.
The nodes with token are the ones only
allowed to send data. Other nodes have to wait for an empty token to reach them. This network
is usually found in offices, schools and small buildings.

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Advantages:
 This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data
when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in
ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed.
 Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of
Bus topology.
 There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
Additional components do not affect the performance of network.
Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages:
 Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower than Star topology.
 If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
 Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
MAU’s and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.

Practical 3: LAN Trainer Kit – Star & Mesh Topology

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1. Star Topology

In Star topology, all the components of network are

connected to the central device called “hub” which
may be a hub, a router or a switch. Unlike Bus
topology (discussed earlier), where nodes were
connected to central cable, here all the workstations
are connected to central device with a point-to-point
connection. So it can be said that every computer is
indirectly connected to every other node by the help
of “hub”.
All the data on the star topology passes through the
central device before reaching the intended
destination. Hub acts as a junction to connect
different nodes present in Star Network, and at the
same time it manages and controls whole of the
network. Depending on which central device is used,
“hub” can act as repeater or signal booster. Central
device can also communicate with other hubs of
different network. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Ethernet cable is used to connect workstations to
central node.

Advantages

 As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t
necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended
destination after passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance
of the network is dependent on the capacity of central hub.
 Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be added easily
without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed
easily.
 Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network.
 Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time it’s
easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages

 Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails whole
network goes down.
 The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the
network.
 Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is
depended on capacity of central device.

2. Mesh Topology

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In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays
data from other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected
to every other node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are many
redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used
in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh topology.

Advantages
 Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
 Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data
transfer doesn’t get affected.
 Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages
 There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
 Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
 Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.

Practical 4: Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge

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1. Hub: - A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other
words, collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains
one. Also, they do not have
intelligence to find out best path
for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.
2. Switch: - A switch is a multi port
bridge with a buffer and a design
that can boost its efficiency (large
number of ports imply less
traffic) and performance. Switch
is data link layer device. Switch
can perform error checking before
forwarding data, that makes it
very efficient as it does not
forward packets that have errors
and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only. In
other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same.
3. Bridge: - A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single
input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
4. Router: - A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs together and have a
dynamically updating routing table
based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets. Router divide
broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it.

Practical 5: NIC, Repeater, Gateway

1. NIC: In the early days of computing, individual computers operated as stand-alone

systems. The earliest personal computers did not have an easy way to connect to other
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computers. In order to transfer files between computers, you had to use a portable
storage medium such as a floppy disk; however, in modern-day computers,
connecting to a network is essential. For example, you need to connect to use e-mail,
access information on the Internet, and share documents within a corporate network.
A computer uses a network interface card (NIC) to become part of a network. The
NIC contains the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a wired
connection (e.g., Ethernet) or a wireless connection (e.g., Wi-Fi). A network interface
card is also known as a network interface controller, network adapter, or Local Area
Network (LAN) adapter. Early NICs typically consisted of an expansion card
connected to a computer's motherboard.
2. Repeater: A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do no amplify the signal.
When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the
original strength. It is a 2 port device.
3. Gateway: A computer that controls the traffic of your LAN or your ISP receives is a
Gateway. A server serves as a Gateway, the gateway also works as a firewall and a
proxy server. A Gateway is a device such as a mini or microcomputer capable of
operating on a standalone basis but which also provides connection for
communication with the other computers and access to shared resources. Normally a
gateway is associated with a router. A router is a device that lets you know the next
network data should be sent to next. A router can be connected to more than one
network at a time. A gateway is associated with a router because a router which uses
headers and forwarding tables to figure out where packets or data is sent provides the
path through which information is sent in and out a gateway.

Practical 6: Straight-through, Crossover and Rollover wiring

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to
another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some
cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable
types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol,
and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to
other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
 Coaxial Cable
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 Fiber Optic Cable

 Cable Installation Guides
 Wireless LANs
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: - Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties:
shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally
the best option for school networks (See fig. 1).

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost
per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional
categories are emerging).

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair: -

Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet

2. Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector: - The standard connector for unshielded twisted
pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large
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telephone-style connector (See fig. 2). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way.
RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from
the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the
connector.

Fig.2.RJ-45 connector

1. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: - Although UTP cable is the least expensive
cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it should not
be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must place cable in
environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely
sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP,
shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the
maximum distance of the cables.

Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations:

1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.

2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of
wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

3.Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield (See fig. 3). The metal shield helps
to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

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Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In

addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial. Thin coaxial cable
is also referred to as thin net. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being
200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has
been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thick net. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for
thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length
being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep
moisture away from the centre conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

4.Coaxial Cable Connectors :- The most common type of connector used with coaxial
cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of
adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and
terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid
problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto
the cable.

Fig. 4. BNC connector

5.Fibre Optic Cable: - Fibre optic cabling consists of a centre glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic
signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting. Fibre optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer
distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly
greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such
as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable
to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the
specifications for fibre optic cable carrying Ethernet signals.

The centre core of fibre cables is made from glass or plastic fibre (see fig 5). A plastic
coating then cushions the fibre centre, and Kevlar fibre help to strengthen the cables and
prevent breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.

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Fig. 5. Fibre optic cable

There are two common types of fibre cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable
has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single
mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive.

Specification Cable Type

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
1000BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber

Practical 7: Linux / Windows Commands

It is sometimes useful to know the network commands to analyze or configure your TCP/IP
networks

Here is the list of commands that can be used in the command prompt:

Ping:- Test the network connection with a remote IP address

ping-t [IP or host]

ping-l 1024 [IP or host]

The -t option to ping continuously until Ctrl-C is pressed.

If you specify the -t option you can always get statistics without interrupting pings by
pressing Ctrl + Break

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This command is also useful to generate network load by specifying the size of the packet
with the -l option and the packet size in bytes.

Tracert: - Displays all intermediate IP addresses through which a packet passes through,
between the local machine and the specified IP address.

tracert [@IP or host]

tracert -d [@IP or host]

This command is useful if the ping command does return any data, to determine at what level
the connection failed.

IpConfig: - Displays or refresh the TCP/IP configuration

ipconfig /all [/release [adapter]] [/renew [adapter]] /flushdns /displaydns /registerdns [-a] [-a] [-a]

This command, when executed with no options, displays the current IP address, the subnet
mask and default gateway (network interfaces of the local machine)
 /all: Displays all network configuration, including DNS, WINS, DHCP servers, etc ...
 /renew [adapter]: Renews DHCP configuration for all adapters (if adapter is not specified)
or a specific adapter indicated by the [adapter] parameter.
 /release [adapter]: Sends a DHCPRELEASE message to the DHCP server to release the
current DHCP configuration and cancel the IP address configuration for all adapters (if
adapter is not specified) or a specific adapter indicated by the [adapter] parameter. This
parameter disables TCP/IP for network cards configured to automatically obtain an IP
address.
 /flushdns: Empty and reset the DNS client resolver cache. This option is useful to exclude
negative entries and all other entries added dynamically to the cache.
 /displaydns: Displays the DNS client resolver cache, which includes entries preloaded
from the local host file and any recently obtained records for name queries resolved by the
host computer. The DNS Client service uses this information to quickly resolve frequently
queried names, before querying the configured DNS servers.
 /registerdns: Refreshes all DHCP leases and re-registers DNS names.

NetStat: - Displays the status of the TCP/IP stack on the local machine

NETSTAT [-a] [-e] [-n] [-s] [-p proto] [-r] [interval]

 -a Displays all connections and listening ports (server-side connections are normally
inhibited).
 -e Displays Ethernet statistics. Can be combined with the -s option.
 -n Displays addresses and port numbers in numerical form.
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 -p proto Shows connections for the protocol specified by proto, proto may be TCP or
UDP. Used with the -s option to display per-protocol statistics, proto may be TCP, UDP
or IP.
 -r Displays the contents of the routing table.
 -s Displays statistics by protocol. By default, statistics on TCP, UDP and IP are displayed,
the -p option can be used to specify a subset.
 interval: Re-display the selected statistics, pausing after a specific "interval" (in seconds)
between each display. Press Ctrl + C to stop displaying statistics.
 -abnov Displays processes using the internet connection (local IP address, port, remote IP
adress and the PID of the process that uses the connection as well as its name).

Route :- Displays or modifies the routing table

ROUTE [-f] [command [destination] [MASK network mask] [gateway]

 -f Clears the routing tables of all gateway entries. Used in conjunction with one of the
below "commands", the tables are cleared before executing the command.
 -p Makes the entry into the table, residual (after reboot).
Specify one of four commands:
 DELETE: Deletes a route.
 PRINT: Displays a route.
 ADD: Adds a route.
 CHANGE: Modifies an existing route.
 destination: Specifies the host.
 MASK: If the MASK keyword is present, the next parameter is interpreted as the network
mask parameter.
 netmask: Provided, it specifies the value of the subnet mask to be associated with this
route entry. Unspecified, it takes the default value of 255.255.255.255.
 Gateway: Specifies the gateway.
 METRIC: Specifies the cost metric for the destination

Arp: - Resolving IP addresses to MAC addresses. Displays and modifies the translation
tables of IP addresses to physical addresses used by the ARP address resolution protocol.

ARP -s adr_inet adr_eth [adr_if]

ARP -d adr_inet [adr_if]

ARP -a [adr_inet] [-N adr_if]

 -a Displays active ARP entries by interrogating the current data protocol. If adr_inet is
specified, only the physical and IP addresses of the specified computer are displayed. If
more than one network interface uses ARP, entries for each ARP table are displayed.
 -g is the same as -a

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 adr_inet Specifies an internet address.

 -N adr_if Displays ARP entries for the network interface specified by adr_if.
 -d Deletes the host specified by adr_inet.
 -s Adds the host and associates the adr_inet internet address with the adr_eth physical
address. The physical address is given as 6 hexadecimal bytes separated by hyphens. The
entry is permanent.
 adr_eth Specifies a physical address.
 adr_if Specifies the internet interface whose address translation table should be modified.
When not specified, the first applicable interface will be used.

Nbtstat: - Update cache of the LMHOSTS file. Displays protocol statistics and current
TCP/IP connections using NBT (NetBIOS over TCP/IP).

NBTSTAT [-a Remote Name] [-A IP address] [-c] [-n] [-r] [-R] [-s] [S] [interval]

-a (adapter status) display the table (names) of the remote machine (known name).
-A (adapter status) display the table (names) of the remote machine (IP address).
-c (cache) display the remote name cache including the IP addresses.
-n (names) Lists local NetBIOS names.
-r (resolved) Lists names resolved by broadcast and via WINS.
-R (Reload) Clear and reload the table cache with the remote names.
-S (Sessions) Lists the sessions table with the destination IP addresses.
-s (sessions) Lists the sessions table with the destination IP addresses converted to host names
via the hosts file.
Example : nbtstat -A @IP
This command returns the NetBIOS name, system name, users connected ... to the remote
machine.
Telnet: -
telnet <IP or host>

telnet <IP or host> <port TCP>

The telnet command to access to a remote host in Terminal mode (passive screen) . It also
allows you to check if any TCP service is running on a remote server by specifying the IP
address after the TCP port number. Thus we can test whether the SMTP Service is running on
a Microsoft Exchange server, using the IP address of the SMTP connector, and then 25 as the
port number. The most common ports are:
 ftp (21),
 telnet (23),
 smtp (25),
 www (80),
 kerberos (88),
 pop3 (110),
 nntp (119)

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 and nbt (137-139).

Ftp :-
Client to upload files

ftp -s:<file>

 -s This option allows you to run FTP in batch mode: Specifies a text file containing FTP
commands.

Practical 8: Configure DNS

DNS is a globally distributed, scalable, hierarchical, and dynamic database that provides a
mapping between hostnames, IP addresses (both IPv4 and IPv6), text records, mail exchange
information (MX records), name server information (NS records), and security key
information defined in Resource Records (RRs). The information defined in RRs is grouped
into zones and maintained locally on a DNS server so it can be retrieved

globally through the distributed DNS architecture. DNS can use either the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) or Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and historically uses a destination
port of 53. When the DNS protocol uses UDP as the transport, it has the ability to deal with
UDP retransmission and sequencing.

DNS is composed of a hierarchical domain name space that contains a tree-like data structure
of linked domain names (nodes). Domain name space uses Resource Records (RRs) that may
or may not exist to store information about the domain. The tree-like data structure for the
domain name space starts at the root zone ".", which is the top most level of the DNS
hierarchy. Although it is not typically displayed in user applications, the DNS root is
represented as a trailing dot in a fully qualified domain name (FQDN). For example, the

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right-most dot in "www.cisco.com." represents the root zone. From the root zone, the DNS
hierarchy is then split into sub-domain (branches) zones.

Each domain name is composed of one or more labels. Labels are separated with "." and may
contain a maximum of 63 characters. A FQDN may contain a maximum of 255 characters,
including the ".". Labels are constructed from right to left, where the label at the far right is
the top level domain (TLD) for the domain name.

Important DNS Terminology: -

To understand DNS and the DNS-specific recommendations in this document, it is important

that operators and administrators are familiar with the following terms:

Resolver: A DNS client that sends DNS messages to obtain information about the requested
domain name space.

Recursion: The action taken when a DNS server is asked to query on behalf of a DNS
resolver.

Authoritative Server: A DNS server that responds to query messages with information stored
in RRs for a domain name space stored on the server.

Recursive Resolver: A DNS server that recursively queries for the information asked in the
DNS query.

FQDN: A Fully Qualified Domain Name is the absolute name of a device within the
distributed DNS database.

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RR: A Resource Record is a format used in DNS messages that is composed of the following
fields: NAME, TYPE, CLASS, TTL, RDLENGTH, and RDATA.

Zone: A database that contains information about the domain name space stored on an
authoritative server.

Primary Function of DNS: - DNS primarily translates hostnames to IP addresses or IP

addresses to hostnames. This translation process is accomplished by a DNS resolver (this
could be a client application such as a web browser or an e-mail client, or a DNS application
such as BIND) sending a DNS query to a DNS server requesting the information defined in a
RR. Some examples of the DNS resolution process follow:

 If the DNS server is only configured as an authoritative server and it receives a DNS
query message asking about information which the server is authoritative, it will
cause the server to inspect locally stored RR information and return the value of the
record in the 'Answer Section' of a DNS response message. If the requested
information for the DNS query message does not exist, the DNS server will respond
with a NXDOMAIN (Non-Existent Domain) DNS response message or a DNS
Referral Response message.
 If the DNS server is authoritative, not configured as a recursive resolver, and it
receives a DNS query message asking about information which the server is not
authoritative, it will cause the server to issue a DNS response message containing
RRs in the 'Authority Section' and the address mapping for the FQDN from that
section may be present in the 'Additional Section'. This informs the DNS resolver
where to send queries in order to obtain authoritative information for the question in
the DNS query. This is also known as a DNS Referral Response message.
 If the DNS server is not authoritative but is configured as a recursive resolver and it
receives a DNS query asking about information, it will cause the server to recursively
query (iterative queries) the DNS architecture for the authoritative DNS server of the
information included in the DNS request. Once the recursive DNS resolver has
obtained this information, it will provide that information to the original DNS
resolver using a DNS response message and the RR will be non-authoritative (since
the recursive DNS resolver is not authoritative for the requested information). The
recursive DNS resolver may also have knowledge about the requested information

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stored in DNS cache. If the requested information is present in the DNS cache, then
the recursive DNS resolver will respond with that RR information.

DNS Server service: Disable Recursion using Windows User Interface

The following steps provide information on how to disable recursion for the DNS Server
service using the Windows User Interface (UI).

1. Open DNS using the following procedure:

o Left-click on Start
o Left-click on Control Panel
o Double-click Administrative Tools
o Double-click DNS
2. Within the console tree, right-click the DNS server that recursion will be disabled for
and then select Properties.

3. Next, left-click the Advanced tab.

4. Within Server options, select the Disable recursion check box and then left-click
on OK.

DNS Server service: Disable Recursion using Windows Command-Line: -

1. Open a Command Prompt using the following procedure:

o Left-click on Start
o Left-click on Run
o The Run dialog box will appear
o Type cmd in the text box to the right of "Open:"
2. At the Command Prompt, issue the following command:

DnsCmd ServerName /Config /NoRecursion {1|0}

 DnsCmd: This is the name of the tool used from the CLI to perform administrative
tasks for the DNS Server service.

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 /Config: Specifies that the argument for the DnsCmd command applies to the
configuration of the DNS Server service.
 /NoRecursion: Specifies that an argument of 1 or 0 will follow to disable or enable
recursion for the DNS Server service.
 {1|0} This is the name of the tool used from the CLI to perform administrative tasks
for the DNS Server service.

Using either of the previous configuration examples for the DNS Server service will disable
recursion for all resolvers sending recursive DNS queries to the server. If recursion is
disabled, operators will not be able to use DNS forwarders on that server. Microsoft provides
additional information operators can use to harden the configuration of the DNS Server
service. More information is available in the Securing the DNS Server service or Security
Information for DNS documentation.

Microsoft Windows also provides a feature called DNS Server Secure Cache Against
Pollution that ignores the RRs in DNS response messages received from a non-authoritative
server. Note that this feature is enabled by default on Windows 2000 Service Pack 3 (SP3)
and Windows Server 2003, and that using this feature will also produce more queries sent
from the DNS server.

Install and Configure DNS Server in Linux: - BIND is the most common program used for
maintaining a name server on Linux.

Install Bind: -
Install the bind9 package using the appropriate package management utilities for your Linux
distributions.
On Debian/Ubuntu flavors, do the following:

$ sudo apt-get install bind9

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Practical 9: Configure Static Routing

To configure static routes on Windows Server 2003 : -

1. On the desktop, right-click My Network Places, and then click Properties.

2. In the Network and Dial-up Properties window, right-click <adapter name>, and then
click Properties.
3. In the <adapter name> Properties dialog box, in the Components checked are used by
this connection section, click Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), and then click Properties.
4. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click Advanced.
5. In the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog box, on the IP Settings tab, in the Default
gateways section, click Add.
6. In the TCP/IP Gateway Address dialog box, in the Gateway box, type the IP address
of the default gateway or router interface, and then click Add.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each additional router interface (if applicable).
8. In the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog box, click OK.
9. In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box, click OK.
10. In the <adapter name> Properties dialog box, click OK.
11. Restart the server.

To configure static routes on Windows Server 2008: -

1. On the desktop, right-click Network, and then click Properties.

2. In the Network and Sharing Center window, click Manage network connections.
3. Right-click <adapter name>, and then click Properties.
4. In the <adapter name> Properties dialog box, in the This connection uses the
following items section, click Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) or Internet
Protocol Version 6 (TCP/IPv6), as required, and then click Properties.

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5. In the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) or Internet Protocol Version 6

(TCP/IPv6) dialog box, click Advanced.
6. In the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog box, on the IP Settings tab, in the Default
gateways section, click Add.
7. In the TCP/IP Gateway Address dialog box, in the TCP/IP Gateway Address box,
type the IP address of the default gateway or router interface, and then click Add.
8. Repeat steps 6
and 7 for each
additional
router interface
(if applicable).
9. In the
Advanced
TCP/IP
Settings dialog
box, click OK.
10. In the Internet
Protocol
Version 4
(TCP/IPv4) or
Internet
Protocol
Version 6
(TCP/IPv6)
Properties dialog box, click OK.
11. In the <adapter name> Properties dialog box, click OK.
12. Restart the server.

Practical 10: Link State Vector Routing Algorithm

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol and. It computes the shortest
path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra algorithm, a shortest path first
algorithm. This interior gateway protocol (IGP) is most popular in large enterprise networks.
OSPF is used to determine the best route for delivering the packets within an IP networks. It
gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the
network. The topology determines the routing table presented to the Internet Layer which
makes routing decisions based solely on the destination IP address found in IP packets. It
exhibits faster routing compared to RIP. OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link
failures and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. Each OSPF router
stores the local network connection state with Link State Advertisement (LSA) and advertises
to the entire AS. LSA is a packet that contains all relevant information regarding a router's
links and the state of those links. Each router receives the LSA generated by all routers within

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the AS. The LSA collection then forms Link State Database (LSDB). Each LSA is the
description of the surrounding network topology of a router. Hence, the LSDB reflects the AS
network topology. Based on the link-state database, each router or system calculates a shortest-
path spanning tree, with itself as the root, using the SPF algorithm. OSPF has five different
packet types. Each packet has a specific purpose in OSPF route.

1. Hello packet.
2. Database description.
3. Link state request packet.
4. Link state update.
5. Link state acknowledgment packet.
Procedure:

1. Develop a Topology shown in figure.

2. Configure all the workstations
3. Configure all switches
4. Configure all Routers
5. Implement OSPF protocols in Router to configure Network.

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