Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and

their momentum of a small moving particle.

There are fundamental limits to the accuracy with which one can
measure position and momentum.
Particle One point in space
Narrow de Broglie Wide de Broglie
wave group wave group Wave

Everywhere in space
∆x is small ∆x is large
λ=? λ=defined
∆p is large ∆p is small Wave packet

Can be squished to a point

∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π and stretched to a wave
The relation between ∆x and ∆p depends on the wave group and how
∆x and ∆p are defined
The uncertainty is NOT due to technical or intrinsic feature of the
measuring process/device. It is a fundamental feature of reality itself.
 Uncertainty Principle

There is a tradeoff between particle and wave character

Depending on the width of the wave-packet, an object can be

more like a particle or like a wave

A particle (narrow wave-packet) has a well defined position,

and a wave (wide wave-packet) has a well-defined momentum.

This leads to a tradeoff between the uncertainties in the

position and the momentum.

An electron can be 100% particle: Δx=0, Δp=infinity

Or,
It can turn into 100% wave: Δx=infinity, Δp=0
In between it is a wave packet
Learn the predictions using uncertainty relation about some important
examples. The uncertainty product is taken in the order of h or  (hbar) only
 Applications of uncertainty principle
1. Electrons confined in atom
The radius of the orbit of an atom is of order of 10-10 m. If electron is
confined within the orbit the uncertainty in position must NOT be
greater than 10-10 m.
x ~ ∆ x = 10−10 m

∆p~ ~p The momentum of the electron
∆x would NOT be less than ∆p, rather it
could be comparable to ∆p.
p2 2
E= = ≈ 3 eV
2 m 2 m (∆ x) 2

This energy require to hold is of the order of ionization energy of an

atom, concluded that the electrons are confined in the orbits.
2. (a) α-particles confined in nucleus
The radius of the nucleus is 10-14m, the diameter; x ~ ∆ x = 2 × 10 −14 m

 6.625 ×10 −34 − 21

∆p= = −14
= 5 .275 × 10 kg − m / s ~ p
∆ x 2 × 3.14 × 2 ×10
p2 (5.275 ×10 − 21 ) 2
K .E = = − 27
≈ 1M eV
2m 2 × 4 ×1.67 ×10
in the range of accepted nuclear binding energies
2. (b) Non-existence of electron in the nucleus
 6.625×10−34 − 21
∆p= = −
= 5. 275 × 10 kg − m / s ~ p
∆ x 2 × 3.14 × 2 × 10 14

p2 The electrons inside the nucleus may exist only when

K .E = ≈ 96 M eV it posses energy of the order of MeV. However, the
2m
maximum possible k.e. of an electron emitted by
radioactive nuclei is about 4 MeV.
Hence, it is concluded that the electron cannot reside
inside the nucleus.
3. Ground state energy of Linear Harmonic Oscillator
x=∆ x ; ∆ p =

= p; p2 1 2
2∆ x E = k .e. + p.e. = + kx
2m 2

∆ x ⋅ ∆ p = (ideal case)
2

2 1   
E= + k
   2  2 m k 
8m 
 2 mk 
 

1 1
Emin = hν =  ω Zero point energy
2 2
The minimum energy of harmonic oscillator is called zero point energy
4. Ground state of Hydrogen atom
p2 e2 
E = k .e. + p.e. = − r~∆r ; ∆ p ~ ~p
2m 4 π ε 0 r ∆r

m e4
⇒ Emin = − = −13.6 eV
2 × (4π ε 0 ) 
2 2

Bohr radius
 5. Position measurement in a microscope

The ϕ at A is

The phase difference at A’ is

2π
2h φ'= ( A' h1 − A' h2 )
∆ px <
λ
sin(θ / 2) λ
h λ  2π
⇒∆ x>
h
=   = 2 sin(θ / 2) ∆ x
2 ∆ p x 2  2 h sin(θ / 2)  λ
∆ x>
λ > π A condition for a minimum at P
4 sin(θ / 2) Interference washed out ?
From Maxwell equation

This represents a wave

Use de Broglie equation,

This represents a particle

Energy-momentum relation for massless particle

Include extra term for a particle having mass m0
Consider a free particle

associated wave to this particle is

LHS (=E) you can get by taking derivative w.r.t time

= energy operator

RHS, you can get by taking derivative w.r.t r

= momentum operator

Physical observables (Energy, Momentum etc..) are replaced

with Hermitian operators
Consider a bound particle, ie. particle has kinetic as well as potential energy

associated wave to this particle is

Schrodinger equation

We have not, by any means, derived this equation. This is a law of

nature and cannot be derived
 Schrodinger equation

Eψ ( r , t ) = Hˆ ψ ( r , t )
When E is constant,

Hˆ ψ ( r , t ) = Eψ ( r , t ), Eigenvalue Equation

H is an operator, is a ψ wavefunction and

E is an eigenvalue of the H operator
 Pure State
Pure state of position,

ψ ( x, t ) = δ ( x − x0 ), position is define at time t , at x0

Pure state of momentum,
i
1 1 i p0 x
ψ ( x, t ) = e i k0 x = e  , | ψ ( x, t ) |2 =
1
.
2π  2π  2π 
momentum is define at time t is p0

You require infinite number of pure state of momentum (position)

to define pure state of position (momentum). So it is not possible.
Hence you may have in mixed state of position or momentum.

Mixed State
You can define realistic wavefunction with combination of pure states
1. The state of the particle at an instant is represented by a
wavefunction
2. At a given instant, the wavefunction may or may not be a pure state
of an observable quantity
3. If the wavefunction is not a pure state, one can only tell the
probabilities of different values of that observable
4. Every observable have pure state
5. If the wavefunction is written as ψ ( x) = ∑ Ciφi ( x);
i

then the probability of observable in ith state is |Ci|2

where φi is pure state, Ci can be complex. ∞
6. If the wavefunction is written as ψ ( x) = ∫ C ( a ) φa ( x) da;
−∞

the probability |C(a)|2da is finding the value in the range a and

a+da
7. If the wavefunction is a mixed state of observable A. Let a precise
measurement of observable A is done and the value obtained is a. Then the
wavefunction just after the measurement change to the pure state of
observable A corresponding to value a. This is called collapse of
wavefunction during measurement.

The momentum Finite momentum (not

wavefunction in mixed depend on position)
state
1
| ψ ( x, t ) | =
2
.
2π 

ψ ( x) = δ ( x − x0 ),
Pure state
Mixed state
Measurement disturb the system.
 Properties of a wavefunction
1. ψ ( r , t ) is a complex

2. ψ (r , t ) interpret probability amplitude of particle,

ψ (r , t ) interpret the probability density;
2

d P(r , t ) = C ψ (r , t ) d r , where ' C ' is normalization constant.

2

∞ ∞

∫ d P(r , t ) = C ∫ ψ (r , t ) d r = 1
2

−∞ −∞

The classical state of a particle is determined at any time t by its position

and velocity (momentum).

The quantum state of a particle is determined by an infinite no. of

parameters. It can have a variety of solutions including complex solutions.
3. ψ (r , t ) must be continuous and single - valued everywhere
4. The first derivative of ψ (r , t ) w.r.t. r must be
continuous and single - valued everywhere
If the potential is finite then the 1st derivative of the wavefunction must be
continuous. The probability must be finite, so the 1st derivative will be
continuous. The 2nd derivative is discontinuous. In the case of Delta function
type potential, the 1st derivative of the wavefunction is discontinuous.
5. ψ (r , t ) must be Normalizable,

∫ ψ (r , t ) d r = finite.
2

r
6. Schrodinger equation is linear in ψ (r , t )
i.e. any linear combination of solution of the Schrodinger
equation for a given system is also a solution.