inclu

It ma
as sa
ing p
u

Analysis of Training Needs

Generally, a training need exists when
the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
habits required by the job vary from the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits
possessed by the employee assigned to the
job.
The basic process then, for
identifying training needs is as
follows: Determine what is required or
expected in the job or situation.
Determine the degree to which this
requirement or expectation is being
met. If it is not being met, find the
reasons. To the extent that these
reasons involve changes in the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, or habit
of employees, you have a need which
training can help meet.
Existence of certain training needs
can be accepted on the basis ofcommon
sense and reason, without extensive
 surveys or analyses. Some training
needs which are obvious occur
whenever: (1) a new employee comes to
work; (2) an employee is assigned to a
new or different job which he does not
know; (3) the methods of doing an
"old" job are changed; (4) the
mission, the organization, or the
working relationships within the
organization are substantially
changed.
Other training needs, which are not
so obvious, must be determined through
careful analysis, based on problems
existing or foreseeable in the work
situation. This analysis should
.1

38
include institutional as well as individual employee's
problems. It may be desirable to locate problems in the
organization, such as safety problems and discipline
problems, and develop training programs with a view of
equipping the concerned employees with the knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and habits necessary to successfully meet
the problem situations.

Clues to training needs may also be found by study-

ing:

1. Organizational plans
Looking into projected changes in mission,
structure, personnel, or procedures

2. Employee records
Looking into turnover rates,
absenteeism rates; sick leave notes,
accident severity and frequency ratios,
tardiness rates, grievances, composition of
supervisory force

3. Management audits of departmental/group

performance

4. Job requirements versus job qualifications

5. Complaints and reactions from customers/clients

6. Work and work flow

Looking into production bottlenecks,
fluctuations in production, backlogs,
records of high costs, waste,
excessive errors

7. Communication failures
 8. Morale indicators such as complaints, buck passing

39
Tools Used in the Assessment of Training and
Development Needs
A. Interview
An interview reveals feelings, causes, and
possible solutions of problems as well as
facts. It extends maximum opportunity for
the expression of opinion and giving of
suggestions. Interviews are a must for the
training officer who would keep a finger on
the pulse of his company. They help him
understand how people feel and why. They
also manifest, in a personalized way, sincere
interest in what people in the organization
think.
Interviews can be informal such as merienda-time
discussion of office problems, or formal encugh to involve a
form on which a training officer writes. c.

B. Questionnaires
Written questionnaires are also useful
tools for gathering information from which
training needs may be derived. They give
employees an opportunity to express their
feelings anonymously, without any of the
embarrassment or anxiety which can
accompany the more personal techniques.
Well-designed, they yield data that can be
processed quickly.
Any questionnaire should be pre-tested
and revised as necessary for clarity,
adequacy of coverage, etc. Anonymity must
be safeguarded — and participants must be
confident that it will be safeguarded.
The Employee Attitude Survey is an
example of the questionnaire technique. Such
surveys usually include some questions
bearing directly on training, and answers to
other questions frequently produce
additional clues on training needs.
The Supervisory Improvement Needs
Survey technique appeals to many because
of its positive and constructive emphasis,
which gets the potential trainee thinking in
terms of what he wants to help him do a
better

40
job, faster or easier. Potential trainees are given a list of
possible training subjects, with a brief description of
content, and asked to indicate their top preferences.
The Slip Survey Technique is an interesting
questionnaire device in which potential trainees are
called together in groups, given cards or slips of paper,
and asked to record, as fast as the thoughts occur to
them, what they consider to be their greatest difficulty
on the job -— one difficulty per slip, expressed in "how
to" form, i.e. "how to discipline," "how to write a
report," etc. The slips are then collected, sorted, and
analyzed for training needs.

c. Tests
Tests are useful as diagnostic tools to identify
specific areas of deficiencies. They are also useful in
selecting from among potential trainees those who can
profit best from training. Tests of various kinds may be
used in determining training needs and once an area of
need has been found, in selecting the employees to be
trained. They can be especially helpful in determining
whether the cause of a recognized problem is a
deficiency in knowledge or skill or attitude.
Performance or achievement tests are essentially a
means of sampling what employees know or can do,
and can, therefore, help to locate areas in which more
information or more skill training is needed.
Aptitude tests indicate potential to learn or acquire
information or skills in a particular area, and so are
useful in selecting from among a group of employees
those who can most profitably be trained.
Practical tests in typing and stenography can
quickly establish an employee's need or lack of need
for training in those skills.
 Trade information tests are used to determine levels
of knowledge and skill in a variety of occupations.

41
 Group Problem Analysis
An excellent means of determining training
needs is the group problem analysis, wherein
supervisors, managers or executives analyze together the
problems of their organizations. Groups of managers in a
given department get together to discuss their problems
and to decide what changes are necessary to solve the
problem. Some of these changes may be accomplished
through training, others through other management
action.

This process not only identifies training needs but

also builds a solid foundation of support for the
training decided on. Furthermore, the process
itself is training because the participants
become more analytical in their study of
problems.
The process may be done with or without a training

omcer. If he is present, he can facilitate discussion,

help members classify their thinking, and advise
on what training can and cannot do.

E. Records and Reports Analysis

Management records and reports can also provide
valuable data to training needs and excellent clues
to trouble spots. It is advisable, for example, to study
audit and inspection reports, personnel records
(grievances, turnover, absenteeism, accident frequency
and severity, tardiness, suggestion, etc.), cost and
production records, etc. These records seldom reveal
causes of problems, thus they are to be considered clues
to be followed up. They are best used as
 supplements to and checks on other kinds of need
determination.

F. Job Analysis and Performance Review

One of the excellent methods of determining
training needs of individuals is job analysis
combined with performance appraisal. The process
is as follows: Determine the, specific duties of the
job. Evaluate the adequacy: with which the
employee performs each of his

42
 duties. Locate significant areas which can be improved by
training.
The Critical Incident Technique is a job analysis and
performance evaluation device that places special emphasis
on kinds of behaviors that distinguish effective from
ineffective performance. The steps are as follows: First, list
only the major requirernents of the job, those that make the
difference between success and failure. Second, under each
of these write brief descriptions, usually in checklist form,
of observable onthe-job behavior. Third, let the supervisor
check the forms to record his observations of each
employee's behavior, adding whatever explanatory note he
feels necessary.
The Appraisal Panel Method is essentially a process of
supervisory obserVation and evaluation, supplemented by
the observations and evaluations of others who personally
know the appraisee and his work.

Designing Training and Development Programs

The design of training and development programs
involves many considerations. It includes factors that are
within the control of a company and many outside factors
that are beyond the control of any individual company's
management. Among the factors that should be considered
and analyzed when planning the design of training and
development programs are the following:
1. The complexity of the economy. This includes the phe-
nomena of increased competition, higher standard of
living, etc. These factors are inputs to a well-
coordinated program to maintain a company's
competitive position.
2. The changing technology. A host of new machines are
continually being introduced in Philippine companies. A
company must keep abreast of the latest methods and
techniques in order to maintain its position in the
industry. However, when new methods or equipment are
introduced, employees must be trained in their use or
maximum benefits will not be obtained.

43
 3. The nature of individual company operations.
The complexity of a company's operations has
a direct bearing on its training and development
programs. Bank institutions, automotive
manufacturing COm_ panics, service
organizations all have varied train_ ing
problenus. Training and development programs
have to be planned with this fact in mind.
4. Education patterns. The education patterns of a
country have a bearing on the design of a training
and development program. Due to a poor college
background of some employees, many companies
in the Philippines offer training seminars such as
technical report and business letter writing and
filing and records management. Another
interesting educational aspect in the Philippines is
the inclusion of new noncollege graduate workers
in the working force of many Philippine
companies who are desirous to finish their college
studies. A training and development program
which will facilitate for these employees the
acquisition of a college education is most
welcome.

5. Integration with other planning. Due to the

companywide influence of a training and
development program, top management
includes training plans as a vital part of their
overall planning for the enterprise.
6. Relation to staffing. Some companies have a
personnel policy with regard to the function of
staffing, inbreeding, or promotion from within. This
necessitates
 the adjustment of the training ahd development
programs to such policy, seeing to it that
positions are filled up by trained subordinates.
7. The personnel program. The design of training
and development programs must take into
consideration all other personnel policies,
plans, and programs.
8. Effective utilization of training staff and
facilities. The optimum utilization oftraining
staff and facilities should be considered in the
design of training and development programs.

44
9. Choice of programs. The design of training and
development programs should consider the choice
of programs if it is to be integrated with other
company activities and plans. These plans have a
direct bearing on the type of training that a business
firm will find necessary to undertake. Training
programs should be carefully planned and closely
related to company needs.

10. Selection of trainees and trainee utilization. The

design of training and development programs is
interlinked with trainee selection and trainee
utilization. This is to minimize the number of
training failures that come about and often
jeopardize a program that would be of value to a
company. The design of the program should include
a built-in mechanism that ensures the proper
selection of trainees for maximum results. The
modules to be included should enæ ble the trainees
to utilize the new knowledge as soon as possible
after the training. To do so, the design of the
program should also take into consideration the
circumstances surrounding the trainee's job
assignment.

11. The learning process. Any sound training and deve

lopment program is built upon fundamentals of
learning. One basic idea of the program is the "law
of effect," which states that one tends to repeat
behavior which seems to bring rewards and not to
repeat those which do not bring rewards. For
efficient learning, 'it is necessary to provide for
reinforcement of desired behavior.
 After a training need has been determined and
analyzed, and the training officer has looked into the fac
tors that have to be considered, the training officer has to
design the training program which he believes will satisfy
the training need.

45
 The design of a training program involves the
fol. lowing steps:

Step 1. Naming the Program

In naming the program, be as specific as possible
and avoid naming it in such a way as to suggest that it
ineludes more than it does. The name should, if
possible, indicate the content to be covered as well as
the type and level of instruction.
Examples: Cadet Engineers Management
Development
Program
Basic Supervisory Development Program

Step 2. Stating the Program's Objectives

Describe briefly what you expect participants to
know and be able to do after the program. The
objectives should be realistic and consistent with the
trainee's ability, as well as with the time and facilities
available.

Step 3. Determining the Program's Specific

Content
With the objectives in mind, select from the
analysis those knowing and doing units that you
wish to teach or impart. Estimate the time required.
If the program must be taught in a limited time,
care should be taken to select those essential units
that can be included within the time limits and
which will contribute the most toward the
objectives.

Step 4. Arranging Units in Teaching Order

Arrange the units on your tentative list from the
least difficult. The knowing units must generally be
taught prior to the doing units to which they are
related.
Here are the guidelines as controlling factors:
1. Give full coverage to the essentials of each subje ct
but include nothing in excess of this.

46
 2. Determine a time factor for each subject, having
in mind the time which a person of average
intelligence would require to master the subject.
3. Give the initial training in fundamentals so
that the trainees' ability to complete the
program may be assessed.
4. Provide ample time for revision to consolidate
knowledge and tests to assess progress.
5. Link theory with practice. Follow explanation of the
necessary theory by immediate practical
application.
Step 5. Selecting and Preparing Instructional
Materials and Resource Speakers
Select and prepare training aids, textbooks,
manuals, and alle other instructional materials based
on decisions on course content and methods.
Instructional materials must be consistent with
trainees' ability, must emphasize the key elements of
the courSe, and must be effective in presenting
information and concepts.
Decide range of operations — what tools,
machines, and equipment are necessary. Design
progressive exercises making use of tools and
machines in the order of difficulty. Later exercises
should build on previous work and introduce use of
additional tools. Decide what, how, and when
workshop demonstrations are to be used. Drawings
should adhere to the accepted drawing conventions
used in the film.
Close liaison is necessary between the training
people and departmental supervision not only at the
planning stage but also in the implementation and
evaluation stages.
Step 6. Planning 'he
Lesson
Planning the lesson is actually putting down on
paper the things to teach and how to teach it.

47
 Evaluating Training Programs
People in a company are very much aware that the co
of training and development programs, including direct, indi rect,
and hidden costs, represen ts a substantial monetary outla in the
firrn. Top management may ask: Do training and development
prograrns pay 011? Are they producing the intended results? How
do they show in the profit statement? What are their implications
in the indexes ofprofitability such as return on investment,
production, and sales volume? These questions are leads to the
importance of evaluating training and development programs.

A. The Nature of Evaluation

Evaluation is a management function which is a sys
tematic means of assessing the extent training and
development programs which have been carried out and
programmed objectives which have been attained.
Evaluation development program seeks to obtain feedback
or inormation on the effects of a training and development
program and to assess the value of such in the light of that
information.
Evaluation also creates a feedback loop, or a
"selfconnecting training system." It involves the
establishment of standards, measurement of some sort,
identification and analysis of shortfalls and deficiencies,
selection and execution of remedial actions, and follow-up
to ensure that correction has occurred.

B. Importance of Evaluation
In the Philippine setting, evaluation ofa training
and development program is of utmost importance in
order to attain top management's support. Evaluation
ensures that training and development programs
contribute to the fulfillment of organizational goals and
objectives. Furthermore, evaluation is important to
training directors and staff because it collects the data
needed to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of
every aspect of the
+raining and development system — personnel, facilities,
—a;cies, programme, and procedures. A well-
 controlled training program is one in which weaknesses
and factors are identified and corrected by means of
negative feedback, and 8trengths and guccegses are
amplified by tnenns of positive feedback.

C. Principles for Evaluating Training and Development

Programs
GENERAL:

1. Since training is aimed at change, all training

can be evaluated in some way.
2. Since management Cannot be expected to
accept training programs based on faith alone,
all training programs should be evaluated.
3. Each training program must have clearly
defined objectives.
4. Pesos-and-centavos evaluation is the most
impressive to top management.
5. Results are most significant and meaningful
when comparisons are made between:
a. trained and untrained groups
b. groups trained by different, methods
c. the same group before and after training

6. Evaluation should be specific in terms of a

particular program, course, or activity.
7. The effects of a complex training program can
be studied more effectively if each part is
evaluated separately.
8. Evaluation of training is more effective if built
into the program.
9. The evaluation procedure may include
technical phases (statistics) which sometimes
require the help of professional experts.
10. Revision of a training program must be
based on the results of the evaluation of the
original program.

49
 SPECIFIC:

1. Evaluation must be planned and consciously

designed. The training staff must determine in
advance what is to be evaluated, when, by what
means, and by whom.
2. Evaluation must be relevant to the
purposes and objectives of both
training and development and the firm's
programs.
3. Evaluation must be objective, employing fair
and equitable standards and procedures.
4. Evaluation must be verifiable, i.e., its results can be
confirmed by the same or different means.
5. Evaluation is a cooperative effort, i.e., it involves
all who are a part of or affected by the training
and development program.
6. Evaluation must be a continuous and ongoing
activity.
7, Evaluation must be specific, explicit, and exact.
8. Evaluation mUst be quantitative, i.e., employing
quantitative measures, to the maximum extent
possible.
9. Evaluation must be feasible and administratively
manageable.
10. Evaluation must be commensurate with the cost
inCurred.

D. Forms of Evaluation
Evaluation can take three forms which are as fol
lows:
 1. Immediate form of evaluation measures, analyzes,
and interprets changes in job related knowledge,
skills, and attitudes of trainees.

2. Internediate form of evaluation measures, analyzes,

and interprets changes in on-the-job behavior of
trainees.

50
 3. Ultimate form of evaluation measures and analyzes
changes in results achieved by the trainees when
they return to their jobs.

E. Levels of Evaluation
There are five levels of training effects, which are also the
five levels of objective setting and evaluation. Total
evaluation of training involves these five levels:

Level I. Reactions
Reaction may best be defined as how well the
trainees liked a particular training and development
program. Evaluating in terms of reaction is the same
as measuring the feelings of the trainee.
The measurement of reactions to training
programs is the first step in the evaluation process. It is
important to determine how participants feel about
the program they attend because of these two reasons:
1. It is an accepted fact that trainees who enjoy a
training program/course are most likely to obtain
maximum benefit from it.
2. Management support to training is often dependent on
the feedback gathered from the trainees.
Level 11. Learning
The second level in the evaluation process involves
the measurement of the principles, facts, and techniques
which were understood and absorbed by the trainees.

Level 111. Job

Behavior
 The third level of the evaluation process attempts to
find out whether the trainees have applied what they
have learned from the training in their respective jobs.
Level IV. Organizational
The fourth level of the evaluation process measures
the effects of the trainees' job behavior changes on the
functioning of the organization and/or unit in which they
work.

61
 Level V. Ultimate Value
Evaluation at this level attempts to relate the
ganizational evaluation to the ultimate criteria by which
the organization judges its efficiency and its success or
failure.
In business firtns, we call this as the cost-efficiency
level: "Are the financial benefits resulting from the train
ing greater than the financial cost of training?"

F. Methods of Evaluation
There are two broad systems of evaluation:
continuous and terminal evaluation. In continuous
evaluation, tests are applied throughout the whole
training process and are designed to measure
developing performance, over the whole period of
training. Terminal evaluation is assessing the
effectiveness of training at the end of the program.
Objective methods of evaluation are to be preferred.
However, they cannot be used unless they are
scientifically sound, administratively convenient, and
acceptable to management. Administrative convenience
and acceptability to management will often dictate
continuous evaluation rather than terminal evaluation
methods. Tests given as part of the training process can
be fitted into the programme. When objective
knowledge tests, tests of skills, and attitude scales
cannot be used, subjective methods should be ma'de as
objective as possible. Here are some guidelines when
using subjective methods:
1. The observer or interviewer must be well-trained;
2. His subjective judgments must be based on as much
factual material as he can collect; and
3. Whenever possible, his findings are compared with
those obtained by another skilled and independent
observer.
Specifically, we wish to present and elaborate on the
training evaluation method based on the five levels of
evaluation.
52
1. Reaction—level evaluation. Reactions are measured by a
seminar/course evaluation questionnaire designed to
obtain honest reactions to specific aspects of the training
progratn. The questionnaire should be 80 designed that
the reactions could be tabulated and quantified for easier
evaluation.
2. Learning—level evaluation. Evaluation in this level is
generally done through paper and pencil tests given prior
to training and after the training. This method makes use
of true or false, multiple choice exams, matching items,
or •sentence completion tests. Scores garnered before the
training are compared with those obtained after the
training. Statistical analysis is then used to find out if
there is a significant increase in the trainee's knowledge,
skill or if there is a significant positive change in their
attitudes.
Another commonly used method of evaluating
learning makes use of a questionnaire or attitude/opinion
survey wherein trainees appraise the learning they
obtained from the training. Using scales, trainees are
asked to indicate the amount of learning they had before
and after the training. Data are then treated statistically
to determine whether a significant change in the amount
of knowledge, skill, and proper attitude occurred as a
result of the training or not.

3. Job behavior—level evaluation. There are many ways by

which job behavior can be investigated and evaluated,
but they are all variants on two themes: watching and
asking, or observation and questionnaire/interview. The
evaluator can obtain information about the trainees' job
behavior by watching them perform the job, or by asking
questions about how they perform their job. The two
types of techniques should be employed together
whenever possible, since neither visual perception nor
the spoken or written word is in itself totally reliable.
The effect of each can be detected by reference to Othe
other.

53
 Observation can be done externally or internally.
Ex_ ternal observation tna.y be achieved through activity
sampling or through the use of observer diaries. Internal
observation can be obtained by self-observation making
use of self diaries.
Questionnaires or interviews are widely used as a job
behavior evaluation tool. Attitude change can be
measured in a training program by questionnaires and
attitude surveys before and after the training and by
discussion with the trainees who reflect their attitudes
directly in the trainer and in their supervisors.
Another source of job behavior evaluation data are
records and reports of production, performance
appraisal, accident, etc.
4. Organizational—level evaluation. Many
organizational effects can be evaluated by techniques
similar to those used at the job behavior level.
Organizational evaluation is often concerned with the
effect of the trainees' changes in job behavior on the
attitudes and job behavior of other employees who
have not themselves been formally trained.
As in the job behavior level, evaluation in the
organizational level may be achieved through
observation or making use of questionnaire/interview.
5. Ultimate value—level evaluation. Ultimate value
evaluation is usually concerned with financial and
economic evaluation. In this level, the cost of training
is compared with the financial gain resulting from the
training costbenefit analysis of training. This
comparison can be achieved in training courses
wherein financial benefits have been operationally
defined in the objective setting phage.
Using results achieved by managers, supervisors,
and workers is a strong basis for evaluating the
effectiveness and efficiency of training and
development pro-
54
grammes. However, there are so many variables
involved that fair appraisal solely on the basis of
analysis of productivity indexes is difficult. Evaluation
in the ultimate value level is concerned with two
questions:
I. How well did our training and development perform in
meeting its objectives?
2. Is the result attributable in fact to the training and
development program?

Some of the variables to be considered in using results

as the basis of evaluation are the following:

1. Top Management. The corporate philosophy, goals,

and objectives, and attitude of top management as
well as their competence as leaders affect
supervisors, trainors, and employees at all levels
and consequently affect job performance and results
achieved.
2. Trainers and supervisors. The job performance of
subordinate personnel and/or trainees is affected by
motivation and morale, job satisfaction, amount and
quality of supervision received, instructional
environment, and methods.
3. Trainees. The ability to learn and perform are
affected by the learning potential, attitude, skills,
motivation, off-the-job living conditions, problems,
and personal concerns of the trainees.

4. Enterprise climate. The job performance of

trainees and therefore productivity indexes are
affected by labor and union relations, social
realities, economic constraints, and national, local
and enterprise rules, regulations, policies, and
procedures.
Below is a guide for evaluating the results of training:
1, What are the objectives? (What do we hope to accomplish?)
 55
(What specific cundi. 2.
Conditions before training tions prevail which make training
necessary?)
(What records of train-
3. Records ing should we keep? What data should we
collect?)
(What changes have
4. Conditions after training
taken place?)

5. Other factors (What factors other than

training may have
contributed?)
6. Results (What have we
accomplished?)
Some ultimate measures of training are absenteeism rate,
accident rate, customer complaints, error rate, grievance rate,
machine downtime, lost time, reject rate, turnover rate,
waste/spoilage rate, and work backlogs.