LA-4547

A Preliminary Study ofthe

Nuclear Subterrene

alamos
scientific laboratory
of tho University of California
LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO 87544

UNITED STATES
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
CONTRACT W-7408-ENG. 3 *
Qi: TiiiS ISUHUMHM
 G

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 LA-4547
UC-38
ISSUED: April 1971

fios- i alamo;;
scientific laboratory
of the University of California
LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO 87544

A Preliminary Study of the

Nuclear Subterrene

by

E. S. Robinson J. C. Rowley
R. M. Potter D. F.. Armstrong
E. B. Mclnteer R. L. Mills
M. C. Smith, Editor

-NOTICE-
T a b - r e p o r t ' w u prepared u an account of work
•ponedrtd by the' United States Government. Neither
the- United Stttwnor «h* United S u t u Atomic £ n « i y
Commtatlnn. nor any of their employ***; nor any of
Oiek coMncton, aubeoittrtctOF*; or their employee*,
Mukat M y inmtttr, (xpreei or implkd, or aatamw any
lenl UebBity or rMaeniiMUty for the accuracy, con-
pletwuai -or uaefulnw of any Information, appantu*,
product o> •rocctt diedoetd; or repre**nt( that its ue»
wwddnpt kinum priv»tely owned riajitt. .

WSTRI3UTI0H OF THIS DOCUMENT IS U

 CONTENTS

Foreword iv

Abstract 1

Introduction 1

Applications 2
Geothermal Energy 2
Transportation 3
Waste Collection and Disposal 4
Storage 4
Nuclear and Thermonuclear Reactors 4
High-Temperature, High-Pressure Processing 4
Desalination , 4
Prospecting, Exploration, and Mining 4
Scientific Applications 5

Existing Rock-Penetration Systems 5

Development of a Nuclear Subtenene 7

Laboratory Studies 7
Initial Field Tests 9
The Type 1 Nuclear Subterrene 10
The Type 2 Nuclear Subterrene 10
The Type 3 Nuclear Subterrene , . 10

Summary 11

Appendixes
A. Existing and Proposed Rock-Penetration Systems 12
B. Initial Development of the LASL Rock-Melting Drill IS
C. Nuclear Subterrene Concepts, Designs, and Problems 20
D. Lithofracturing and Rock Mechanics 30
E. The Solubilities of Natural Minerals in Hot Water 40
F. Geothermal Energy 42
G. Research in the Geological Sciences 52
H. Other Applications of Large Shafts and Tunnels 54

References 56

Annotated Bibliography 57

iii
 FOREWORD

This report is the product of a series of reviews, analyses, and discussions

among a small group *rf Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) staff
members during the spring, summer, and fall of 1970. The group consisted of
individuals from several Laboratory Divisions, and included a broad range of
backgrounds, viewpoints, interests, and professional specialties. As the work of
this group continued, a consensus appeared concerning the feasibility of
developing a Nuclear Subterrene as a rapid, versatile, economical method of
deep earth excavation, tunneling, and shaft-sinking. The concept offered the
challenge of a major scientific development and the prospect of a significant
technological breakthrough. The Nuclear Subterrene was seen to offer poten-
tial solutions to many of man's urgent ecological problems, the means of
exploiting many of the earth's still untapped natural resources, and the
exciting possibility of a practical solution to the emerging crisis in the world's
energy supply. Drilling and tunneling by melting the rock was found to be the
most promising method of accomplishing these things. It was concluded that
the capabilities of high-temperature heat pipes and of small nuclear reactors
put the development of a practical rock-melting system-in the form of the
Nuclear Subterrene-within the grasp of present technology.
This report presents the outline of a proposed program for development
of the Nuclear Subterrene, a summary of the technical background of such «
program, several specific program goals, and some speculations concerning
applications of the r-^ yarn's products, Several appendixes provide greater
detail on some of these (ibjecfs.
The ad hoc committee which offers this report acknowledges with
gratitude the assisted: of several individuals who contributed to its prepara-
tion, particularly T. P. Cotter, LASL Group N-5,for technics! information on
heat pipes and other aspects of the proposed program; the members of LASL
Group N-5 for discussions of conceptual designs of compact, fast, nuclear
reactors of appropriate siies compatible with heat pipes; Dr. A. Rosenzweig of
the University of New Mexico, a consultant to LASL Group CMF-4 and to this
group on rocks, minerals, geology, and geothermal energy reserviors; Dr. J.
Weertman of Northwestern Univ?»ti«:/0 a consultant to LASL Group CMF-13
and to this group on geophysics in general and the mechanics of creep and
fracture of rock in particular; and Richard C. Crook, Chief of the Utilities and
Engineering Division of the Zia Company, for information on the geology of
the Los Alamos area. Appendix G was prepared by Dr. Orson L. Anderson of
Columbia University, a consultant to LASL Group GMX-6, whose enthusiasm
and helpfulness ere deeply appreciated. Like the committee member; who
authored this report, these individuals have contributed their time and special
knowledge to this study in addition to performing their regular duties for the
Laboratory.

iv
 A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE NUCLEAR SUBTERRENE

by

E. S. Robinson J. C. Rowley
R. M. Potter D. E. Armstrong
B. B. Mclnteer R. L. Mills
M. C. Smith, Editor

ABSTRACT

The rock-melting drill was invented at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory

in 1960. Electrically heated, laboratory-scale drills were subsequently shown to
penetrate igneous rocks at usefully high rates, with moderate power comsump-
tions. The development of compact nuclear reactors and of heat pipes now
makes possible the extension of this technology to much larger melting
penetrators, potentially capable of producing holex up to several meters in
diameter and several tens of kilometers long or deep.
Development of a rapid, versatile, economical method of boring large,
long shafts and tunneis offers solutions to many of man's most urgent ecolog-
ical, scientific, raw-materials, and energy-supply problems. A melting method
appears to be the most promising and flexible means of producing such holes.
It is relatively insensitive to the composition, hardness, structure, and tempera-
ture of the rock, and offers the possibilities of producing self-supporting,
glass-lined holes in almost any formation and (using a technique called litho-
fracturing) of eliminating the debris-removal problem by forcing molten rock
into cracks created in the bore wall.
Large rock-melting penetrators, called Electric Subterrenes or Nuclear
Subterrenes according to the energy source used, are discussed in this report,
together with problems anticipated in their development. I t is concluded that
this development is within the grasp of present technology.

Introduction locations and resources have so far been limited principal-

ly by the technical and economic difficulties of producing
In a few kilometers immediately beneath its surface, large, long holes in the hard rocks of the earth's crust and
the earth contains most of the raw materials needed by mantle. The tools and techniques for drilling, boring,
man and offers solutions to many of his most urgent shaft-sinking, tunneling, and mining in rock are highly
technological and ecological problems. These subter- developed and, in the environments in which they have
ranean resources include natural minerals and hydro- evolved, are quite efficient. However, their efficiencies
carbons, fresh water, and clean geothermal energy; direct decrease rapidly and their costs rise in proportion as they
routes for tunnels to transport liquids, fluidized solids, are extended to greater depths, harder rocks, and higher
gases, wastes, and man himself; armored and shielded rock temperatures and pressures. Among conventional
sites for storage and disposal of liquids and gases and for rock-penetration systems, only the rotary drill appears to
high-temperature, high-pressure manufacturing operations; be capable of penetrating the earth to depths greater tfcan
and rock structures whose experimental investigation will 4 to 5 km at an economically useful rate, and at such
contribute directly to progress in the geological sciences depths it produces holes no larger than about 50 cm in
and eventually to control of earthquakes and volcanoes. diameter. Even with substantial improvements in mate-
Man's exploration and exploitation of these rials and techniques, it is unlikely that existing methods

1
 can be used to explore or excavate the earth to depths excavations is very long The immediate rewards alone,
greater than about 12 to 15 km. A new, economical, rapid particularly from the widespread exploitation of geother-
method of producing larger holes to greater depths is mal energy which it would make possible, appear to
needed. justify such a development program, and LASL is unique-
At the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, a device ly competent to undertake it.
has been developed that bores holes in rocks by progres-
sively melting them instead of chipping, abrading, or
spalling them away. The energy requirement for melting Applications
rock is relatively high, but it is not prohibitive. (Common
igneous rocks melt at about 1200°C and, in being heated Large-diameter holes in the earth's crust are useful
from 20°C to just above their melting ranges, they absorb at almost any depth. Near ground level they are used for
about 4300 joules of energy per cubic centimeter. In highway and railroad tunnels and as conduits for fresh
comparison, the corresponding figures for metallic alumi- water, drainage, and irrigation. At depths of a few meters
num are about 660°C and 2720 J/cm 3 , and for steel they they are needed for subways, pipelines, and channels for
are about 1500°C and 8000 J/cm 3 . The energy require- the collection and transportation of wastes. At greater
ment for rotary drilling in most igneous rocks is about depth they serve as wells for petroleum and water, mine
2000 to 3000 J/cm 3 .) Even for a penetrator of very large entries and ventilation ducts, and silos for missiles and
diameter advancing at a high rate, the melting energy can their control systems. In most cases, such bores and
easily be provided by a compact, high-temperature, nu- excavations are produced with reasonable efficiency by
clear reactor, and LASL has pioneered in the development existing rock-penetration systems. The conventional
of such reactors. Energy transfer from the reactor to a methods, however, become inefficient when extremely
melting tool at the rates and densities required would hard rocks, rocks that vary widely in hardness, or high
probably be impossible except by means of heat pipes, rock temperatures or pressures are encountered. There
which have also been highly developed at LASL. Combin- exists, therefore, a class of boreholes that current drilling
ing the three major components-a refractory rock-melting and tunneling techniques are not designed to produce. A
tool, a nuclear reactor, and a system of heat pipes-into a few of the applications of such holes are considered
large, rock-melting penetrator called a Nuclear Subterrene briefly below and in Appendixes F, G, and H.
would be a natural extension of existing LASL technolo-
gies, talents, and scientific interests-
Geotheimal Energy. Neglecting variations in the
The J.ASL rock-melting drill has so far been de- chemical and mineralogical compositions of the rocks
veloped only to the stage of a small, functional, electrical- encountered, the principal changes that occur as a bore
ly heated prototype. Tested in this form, it has been hole is extended downward from the earth's surface art
shown to penetrate basalt and other igneous rocks alt progressive increases in temperature and pressure of the
usefully high rates and with moderate power consump- rocks being penetrated. The geothermal gradient varies
tions. As it advances, the penetrator forces molten rock widely from place to place, but averages about 20°C/km.
laterally into voids in the unmelted rock around the bore, From the average density of known igneous rocks, it is
and backward around the periphery of the penetrator. assumed that the lithostatic pressure increases with depth
The molten rock freezes in these locations, producing an at the rate of about 0.3 kbar/km. (One kilobar is a
cbs?dian-)ike glass lining on the wall of the hole which pressure of 1000 bars, or 14,504 psi.)
helps to seal and support i t The lining also forms a seal In many regions of recent volcanic or intrusive
around the penetrator, tight enough to permit high pres- activity in the earth's crust, geothermal gradient* are as
sures to be developed in molten rock ahead of it. A great as 150 to 180°C/km; rock temperatures high enough
technique similar to hydrofracturing may therefore be to produce high-grade steam exist within 2 or 3 km of the
possible with more rugged designs of the drill. Highlitho- surface, where rock pressures are still relatively low. In a
static pressure in the melt, developed by the penetrator few fortunate places, the h * rock is sufficiently frag-
acting as a piston, would create fissures in the solid rock mented to be accessible to naturally circulating ground
around the hole and force the molten rock into these water, is overlain by impermeable strata which have pre-
fissures. Freezing there, the waste rock would be removed vented rapid cooling by free escape of steam, and is
from the hole without being brought to the surface, and connected to the surface by a small number of natural
one of the major problems of tunneling and deep-hole steam vents. Where this occurs (for example, in Italy, New
drilling-debris removal-would be eliminated. Zealand, and northern California), conventional power
Further deve!opment of the rock-melting drill into plants have been built to use the steam in generating
an operational Nuclear Subterrene, and the necessary re- commercial electricity. Elsewhere, in spite of die fact that
search in rock mechanics, creep, and control and guidance these energy reservoirs are sometimes closer to the surface
systems, will require a large investment of time, man- than are the bottom levels of a deep mine, the exploita-
power, facilities, and money. However, the list of existing tion of geothermal energy has not so far been undertaken.
and potential applications for rapidly produced, relatively This is principally because the connected porosity of the
inexpensive, large holes, tunnels, and underground igneous rock is low, so that there is no ground-water
 circulation, and no natural steam is produced. To create a gases, liquids, fluidized solid?, cargo, and passengers is an
system of holes and cracks in which the required circula- obvious application of large, long, relatively shallow holes
tion could be established would involve drilling large- fin the earth's crust. Thousands of kilometers of bores and
diameter holes into the hot, igneous rock and then creat- tunnels are produced for these purposes each year in th>;
ing large heat-transfer surfaces at the bottoms of the United States, at a cost of billions of dollars. They are
holes. With existing rock-penetration and fragmentation made by conventional boring, tunneling, and trenching
techniques, each of these steps would involve difficulties methods that are slow, expensive, and normally require
so great that no serious attempt has yet been made to that the hole be lined with concrete or steel. Larger,
develop geothermal energy reserviors of this type. How- longer, and more numerous holes would certainly be
ever, as is discussed in Appendix F, these regions are produced and used if they could be made more rapidly
potential sources of vast amounts of energy. If suitable and cheaply.
holes could be drilled to enter them, and a sufficiently For example, several serious proposals have been
large heat-transfer surface created within them, their made for diversion of fresh water from the great rivers of
energy could be extracted without contaminating the northern North America to large metropolitan areas and
surface environment except for an amount of waste heat to arid regions of the southwestern United States tor
normal for any power plant. domestic and industrial use and for irrigation. Hundreds
The rate of advance of a rock-melting penetrator of kilometers of tunnels would be required for conduits
should increase with increasing rock temperature, because through mountains and for siphons under intersecting
each increment of thermal energy initially present in the drainage systems. A major deterrent to such projects is
rock would reduce by that same amount the quantity of simply the cost of making and lining these large holes.
heat the penetrator would be required to provide. In Subsea tunnels for railway and vehicular traffic al-
principle, the maximum ambient temperature at which a ready connect some of the islands of Japan, and others
Nuclear Subterrene could operate is that at which creep are in ti;e planning and construction stages. Highway and
of the rock would close the hole around or behind the alport congestion, as well as natural topographic and
penetrator at a significant rate. (Presumably, by cooling urban obstacles, make it inevitable that more such under-
the hole, it should be possible to postpone this closure to ground transportation systems will be developed-with
still higher ambient temperatures.) In practice, with good large effects on population distribution and city planning.
engineering design and carefully selected component One possibility discussed by Edwards (196S) is that of
materials, it should eventually be possible to approach transporting passengers, mail, and freight through long,
this temperature limit quite closely. horizontal funnels in vehicles propelled at high velocity
Because t h e normal geotheimal gradient is by an air stream. Another possibility is the use of curved
20°C/km, rocks at temperatures of at least 300°C could paths through the earth along which vehicles would travel
be reached by holes about IS km deep drilled almost under gravitational acceleration like pendulum bobs. Such
anywhere. Although the relatively shallow thermal reser- systems could be fast, comfortable, efficient, and eco-
viors considered above will, of course, be the first ones to nomical. They would avoid atmospheric pollution, surface
be exploited, this deeper source of energy is so vast that h traffic, and right-of-way problems, and preserve the sur-
is impossible to foresee an energy requirement by man face landscape from further encroachment by highways
great enough ever to reduce it significantly. When large- and airstrips and their related service establishments. They
diameter holes can be drilled in hot rocks to such depths, would, however, require boring of complex systems of
and large heat-transfer sur faces can be extended from large inclined and horizontal or curved tunnels, which
them, then geothermal energy plants-producing no at- cannot yet be produced economically.
mospheric pollution and creating no unusual hazards-can Five of the principal problems of producing large,
be built wherever energy is required, including sites near long tunnels by conventional methods are (1) low rates of
the centers of densely populated metropolitan areas. advance, (2) the difficulty of removing waste rock from
However, at a depth of IS km, the natural lithostatic the hole, (3) limitations on hole size and shape, (4) the
pressure is of the order of 5 kbar (75,000 psi). Tempera- necessity of lining or casing the bore, and (5) damage to
tures there are no higher than in a shallow geothermal the surface landscape ard ecology-which is considered
reservoir, but pressure and distance from the surface objectionable even on the Arctic slope of Alaska. The
create major new problems. To survive and operate effi- Nuclear Subterfsne is potentially capable of producing
ciently in this environment, a self-contained Subterrene large-diameter holes at relatively high rates in any type of
would require very rugged, highly refractory armor, and rock. With successful application of the lithostatic fractur-
would possibly be controlled and guided by telemetry ing technique discussed in Appendix D, the major prob-
from the surface. Development of such a device is a lem of waste-rock disposal will be eliminated and the
formidable task, but it does not appear to be beyond the surface environment can remain essentially undisturbed.
grasp of present technology. It is, in fact, an appropriate A nuclear reactor can provide the energy required by tr\
goal for the developers of a Nuclear Subterrene. an extremely large penetrator and, since the melting tool
would not rotate, the penetrator and the hole produced
Transportation. Underground transportation of by it could have almost any desired cross-sectional shape.

3
I

I';'-:
. •' • 1 \
\ f*. i ! •: " • : .0
•'•'•• • ' \ -
 Finally, if the glass lining produced by the melting pene- the intervening rock. The simple act of concealing these
trator seals and supports the wall of the bore to the power plants would make their public acceptance easier,
degree indicated by early tests, then casings or other and this, of course, is also true of installations of many
linings will not be required even in porous and poorly other kinds.
consolidated formations, thus eliminating a major item of
cost and a common cause of delay. High-Temperature, High-Pressure Processing. Many
The Nuclear Subterrene may, then, be com- chemical and physical manufacturing and processing
petitive with existing systems for producing large, long, operations involve high temperature, high pressure, and
relatively shallow holes for underground transportation. the hazards of overpressure, explosion, toxicity, or radio-
This might, in fact, be its most widespread application. activity. Underground bores, or chambers excavated from
them, are ideal reaction vessels for such operations.
Waste Collection and Disposal. The problem of col-
lecting and disposing of the great volumes of domestic Desalination. Evaporative processes for producing
and industrial wastes produced by modern civilization is pure water from brackish wells and from saline inland seas
being stacked in a variety of ways, hut so far only on a or the oceans themselves are, in general, prohibitively
local basis and with limited success. Proposals have been expensive because of their large power requirements.
made for elaborate systems of conduits to collect liquid Tunnels such as might be produced by a Nuclear Subter-
and fluidized-solid wastes from a large region and trans- rene could bring impure water in large volume to a shal-
port them to a single processing or disposal plant low geothermal energy reservoir where it would be
(Thompson and Wasp, 1970). The disposal system might evaporated and the steam condensed elsewhere, perhaps
be as simple as the natural filter represented by a porous in cooler tunnels at a higher elevation. In many cases, the
sandstone overlain by an impervious limestone or shale, dissolved salts extracted from the feed water would have
with clean water pumped from deep wells a few kilo- sufficient value so that their recovery would pay a large
nwters downstresjn for irrigation or other reuse. Alter- fraction of the cost of such an operation.
natmly, the underground waste-coilection system might A development that would combine desalination
discharge to evaporators heated by geothermal energy, with recovery of geothermal energy has been proposed for
whose products would be clean water and a compact, the Imperial Valley of California (Universicy Bulletin,
sdid residue to be used as fertilizer, land fill, or as a 1970). At shallow to moderate depths under this valley
source of fueL, chemicals, and secondary metals. exist an estimated one Million acre-feet (about 1.2
If Indeed a Nuclear Subterrene can produce long, x 10 I2 m 3 ) of concentrated trine at temperatures of 600
large-diameter, ria&s-lmed holes at high rates, reasonable to 800°F (315 to 425°C). If means can be found to
costs, and u;ider cities as well as in remote regions, then extract the hot brine economically, steam from it could
such waste-disposal systems will become possible and a be used to generate electricity and the condensed water
great advance in reducing environmental pollution will could be used for irrigation.
have been made. The subsurface geology in large regions
of the United States is ideal for filtering and purifying Prospecting, Exploration, and Mining. Every hole in
water. the ground is a prospect hole, and systems of under-
ground bores such as those considered above will inevit-
Storage. Preservation as will as disposal is possible ably discover new reserves of water, natural gas, petro-
in large underground openings, which are naturally shield- leum, coal, and ore minerals of every kind. Any liquids or
ed and armored by the rock around them. In dense rock gases encountered could be extracted through the bore
or with an impervious lining (which might be simply a hole, which might also be used to introduce and recover
glass), such cavities are excellent for large-volume storage. the solutions required to leach some types of under-
Nataral caverns are now used for storage of compressed ground ore bodies in place.
ga&s, liquids, and hazardous solids of all kinds, and arti- As is discussed in Appendix C, it is not necessary
ficial ones are used for missile sites and control centers. that the Subterrene melt all of the rock through which it
Such uses wcwld multiply if the holes could be produced passes, or that it force a major fraction of what it melts
rapidly and at moderate cost wherever and whenever they into cracks in the wall of the hole. Instead, the penetrator
were needed. can be perforated so that it leaves behind one or a
multitude of cores which can be transported to a mill for
Nudear and Thermonuclear Reactors. Development fine-grinding and recovery of their mineral content. The
of nuclear reactors as commercial power sources has been Subterrene could, then, be used for mining as well as for
handicapped by concern about the possibilities of criti- prospecting and exploration. Since the Subterrene ad-
cality accidents and the spread of radioactive contamina- vances by melting the rock, it is conceivable that it might
tion. Fusion reactors, when they become possible, may be be modified to serve as a concentrating and smelting
viewed with equal alarm. A solution is to install such device as well as a mining machine. If a quiet pool of
energy sources in underground chambers at sufficient molten rock were maintained, a separation of immiscible
depths so that the surface population is fully protected by liquid phases would occur because of density differences,
and the phase of value (normally the more dense one) To monitor the significant changes in stress and strain in a
could be recovered separately. Thus, separation of a sul- seismically active region will clearly require a net of holes
fide phase from a silicate phase in the Subterrene would extending to depths of this order. It is possible that
be equivalent to the matte-smelting operation now used extensions of these holes, or lubricating fluids injected
to recover copper or nickel. from them, might be used to relieve locally the elastic
Underground mines, howevsr developed, require strains which would otherwise accumulate to cause a
many kilometers of holes of various diameters for entry, major earthquake.
haulage, hoisting, drainage, ventilation, and for communi- Deep tunnels and laboratories excavated from them
cations and electrical conduits. The Subterrene may also are ideal sites for research in the geologic sciences, rock
contribute to conventional mining by producing such mechanics, and high-temperature, high-pressure chemistry
holes more rapidly and more economically than is now and physics.
possible, especially in the very hard rocks in which many The iist of existing and potential uses for large holes
deep ore bodies occur. in the earth is almost endless. A multitude of important
applications awaits the development of some new, rapid,
Scientific Applications. Wherever holes are drilled in low-cost means of producing the holes. Any one of these
previously unexplored rock, geological and geophysical applications, for example, the exploitation of just one of
information can be collected from rock samples and from the known, shallow, geothermal energy reservoirs, could
measurements of temperature, gravitational and magnetic justify the large investment of time, effort, and money
fields, sound velocities, radioactivity, etc. The deeper the required to develop a new rock-penetration system. How-
hole the greater the scientific interest of these observa- ever, except for the Nuclear Subterrene, no candidate
tions, and the Nuclear Subterrene has the potential of system has so far been proposed whose potential appears
entering regions of the earth never before penetrated. to justify a development investment of this magnitude.
As is further discussed in Appendix G, a Subterrene
might reach certain regions whose exploration would be
of particular interest to the geological sciences. One of Existing Rock-Penetration Systems
these is the Mohorovicic discontinuity, which is detected
by seismic methods at depths ranging from about 7 km at It is easy to see from the above paragraphs that
some points under the ocean floor to as much as 70 km in large holes in the earth's crust would have economic,
some places under the continents. It is usually considered ecologic, and scientific applications. It is much less easy
to represent the boundary between the earth's crust and to make the required holes.
mantle, but there is so far no general agreement concern- Only two methods are now in common use for
ing its physical nature. This can be determined •- rAy by producing large underground shafts and tunnels. One is
direct investigation. drilling and blasting, which is the traditional technique of
All current theories of major deformation processes mining, shaft-sinking, and tunneling. The other is rotary
of the earth's crust-including continental drift, mountain drilling, which has been highly developed for production
building, plate tectonics, and convection-involve large- of oil and water wells, and in recent years has been
scale motion of the mantle, and depend on estimates of extended to "continuous" boring of relatively large shafts
ihe properties of the mantle rock. Geologists do not now and tunnels.
agree even concerning the type of rock that constitutes
the mantle, and only actual sampling of it can provide the Drilling and Blasting. Traditional mining methods
information needed to answer this and many other ques- require that men work at or very close to the rock face
tions. Of particular importance is knowledge of the with drills, explosives, loaders, and conveyors. Both men
chemical composition, density, water content, melting and equipment must be protected against heat, dust,
temperature, and srain size of mantle rock; the amount of water, impure air, and falling rock, and must be provided
radioactive heating that occurs in it; and such properties with services, replacements, and transportation. Opera-
as its elastic constants, creep strength, specific heat, ther- tions are cyclic, involving successively drilling, blasting,
mal conductivity, and electrical resistivity. ventilating the hole, barring down loose rock, mucking
Direct measurements of temperature profiles in very out, supporting the walls and roof, extending such ser-
deep holes would permit much better estimates to be vices as air, water, and power, and then drilling again.
made of rock temperatures at greater depths than are now Advance rates are typically not more than a few meters a
possible from heat-flow studies at the surface. day and are reduced rapidly as rocks become harder, the
The ability to predict, and perhaps eventually to environment more hazardous, and the working face far-
control, earthquakes (Sylvester, 1970) will require know- ther from the portal. The cumulative effect of these
ledge of the changes with time of stress and strain in increasing difficulties is that, even with very large invest-
seismically active regions within the earth's crust. Such ments of time and money, the general method of drilling
changes at depth cannot be estimated accurately from and blasting probably cannot be used to produce holes
measurements made at the earth's surface. The depth of more than about 5 km deep or about 10 km long. Where
focus of a shallow earthquake is typically 10 to IS km. geothermal gradients are high, the maximum range is
much less than this because elaborate life-support systems rotational energy can be transmitted efficiently, and the
become necessary and high temperatures limit the use of diameter and mass that can be rotated against the friction
conventional explosives and of the common types of of the hole bottom and wall and of any drilling fluid used.
mining machinery. However, drilling and blasting repre-
sent the only existing method of producing very large (2) The rotary bit cuts and chips away the rock at
shafts and tunnels and of penetrating rock that is very the bottom of the hole and, like any cutting tool, it dulls
hard or that changes significantly in character along the and must at intervals be removed for sharpening or re-
path of the excavation. placement. The harder and more abrasive the rock and the
higher its temperature, the shorter the life of the tool. In
Rotary Drilling. Rotary drills were developed to hard, hot rock, it is necessary to replace even a diamond
produce larger, longer, or deeper holes than can be made bit after no more than a few meters of drilling. Improve-
efficiently by the percussion drills normally used in hard- ments in drill bits are possible and are being actively
rock mining, but are smaller than typical mine shafts and sought, but no large improvements over existing carbide
tunnels. The small, rotary, coring drill called a "diamond and diamond tools appear to be imminent.
drill" is the standard tool for mineral exploration. Rotary
drills equipped with larger bits faced with hardened steel, (3) Bit replacement involves lifting the entire drill
metal carbides, or diamonds are used to produce relatively string from the hole, uncoupling the successive pipe sec-
deep wells for water, oil, and natural gas. In still larger tions as they reach the surface, changing the bit, and
sizes, rotary equipment is now used to bore mine shafts reassembling the pipe as it is lowered back into the hole.
and ventilation ducts and, equipped with a propulsion In deep holes in hard rock, more time may be devoted to
system, it has recently become the "continuous" tunnel- this operation than to drilling between bit changes, and
boring machine. there are limitations on both the diameter and the mass of
In a report (Fsnix and Sc'sson, 1969) prepared for a drill string that can be handled in this way.
ARPA and the AEC, it was concluded that, with certain As is further discussed in Appendix A, there are at
significant developments in materials, equipment, and least two modified types of rotary drills in which the
techniques, it would probably be possible to use what is necessity of transmitting rotational energy through a long
essentially a large oil-field rotary drill rig to reach a depth drill pipe has been avoided. In one of these, a down-hole
of 50,000 ft (15.24 km). This is about twice the depth of turbine or electric motor is used to rotate a drill bit at the
the deepest hole so far drilled anywhere. It was estimated end of the pipe string. Unfortunately, this change in the
that the time required to drill the hole under "ideal" rotational drive does not overcome the inherent limita-
conditions would be 4.75 yr, and that the cost would be tions on hole depth and diameter, rock hardness and
about $20 million. Most of the hole v/ould be slightly less temperature, and bit life between changes, to which con-
than 10 in. (25 cm) in diameter, which is representative of ventional rotary drills *. 3 subject. A second modification
current deep-well drilling practice. Apparently, these con- of the rotary drill is the "continuous" tunneling machine,
clusions represent reasonable extrapolations of the pre- which is self-propelled, electrically powered, and designed
sent state of the art of conventional rotary drilling. It is usually to bore tunnels from about 2 to 10 m diameter.
unlikely that much deeper holes than this, or much larger Machines of this type are limited principally by their
holes to depths approaching 50,000 ft, can be made by inability to penetrate very hard rocks, including many of
rotary drills in the foreseeable future. the common igneous rocks (Jacobs and others, in
Relatively large-diameter holes have been drilled by Yardley, 1970).
heavy rotary equipment, but only to limited depths. Prob-
ably the largest of these was a 16.5 ft (5 m) diameter Novel Drills. Particularly because of the high casts
mine shaft recently drilled in northwestern New Mexico and low rates involved in drilling through very hard rooks
to a final depth of 784 ft (239 m). This required almost with existing rotary drills, a variety of novel rock-
six months to complete, so that the rat; of advance penetration devices operating on several different princi-
averaged about 1.5 m/day (Albuquerque Journal, May 6, ples have been proposed. Some of these are discussed in
1970). Depths below 1500 m have been reached with Appendix A. Among them, only the jet-piercing drill has
smaller-diameter holes. However, the potential of the so far been a commercial success. This is a spallation
rotary-drilling method with regard to both depth and device in which fuel oil is burned with oxygen at the rock
diameter of the hole produced is limited by three princi- face, heating it and creating thermal stress gradients in the
pal factors: rock to spall successive thin layers from its surface. Un-
fortunately, most of the common igneous rocks do not
(1) Power is transmitted to the drill bit by a rotat- spall easily, and the industrial usefulness of this type of
ing steel drill pipe extending downward from the surface. drill is apparently limited to a few specific types of rock,
Since the weight that can be sustained by a drill bit is such as some of the Minnesota taconites.
limited, most of the drill string must be supported from No existing rock-penetration system satisfies all the
above. There are obvious limitations on the weight that requirements implicit in the above discussions of possible
can be supported in this way, the distance through which applications to large holes. A method is needed that can
produce holes having large cross-sectional areas, prefer-
ably of arbitrary shape, of great length or to great depth,
in a wide variety of rocks under extreme conditions of
temperature and pressure, and at high rates and moderate
costs. A rock-melting penetrator is potentially capable of
satisfying all these requirements, and in addition produces
a melt that can be used to great advantage. The authors of
this report are not aware of any other rock-penetration
system that has either comparable flexibility or equal
possibilities for widespread usefulness.

Development of a Nuclear Subterrene

It is evident that the design, construciton, and ini-

tial operation of a Nuclear Subterrene present a broad
variety of difficult problems. These can, however, be
attacked systematically, and to a large degree in the order
of their increasing difficulty.

Laboratory Studies. The history, design, and pres-

ent status of the LASL rock-melting drill are described in
Appendix B. It has so far been demonstrated only as an
electrically heated laboratory device that produced holes
up to about 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm deep in basalt
and concrete, at rates of the order of 1 m/h. In its
operation, a hot, cylindrical, refractory metal penetrator
was pressed against the bottom of the hole, melting the
rock and forcing most of the melt to flow back through
an axial opeining in the penetrator. A gas stream just
behind the penetrator was used to cool and fragment the
resulting lava, and carry it out of the hole as the fine
scoriae shown in Fig. 1. Some of the melted rock near the
periphery of the penetrator was back-extruded and froze Ftg.l.
as an obsidian-like glass that lined the wall of the hole. An assembled laboratory-scale rock-melting drill,
Energy consumption of the device was not accurately and scoriae ejected from the hole.
measured, but was generally between two and three tunes
that actually required to heat and melt the rock being
penetrated. (Thermal efficiencies should be significantly could be eliminated. These experiments would necessarily
higher than this in larger units equipped with more effi- consider such variables as the type and chemical nature of
cient h?at-transfer systems and designed for reduced heat the rock being penetrated, the viscosity of the melt pro-
loss to cooling water and gas. However, direct power cost duced, the effects of variations in flow rate past the
is actually a minor part of the total cost of any drilling or penetrator surface, and the importance of environmental
tunneling operation.) pressure. Initially, these tests would be made with elec-
Because such a penetrator melts rock instead of trically h e a t e d , laboratory-scale devices on well-
cutting or chipping it, its working face is subjected pri- characterized rock samples at ambient temperature and
marily to corrosion and erosion rather than to abrasive pressure. As soon as possible, heat pipes would be incor-
wear and impact. A molybdenum penetrator operated porated into the test units, both to increase their capabil-
satisfactorily in the laboratory tests described above, and ities and to accumulate experience in the design, fabrica-
tungsten or a metal carbide or boride might be more tion, and operation of heat-pipe systems, and the tests
would be extended to elevated rock temperatures and
resistant to attack by the flowing lava. However, life tests
high hydrostatic pressures.
have not been made, and among the first laboratory
investigations required in development of a Subterrene In the small holes produced by the laboratory rock-
would be those concerned with the service lives of pene- melting drill, the glass that lined the completed hole
trators made from a variety of refractory materials. The appeared to be strong, continuous, and impermeable. As
intent would be to develop a penetrator capable of con- is illustrated Fig. 2, it filled the pores and graded into the
tinuous operation for weeks or months, so that the structure of the surrounding unmelted rock, to which It
problems, delays, and expense of replacing bits or cutters adhered tightly. Its thickness could be varied by adjusting
 either the rate of advance of the penetrator or the propor- Mason (in Yardley, 1970) and others, shotcreting permits
tion of heat transferred radially from the penetrator. sealed tunnels, otherwise unlined and unsupported, to be
Direct production of permanently self-supporting, un- produced under virtually all conditions encountered in
cased, glass-lined, sealed holes is an attractive possibility tunneling. Most glasses have compressive strengths at least
offered by the melting penetrator. Methods of controlling 10 times that of concrete, and develop them as soon as
the thickness, structure, and continuity of the glass lining they are cooled. With the rock-melting penetrator, the
must be developed, the properties of glasses produced glass forms as part of the wall while the bore is being
from a variety of rocks and sediments under realistic created and before any significant relaxation can occur. It
drilling conditions must be determined, the importance therefore is probable that the glass liner will be even more
and effects of accelerated cooling must be investigated, effective than shotcrete in supporting the opening, and it
and the degree of support and sealing provided by the is produced directly during boring rather than by a separ-
glass must be determined experimentally. ate operation involving transportation of material from
Analogy with the freezing method of ground sup* the surface to the working face. It is a permanent lining,
port and with the very successful new technique of and should never require maintenance. When drainage
skotcreting indicates that the glass-lined bore may indeed into or out of the hole is desired, the glass bore-lining can
be pressure-tight and self-supporting even in gravel, weak undoubtedly be perforated by conventional methods.
and broken rock, and water-bearing formations. Roof and Hydrofracturing is a technique commonly used
wall stabilization in weak, wet, flowing ground by freez- in petroleum production to create a crack system in rock
ing it in place is now common. In shotcreting, a quick- adjacent to the bore-hole and so facilitate drainage of
setting cement mixed with a coarse aggregate is sprayed crude petroleum from the surrounding rock into the
on the wall of the hole to a thickness of a few centimeters well. It is accomplished by inserting temporary seals in
as soon as possible after new surface is exposed by drilling the well above and below the zone to be fractured and
or blasting. The peening action of the coarse aggregate using a high-pressure pump to produce hydrostatic pres-
particles drives the cement into the cracks and voids and sure in that zone of few tens to a few hundreds of bars
produces a strong bond with the wall. Sufficient strength above the ambient pressure. The crack system thus creat-
is developed by this continuous, supporting concrete ed normally extends for several meters in every direction
membrane within a few hours to minimize relaxation and from the wall, the resulting local volume increase being
settling of the "protective zone" of rock around the new accommodated within a few crack-system diameters by
opening. Permanently self-supporting tunnels can be made porosity and the elastic distortion of uncracked rock.
even in initially unconsolidated materials. According to Carefully sized sand is often injected with the fracturing
fluid to prop the cracks open after the hydrostatic pres-
sure that created them has been released. Hydrofracturing
has been used successfully in a wide variety of rocks, and
in very deep wells. As is discussed in Appendix D, it is
probable that a similar fracture system can be created by
lithostatic pressure of molten rock compressed by the
rock-melting penetrator, acting as a piston, in the cylinder
represented by the glass-lined bore. Most of the melt
ahead of the penetrator would be injected into these

COW fissures, where it would freeze and remain. There it would

hold the cracks open and contribute to both the thickness
and the intimate attachment of the glass bore-lining. More
importantly, this technique would make it unnecessary to
remove waste rock to the surface through the bore pre-
viously created, eliminating one of the greatest problems,
sources of delay, and expenses of conventional tunneling
and deep-hole drilling. The lithofracturing technique
obviously requires experimental development and dem-
onstration, first in the laboratory and then in the field,
under conditions of rock temperature and pressure repre-
sentative of those existing in deep holes in the earth's
crust. Its potential importance in drilling and tunneling is
emphasized by the following quotation from Howard
(1967): "A boring machine alone, however, will not be
enough. Unless the other elements of the process [of
BORE HOLE tunneling] are improved conunensurably, the full poten-
tial of this [or any] innovation cannot be realized. . . .
Fig. 2. currently available underground haulage technology is
Fragment of a relatively thick glass layer produced
by a laboratory scale rock-melting device.
 completely inadequate to provide for disposal of the penetrated including moisture content and grain size.
tremendous amounts of broken rock that would be pro- Prototype rock-melt:.ng drills and full-scale Subter-
duced by a truly high speed tunneling machine." Litho- renes up to perhaps 2 m in diameter will, in general, use
fracturing would eliminate this problt m. electrical energy provided through trailing cables, which
An incidental advantage of the hthofracturing tech- will facilitate maintenance, modification, retrieval, and
nique is that the high pressure maintained ahead of the reuse. However, when transmission of electricity to the
penetrator would tend to suppress dehydration and cal- unit becomes impractical-in very large, very long, very
cination of the rocks being penetrated, either of which deep, or very hot holes, or in very remote locations-then
would increase their melting temperatures. a compact nuclear reactor is the obvious choice for an
Penetrator life, melting rate, flow characteristics of energy source. Design and testing of electrical heaters for
the melt, integrity of the glass bore-liner, ease and effec- Subterrenes of various sizes must begin when the develop-
tiveness of lithofracturing, and resistance of the finished ment program is initiated, and work on nuclear heaters
bore to closure by collapse or creep, all depend directly must be undertaken as soon as possible thereafter. Both
upon the properties Siid behavior of the rock being pene- will require intensive materials research as well as sophisti-
trated. Unfortunately, very little is known about rocks cated engineering design.
under the conditions of temperature and pressure that With either type of heater, transfer of thermal
exist deep in the earth's crust. To accumulate the infor- energy from the heat source to the penetrator shell entire-
mation needed for rational design of advanced versions of ly by conduction is impractical because of the very high
the Subterrene, and of the systems of holes they will temperature gradient which would be required to main-
produce, will require extensive and continuing investiga- tain the necessary energy density. Fortunately, heat pipes,
tions in the areas of rock characterization, rock properties discussed in Appendix C, can transmit thermal energy at
under extreme conditions, and rock mechanics in general. extremely high density over distances up to several meters
Among characteristics of rocks to be investigated are their and with temperature drops of only a few degrees. A
melting temperatures and energies, viscosities, creep and system of heat pipes to perfomi this function appears to
fracture behaviors, the types and degrees of activity in- be essential for successful operation of any large rock-
duced in them by exposure to the radiation field of a melting device. However, rugged versions of the heat pipe,
nuclear reactor passing through them, and the degree to capable of continuous operation at high temperatures and
which this activity is contained in and retained by the high external pressures for weeks or months, have nut yet
glass bore-liner. (Weight is not a major factor in design of been built. Their design and testing must also be under-
a Nuclear Subterrene, and heat pipes do not lose effi- taken as soon as development of the Subterreiu is begun.
ciency if they turn corners to eliminate direct radiation It is evident that theoretical, laboratory, and field
paths out of the reactor. Shielding of the nuclear energy studies in several different areas should begin together as
source can therefore be very effective, and it is expected soon as development of a Nuclear Subterrene is seriously
that any added activity induced in the rock will in general undertaken. Many of these investigations must be con-
be small relative to the level of its natural radioactivity. tinued throughout the life of the program to accumulate
However, this must be carefully verified.) the further information required to design and use more
A rock-melting penetrator must supply heat to the advanced Subterrcnes.
rock into vhich it is advancing, transmit pressure to the
melt that it creates, control the flow of the melt both Initial Field Terti. It has already been demonstrated
radially and axially, maintain its own shape and integrity, that a melting penetrator can produce holes in rocks at
and protect the Subterrene components within and be- usefully high rates and with moderate energy consump-
hind it. Refractory materials and engineering designs to tions. A gasoline-driven, 300-hp generator can produce
perform these functions must be investigated, developed, the electrical energy required to melt a hole 25 cm in
and tested in laboratory studies and in series of scaling-up diameter through igneous rock at 100 m/day.
experiments in the field. For collection of geological and It is proposed that, while the laboratory investiga-
geophysical information, it is important that either the tions described above are in progress, a truck- or trailer-
Subterrene or some auxiliary device be capable not only mounted unit be designed capable of continuously provid-
of boring holes but also of producing and extracting cores ing the electrical energy required to produce a 25-cm-
representative of the rocks being penetrated. This could dism hole at 100 m/day, and also capable of handling
be done by leaving an opening in the psnetrator face several hundred meters of drill pipe and electrical cable
through which an unmelted core-protected by a fused into and out of the hole. The required information col-
coating-would be delivered to a core barrel that could be lected in the laboratory would be incorporated into the
retrieved and replaced periodically. Coring experiments
design of a penetrator capable of producing a shaft of this
will be required to develop such a system, and to incor-
size. The penetrator would be assembled at the end of a
porate it into the appropriate penetrator designs. Investi-
rigid string of steel drill pipe, suitably instrumented, and
gations will be made of the core diameters and core-
tested initially in producing vertical holes in local tuffs
handling systems needed to ensure that the recovered
and basalts. When it had operated successfully in these
core is representative in all respects of the rock being
formations, it would be tested elsewhere in granites,
 andesiies, sedimentary rocks, unconsolidated gravels, and Underground telemetry signals were transmitted through
other formations of interest. dolomite to a receiver 110 m away, from which they were
This first Electric Subterrene would be used to conducted to the surface by cable. Sandia now plans to
investigate a wide variety of problems associated both install an advanced version of a fixed, cylindrical-antenna,
with the penetrator system and with the formations being underground telemetry system at the Nevada Test Site,
penetrated. In particular, it would be used to study pene- using low-frequency rf signals and relay stations. The
trator life, penetration rates, force and energy require- Russians are also investigating underground radio com-
ments, control and integrity of the glass bore-liner, effec- munication, and they predict ranges of many kilometers
tiveness of the lithofracturing technique, and applicability under some conditions, with very high signal-to-noise
of the melting technique to production of holes through ratios (Dolukhanov, 1970). It is reasonable to expect that
unconsolidated formations, shear zones, water-bearing subterranean telemetry may be developed sufficiently to
regions, and other difficult geologic structures. It would control and guide a Nuclear Subterrene from the surface.
also be used to investigate interesting regions in which Presumably, the initial testing of the Type 1 Nu-
larger and more advanced Subterrenes might subsequently clear Subterrene would be in relatively cool rocks near the
be tested and used. It is possible that the Electric Subter- earth's ruface, probably continuing a tunnel begun by
rene will prove to be economically useful for commercial the Electri: Subterrene. The tunnel entry would be open
production of water and oil wells, ventilation shafts, and its interior would be filled with air. A suitably shield-
conduits for electricity and gas, etc. ed Nuclear Subterrene would therefore be accessible for
maintenance, repair, and modification. Air, cooling water,
Hie Type 1 Nuclear Subterrene. The degrees to electrical energy, and direct control and guidance could
which an electrically heated Subterrene can be extended be provided for it. It would be both a demonstration and
with regard to hole diameter, hole length and depth, anu a reseatch unit to study cost, usefulness, service life, types
rock temperature and pressure are limited by its energy and degree of radioactivity developed in the tunnel wall,
requirement and the difficulties of supplying the required and the extent to which this activity was retained by the
amount of electrical energy to it through a trailing cable. glass bore-lining.
A compact nuclear reactor could furnish the energy re- A general design concept for the Type 1 Nuclear
quired by even a very large penetratoi advancing at a high Subterrene is developed in Appendix C.
rate, and would permit conceptual design of a self-
contained unit controlled by telemetry from the surface. The Type 2 Nuclear Subterrene. Perhaps the most
However, new problems arise concerning shielding the important potential application of the Subterrene, both
reactor and possible activation both of other Subterrene economically and ecologically, is in the exploitation of
components and of the wall of the bore. Because of the geothermal energy. Shallow geothermal energy reservoirs
intense radioactivity of the fission products accumulated can probably be penetrated by vertical holes, produced by
in the reactor section, it may not be desirable to bring a advanced versions of the Electric Subtenene cooled by
Nuclear Subterrene back to the surface to move it to a fluid circulation from the surface. Deeper and hotter
new location. If this is the case, it would be used to create reservoirs and more elaborate development systems in-
only one very long or very deep shaft or tunnel, or one volving horizontal as well as vertical holes would require a
interconnected system of shafts or tunnels, and then be Nuclear Subterrene capable of continuous, unattended
permanently buried at a safe depth by permitting rock operation for long periods at environmental temperature:
collapse to occur around it. of about 500°C. Sophisticated thermal protection would
A Type 1 Nuclear Subterrene is visualized as the be required for all Subterrene components, and human
next development step beyond the electrically heated access would be limited to short visits with elaborate
Subterrene discussed above. It would consist of a nuclear life-support systems.
reactor and heat pipes supplying energy to a penetrator Development of the Type 2 Nuclear Subterrene
2 m or more in diameter; its detailed design and testing of from the Type 1 unit would involve principally evolution
its components would be in progress during field trials of of control, guidance, and propulsion systems having in-
the Electric Subterrene. Advanced development of the creased temperature capabilities. The conceptual design of
electrical unit would include design and testing of a pro- the Type 2 Subterrene is considered in Appendix C
pulsion system, studies of wall-cooling systems which may
be required for continuous operation, and development of The Type 3 Nuclear Subtenene. The ultimate goal
control and guidance systems operated by telemetry from in development of the Nuclear Subterrene is the produc-
the surface. When the capabilities and reliability of the tion of a device capable of penetrating the earth to depths
Electric Subterrene had been fully demonstrated, the elec- of tens of kilometers to reach the geothermal reservoir
trical heater would be replaced by a nuclear reactor, and wherever energy is required and to extend geological and
the first Nuclear Subterrene would be ready for test. geophysical exploration into the earth's mantle. In addi-
Subterranean telemetry « a new development that tion to the high ambient temperature faced by the Type 2
has recently been demonstrated by the Sandia Corpora- Subterrene, the Type 3 device would encounter extremely
tion during underground nuclear tests in the Aleutians. high ambient pressure. At 30 km depth, rock pressure is

10
 presumed to be about 10 kbar (145,000 psi), and a moderate costs. These uses are of sufficient economic,
Subterrene to resist such a pressure without the benefit of social, ecologic, and scientific importance to justify estab-
coolant supplied from the surface would require sophisti- lishment and continued support of a major development
cated design and much materials research and develop- program such as that outlined above. The magnitude and
ment. However, to retard creep closure of the bore in scope of a program of this nature are such that the work
such an environment may require cooling of the glass will probably not be attempted by any industrial organi-
bore-liner by fluid circulated from the surface. If so, the zation, but could be sponsored by a government agency
fluid would also be available to cool certain Subterrene such as the United States -Atomic Energy Commission.
components. The flexibility of a melting penetrator with Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory has the unique skills to
regard to hole shape, and the possibility of back-extruding carry out all phases of the program.
a glass curtain to partition off separate channels in an Only a rock-melting penetrator appears to have the
appropriately shaped hole may make it feasible to provide inherent capability and flexibility required to produce the
and maintain this circulation without lowering pipe or types of holes now needed and to produce them under
other types of hole-dividers from the surface. the variety of difficult subsurface conditions which obtain
At least initially, the Type 3 Nuclear Subterrene when very long or very deep holes are created in the
would probably be designed for one-way vertical travel, earth's crust. An economically useful rock-melting pene-
and might be propelled downward either by gravity or-to trator, in the form of an Electric Subterrene mounted on
provide the force required for lithofracturing--by hydro- rigid drill pipe, can probably be built and demonstrated
static pressure from above. It would differ from the Type within about three years after the development program
2 Subterrene principally in being much more heavily begins. Larger and more flexible Subtenants, eventually
constructed, lacking sn internal propulsion system, and powered by nuclear reactors, would evolve fro.n this. It is
requiring a different arrangement for guidance. believed that within 10 to 15 years a Nuclear Subterrene
The concept of a Type 3 Nuclear Subterrene is also could be produced which would be capable of penetrating
considered in Appendix C. the earth's crust and entering its outer mantle.
In addition to boring devices and demonstration
holes of many types, the proposed program would de-
Summaiy velop useful new knowledge in a wide variety of scientific
and technical areas, particularly including the geologic
Many applications now await the development of sciences, rock mechanics, and the applications of heat
some new device capable of producing large, long holes pipes and nuclear reactors.
through difficult geological structures at high rates and

11
 APPENOIX A

EXISTING AND PROPOSED ROCK-PENETRATION SYSTEMS

The common industrial techniques uf drilling and bit. Lasers, plasmas, or electron beams could, of course,
blasting and of rotary drilling were considered at some be used for the same purpose. Such a system is essentially
length in the body of this report, where it was concluded a combination of the rotary drill with a spallation device
that in many important situations neither can be used of the type discussed beiow.
efficiently nor economically. The same conclusion has, of Small increases in drilling rate have been observed
course, been stated frequently by others, and the evidence when acoustical waves were transmitted through the
that it is correct is clear: many shafts and tunnels which rotary bit to crack rocks ahead of it. Several mechanical
obviously are urgently needed have not so far been dug or methods of vibrating the bit have also been tried, includ-
drilled. ing air- and solenoid-actuated pistons striking anvils on
In attempts to improve this situation, many pro- the bit, and rotating eccentric weights to give unbalanced
posals have been made for modifications of existing dril- vertical forces. These produce low-frequency vibrations
ling devices and for development of new ones, and some that are relatively ineffective in weakening the rock.
of these proposed devices have been built and tested. An Higher frequencies in the sonic and supersonic range are
excellent review of the subject is given by Maurer (1968) more effective, although their action on the rock is pri-
and some of the same devices are discussed by Ostrovskii marily through cavitational effects in the drilling fluid
(1960); both sources have been drawn on freely in the rather than by direct mechanical action. Magnetostrictive
discussions below. or electrostrictive devices are used to produce vibration,
which is amplified by designing the cutting tool so that it
resonates at the frequency of the driver. The power out-
Augmented Rotary Drills put of a high-frequency device of this type is so small that
it has little effect on drilling rate, and its effect would
A number of methods have been proposed for in- disappear entirely in deep holes where cavitation dies out
creasing the drilling rates of rotary drills. One of these is as a result of high pressure en the drilling fluid.
the turbine drill, mentioned in the body of this report. In A relatively recent development is the "continuous"
the turbine drill, transmission of energy by rotating the tunneling machine, a large, self-propelled, rotary drill
drill pipe is avoided by pumping a fluid down the pipe to usually used to excavate tunnels for sewage systems,
drive a turbine at its lower end, and the turbine rotates water supplies, subways, railroads, and highways. Such a
only the drill bit. This does not avoid the requirements machine is limited primarily by its inability to penetrate
that most of the mass of the drill string be supported very hard rocks, including many of the common igneous
from the surface, and that the entire drill string be with- rocks (Jacobs and others, in Yardley, 1970). In softer
drawn from the hole to change the bit. The turbine drill formations, different types of cutters are required for
has not so far been commercially successful in the United different types of rocks, and no tunneling machine so far
States, although it has apparently been used extensively developed has been versatile enough to operate successful-
for deep-hole drilling in the USSR. Maurer reports drilling ly in the different rock types encountered in most very
rates only about one-half those of conventional rotary long or very deep holes. Instantaneous rate of advance of
drills, although Ostrovskii indicates that in hard rock the this type of machine Is about 2 m/h in relatively hard
rates may be higher for the turbine drill. Submerged rock to more than 20 m/h in soft rock but, owing to
electric motors of special design have also been used by down-time for mucking out, extending services, machine
the Russians for down-hole bit rotation. With either de- repairs, etc., the average rates in "good ground" are about
vice, the limitations on hole depth and diameter and on one-half of these instantaneous values. When rock having
the temperature and hardness of rock that can be pene- compressive strength greater than about 25,000 to 35,000
trated economically are apparently the same as for the psi (1760 to 2460 kg/cm 2 ) is encountered, drilling and
conventional rotary drill. Problems in pumping, power blasting are used instead of tuiuieling machines. Many
conduction, and turbine and motor maintenance are also granites, basalts, dolerites, etc., have compressive
introduced. strengths in the range 40,000 to 70,000 psi (2810 to 4920
Several ideas have been offered to improve the kg/cm 2 ), and cannot successfully be penetrated by exist-
performance of conventional rotary drills. One is to build ing machines of this type.
electrodes into the drill bit and maintain an electric arc The continuous tunneling machine uses electric
between them during drilling to heat and degrade the rock motors geared directly to the rotating cutting tool, and so
so that it can be fragmented more easily by cutters on the avoids the difficulties of transmitting power through a

12
 long drill pipe. However, there are inherent limitations on The jet-piercing drill, a spallation device described
the machine itself. Thus, the hole in which it operates in the body of this report, has been commercially success-
must be large enough to accommodate electric motors, a ful in drilling certain taconites, which are very hard and
massive drive system, and equipment for handling cut- thus difficult to penetrate with conventional drills. The
tings, and to permit human access for changing cutters. jet-piercing drill uses an oxygen-fuel oil flame to heat the
Holes under about 2.5 m diameter are inconvenient to rock surfaces. Other heat sources have also been tried,
make, and under about 1.7 in diameter they are essential- including other types of flames, electric currents, super-
ly impossible. An upper limit of diameter has not yet heated steam, high-frequency electric and magnetic fields,
been established for machines of this type, but is prob- and microwaves.
ably about 10 m. Since rotating cutters are used, hole Although the spallation drill is useful in rock that
sections are necessarily circular or some combination of spalls easily, its usefulness is definitely limited to such
circles. rock, and therefore to a few rather special drilling situa-
Much of the technology of the continuous rotary tions.
tunneling machine is directly transferrable to a self-
propelled Subterrene. It is possible that the first Subter-
rene for horizontal boring would be a commercial tunnel- Erosion Drills
ing machine in which the rotary drilling head was replaced
by a melting penetrator, with provision for additional High-pressure water jets can drill most rocks, includ-
cooling of machine components and of the tunnel wall. ing very hard ones, without the use of solid abrasives in
The laser systems developed for precise guidance of rotary the jet. Very high power outputs and correspondingly
machines will also be useful for the first Subterrenes, high drilling rates appear possible with them, and their
although they will probably be replaced eventually by performance can be improved by pulsing the jet. How-
subterranean telemetry or by self-contained, prepro- ever, power requirements are high; large-capacity, high-
grammed guidance systems. pressure pumps must be developed for them; and nozzle
For continuous tunneling in hard rock, drilling rates erosion may limit the time that the drill can operate at
can be increased by shattering the rock ahead of the the bottom of the hole. According to Ostrovskii, certain
machine by explosive charges detonated in pilot holes. kinds of rock (such as some types of shale) cannot be cut
This combination of mining and boring techniques re- with water jets. Wall and roof support will be major
quires that pilot holes be produced by a separate drilling problems in poorly consolidated formations, and perform-
system, that conventional explosives be handled, with thf ance of such drills at high rock temperatures has not been
usual delays for loading the holes, blasting, and ventilat- investigated. In spite of these limitations, it appears that-
ing, and that the tunneling machine be protected by at least for most kinds of coherent rock at relatively low
heavy blast shields. It appears to be primarily an emer- temperatures-the water-jet drill is potentially useful. Its
gency method to be used when a tunneling machine probable usefulness for producing shallow tunnels to con-
encounters rock too hard for it to penetrate at a useful tain underground utility services in urban areas is now
rate in its normal operating mode. being investigated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
No technique so far proposed for increasing the Preliminary results from laboratory tests at ORNL
capabilities of rotary drills appears to be generally useful (McClain and Cristy, 1970) are very encouraging.
for overcoming their inherent limitations with regard to Low-speed abrasive jets in which sand or other
hole size, hole length or depth, and the types, tempera- abrasive particles are projected against the rock by a
tures, and pressures of the formations in which they can relatively low-velocity stream of water or air have also
operate efficiently. been investigated. A large-scale experimental device of
this type, the "pellet drill," used steel balls as the abra-
sive. In such devices energy transfer to the abrasive parti-
Spoliation Drills cles is inefficient, drilling rates are low, and no known
drill operating on this principle is being further developed.
Rocks generally are relatively poor conductors of
heat, so that high temperature gradients are created in
them when their surfaces are exposed to high-intensity Continuous Penetrators
heat sources. Differential thermal expansion creates itigh
stresses just below the heated surfaces, and these are A device has been proposed which consists of a
augmented by variations in thermal expansion among massive conical penetrator that is forced through the
mineral species composing the rock, by vaporization of rock, crushing material ahead of it and displacing this
water, by phase changes in quartz grains, etc. In some material into a zone of crushed rock surrounding the hole.
rocks, the stresses cause successive thin layers to spall Maurer concludes that the force required to drive the
from the surface. However, many types of rock-inc!uding penetrator would be excessive, limiting its usefulness to
most of the common igneous rocks-are resistant to spal- weak, highly porous rock or unconsolidated material. A
ling. deyrre of this type in the form of the "compacting

13
auger," which looks and acts like a wood screw, is already hole, have been used in the laboratory to drill holes in a
in commercial use to produce holes for underground variety of sedimentary and igneous rocks. Because of high
power fines through soil. The concept of such a device is costs and the difficulties of handling large volumes of very
related to that of a Hthofracturing penetrator discussed in reactive chemicals, the technique appears to have little
Appendix D. However, in the absence of a molten phase, promise for large-scale drilling. However, the introduction
the continuous penetrator will be effective only in poorly of less active chemicals to soften rock in advance of a
consolidated formations. conventional drill may be useful in some cases, and very
hot water under high pressure may be effective for this
purpose, as is discussed in Appendix E.
Explosive Drills

Several types of explosive drills have been de- Melting Drills

veloped and thoroughly tested in the USSR. In general,
the liquid components of an explosive mixture are mixed Both Maurer and Ostrovskii comment on the use of
either within a capsule as it passes through a nozzle just the rock-melting technique to produce holes in the earth.
above the bottom of the hole or in the space just below Maurer feels that the energy requirement of a melting
such a nozzle, and are then detonated in that space. Small device is so high that its drilling rate will necessarily be
explosive charges are used, fired at intervals of from a few low. He notes that such a device is versatile in that it can
hundredths of a second to about 1 sec. Penetration rates create holes in any type of rock, and predicts that its first
are high except in soft or plastic rocks. However, costs are application will be in drilling strong rocks, in which con-
also high, and supplying the explosive from the surface ventional drill bits are dulled rapidly. Ostrovskii concludes
and timing the explosions at the bottom of a deep hole that fusion and even vaporization of rocks may be expedi-
are difficult. Flushing cuttings from the bottom of the ent in penetrating deep-lying rocks, where high rock and
hole is a major problem, and high rock temperatures hydrostatic pressures and plasticity of the rock make
would introduce new problems related both to stability of drilling extremely difficult by any known mechanical
the explosive components and to increased plasticity of means. He notes that fusion and vaporization processes
the rock being penetrated. are independent of the physical and mechanical properties
of the rock, which change markedly with depth, and
indicates that the walls of the drilled hole can indeed be
Chemical Drills strengthened during drilling by melting the rock.

Fluorine and other reactive chemicals, injected in a

gas stream from a pressurized capsule lowered into the

14
 APPENDIX B

INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LASL ROCK-MELTING DRILL

The feasibility of rock melting as a drilling method

was first explored at LASL in 1960-1962, culminating in
a final report (Armstrong et al, 196S) and issuance of
U.S. Patent No. 3,357,505 covering the general method.
This preliminary study was made by a few LASL staff
members on a part-time basis, and used no specialized
equipment. (For example, a small commercial welding
transformer supplied the electrical current.) Experiments
were performed on chance rocks found locally, and the
largest holes made were about 5 cm diam and 15 cm deep.
Feasibility of the technique was demonstrated and in-
terest was aroused. During 1956-1966, after the final
report of the work was published, about 150 letters of
inquiry were received concerning the method, the Labora-
tory was visited by several industrial groups and by a
military delegation, and serious consideration was given to
use of the device as a lunar drill for the Apollo flight
series. Because of other commitments of the group in
which the rock-melting drill was invented, its further
development was not pursued at LASL, and so far as is
known it *ias not been undertaken elsewhere.
The crucial result of the initial LASL experiments
was that the relatively simple devices built and tested
bored holes at steady, usefully high rates through samples
of local basalts and other igneous rocks, without serious
corrosion or deformation of the drills. Power require-
ments were two to three times that theoretically required
to melt basalt. (This is considered moderate in view of the
small sizes of the drills, the relatively inefficient heat-
Fig B-l.
transfer systems used in them, and the large volumes of
Cracks in a basalt boulder, produced by penetration
cooling water and gas circulated through them.) One
experimental difficulty was that the rock samples usually with a rock-melting drill.
cracked during drilling, as is illustrated in Fig. B-l. To
minimize cracking, the samples were embedded in con- l-in.-diam drill shown in Fig. B-2, the melt was back-
crete, which was banded with a corrugated steel shell. In extruded through an axial tube in which its temperature
development of the Subterrene, it is proposed instead to was reduced about 100°C, so that it left the tube as a hot
supplement the thermal stresses by mechanical means to glass rod that could be handled mechanically. In later
create cracks in which most of the melt can be deposited. devices, a high-velocity gas stream was used to fragment
This is discussed in Appendix D. and coo] the back-extruded lava and propel it up a tube as
Two of the electrically heated devices tested are small, irregular pellets. An "open bucket" device was also
shown in Figs. B-2 and B-3, and some of the holes drilled tested successfully; with periodic removal of the drill and
are shown in Fig. B-4. In the device shown in Fig. B-5, of a reservoir built into it when the latter had been filled
subjected only to preliminary testing, the electric heater with molten rock. In the Subterrene, it is proposed to
was encased in boron nitride, which, when properly ori- eliminate the problem of removing rock from the hole by
ented, is both a good conductor of heat and a good using the lithofracturing technique discussed in Appendix
electrical insulator. This permitted solid, rugged construc- D.
tion. Unavoidably, in the operation of a melting device,
The essential design problem with early versions of some rock is melted at the edges of the penetrator and is
the rock-melting penetrator was soon reduced to develop- extruded back around it or forced into voids in adjacent
ment of techniques for removing the lava. In the unmelted rock. As is suggested by the photograph of Fig.

15
 H,.O CHAMBER
LOCK RING
GAS GUN SUPPORT RING
nnouc mum RADIATION SHIELD

TUNGSTEN HEATER
MOLYBDENUM SHOE

EXTRUSION TUBE

Ftg. B-3.
The gas-gap drill Heat is conducted from the tung-
sten-foil heater to the 2-in.-diam molybdenum melt-
ing-shoe across a narrow gap in the helium-filled
chamber. The gas gun propels the melt to the sur-
face. (From Armstrong etal, 1965.)

H,0 SEPJUUIDR B-4, this fraction of the lava freezes as an obsidian-like

glass liner on the wail of the bore. The lining grades into
and is finnly attached to solid rock around the hole. It is
expected to be effective in sealing and supporting the
bore. Experience with laboratory-scale devices indicates
that the thickness of the glass liner can be increased either
by reducing the rate of advance of the penetrator or by
increasing the proportion of heat that flows radially from
it instead of axially into rock ahead of it. Lithofracturing
is expected to increase both the tiiickness of the glass
liner and the intimacy of its attachment to the surround-
ing rock.
Several concepts developed in this experimental
work, concerned largely with the flow of molten rock
ahead of the penetrator, can be applied to design and
performance of a Subterrene. They were based on the
following model.
Fig. B-2.
It is convenient to consider tlhat the penetrator
An early {billing device, the l-in.-diam drill The
stands still and the rock moves toward it, so that the
water-cooled, double-walled copper stem conducts a
problem becomes one of hydrodynamic flow around a
large electrical cwrent (100 A) to the reentrant
hot barrier. Velocity of the rock far from the penetrator
molybdenum wall that serves as the heater. The
is v*. Rock temperature decreases exponentially with
S/8-in.-diant extivsion tube is heated by conduction
distance, z, from the drill face, as exp (-cpv* z/X). For a
from the foot, and is designed to reduce the melt
typical basalt, A = 0.01 cal/cm-sec-°C, c = 0.3 cal/g-°C,
temperature approximately 1OO°C for extrusion as
p = 2.8g/cm 3 , v* = 0.05 cm/sec, and the characteristic
a glass-like rod In operation, the drill penetrated to
decay distance of temperature, X/cpv*, is 0.3 cm. Rock
its full depth of about 8 in. (From Armstrong et
viscosity varies with temperature as exp (E/RT) so that,
at. 1965).
for E = 140 kcal/mole <.nd T, = 1700°K, the character-
istic decay distance for viscosity, E/RT, is about 1/40 of
that for temperature, or about 0.01 cm. Within 0.3 cm of

16
 F&.B4.
Two laboratory-scale rock-melting drills, and samples of the holes, glass, and scoriae produced by them.

the penetrator face, then, rock viscosity increases by (B-3)

many orders of magnitude. Flow of the molten rock
therefore occurs within a very thin, film-like channel
along the face of the penetrator. Together with the equation of continuity, V • v = 0, this
The hydrodynamic problem is well represented by system was solved exactly (in Armstrong et at, 1965)
regarding the viscosity to vary as with the assumption that v = v(z), yielding the solution

)] , (B-4)

where r)0 is viscosity at the penetrator face (z = 0) and

(B-5)
E / T . - T , cpv*
P (B-l)
~ RT, V T, / X +const. (B-6)

The Navier-Stokes equation for incompressible The horizontal component of the velocity, u, in Fig.
materials is represented in cylindrical coordinates by B-6, is zero both at the penetrator face (z = 0), due to
nonslippage, and in the solid rock (z = «»), and reaches a
maximum at z = 1/0. The "channel flow" properties of
2 3 3u _ u o /du.dvN 3p this thin layer are as though a fluid with unifonn viscos-
r 3r dr r 3z w or/ or ity, i?o. were flowing through a channel of width
^12(1/0) = 2.29 (1/0).

17
 ; secwmoH
-1 I HOCY 3UOC
-2 1 HOLY LIB
-3 lUKtTCN HCUR
•4 [ BcaoN Nrncc x n
-5 i iBreanMNinnaMn
S NKXCKING
•7 i t MOW SCUT 5-WHC
-a i riocv » K
-8 TUNUTCH TIM
•n I SOMN N n a eunwt
•M i mocttsow
* 1 BJOKCU. OUU»
-e I iiBimir «MHCT
•M I BOTTOM flMKCfUTC
•IS '
•K I eofNtiuKicautfui
•tp 9LSTm.Tiar|iat«rtu
I cgmntiat<ieB«<><u
I asnn.'nmVtt'jMi
« asitatwc taioouu
•n 8M93 aaco
•a 1 t»» HUT
•a xontnco-tim
•M
45 vsras. TUK&O-MIKL

aacnoM e-c

/12-iru-diam encased heater using boron nitride insulation. (From Armstrong et al, 1965.)

18
 - V
20

t! b 5
05
HI

77ie horizontal component, u, and the vertical com- 0 5 10 cm

ponent, v, of fluid-flow velocity as functions of
distance, z, from the penetrator face. RADIAL POSITION, r

Another result of this development is an expression

(a) (b)
for the total applied force, in which F <* TJOV*(33 [as in Eq. Fig. B-7.
(B-6)]. Since 0 is itself proportional to v*, F increases as (a) A simple conical penetrator. (b) The pressure
the fourth power of the velocity, v*, unless the penetrator distribution along the surface of the penetrating
temperature is raised to decrease T/O • Hence, the final cone.
conclusion of the early theory was that, as higher penetra-
tion rates were sought, the device should be constructed
to apply very large pressures to the rock, which requires This is the equation of a parabola whose apex coincides
strong, rugged construction. with that of the cone (r = 0). For a small drill with typical
Much of the above development can be adapted to values
the devices considered in this report, for example to a
cone-shaped penetrator doing only melting of the rock a = 10 cm,
(with no cracking), toward which the earth moves with
velocity v*. In such a case, the temperature distribution tfo = 10* g/cm-sec,
projected onto a horizontal plane is the same as that for a
cylindrical penetrator, but the heat flux from the surface v* = 0.1 cm/sec (~ 86 m/d),
is reduced by sin a, and the channel width, 1/0, is in-
creased, i.e., 0 - 0o sin a, where 0O is given by Eq. (B-l). 0o = 2000 v* = 200 cm'1
The flow lines in rock far ahead of the penetrator are
almost parallel to its path, and near the penetrator they sin o = 0.1,
represent fanning radial flow nearly parallel to its conical
surface. The pressure gradient in lava flowing along the it follows that the pressure drop along the surfscs of the
surface of the penetrator is reduced by the factor s*n3a. penetrator is only 20 bar. If, however, the same values u e
These factors become very significant for a sharp cone in applied to a Subterrene with radius of 1 m (a s 100), the
which, for example, sin a ~ 10"1. pressure at the apex of the penetrator is 2 kbar above that
For the pressure distribution along the sutfcce of a at its shoulder. In this case the solid rock adjacent to the
conical penetrator, illustrated in Fig. B-7, the above de- apex would certainly fracture, the flow of liquid melt
velopment gives an expression of the form would no longer be along the surface from point to
shoulder, and the above analysis breaks down, This situa-
P = p(a) + 1/4 foo0o3v* sin a a (o 2 - r 2 )] . (B-7) tion is considered in Appendix D.

19
 APPENDIX C

NUCLEAR SUBTERRENE CONCEPTS, DESIGNS, AND PROBLEMS

To this time, only laboratory-scale rock-melting

devices have been operated, and it is obviously hazardous
to predict what directions development may take in lead-
ing to an operating Nuclear Subterrene and its eventual
applications. However, data obtained in the original rock-
melting experiments were sufficiently detailed and con-
vincing that quite long extrapolations from them can be
made confidently. To provide perspective concerning the
nature, scope, magnitude, and difficulty of the develop-
ment program here considered, these projections are
attempted in the sections that follow, although neces-
sarily in general terms. Major areas requiring development,
environmental constraints, conceptual designs, and poten-
tial material problems are outlined, and probable program
directions are indicated.

Heat Pipes

In the early rock-melting experiments described in

Appendix B, a major limitation on performance of the
devices tested was that of delivering a sufficiently large
heat flux to the melting face of the penetrator. With the
development of the heat pipe, this problem has been
solved. Heat-pipe technology is now sufficiently advanced
so that it is evident that heat pipes can indeed transport
energy from a compact source to an extended melting
surface at rates high enough for a melting device to
penetrate rock at a usefully high rate.
The components and operating principles of a heat
pipe have been discussed by Kemme (1969, A and B) and
are illustrated in Fig. C-l. Essentially, a heat pipe is an
elongated, gastight cavity that contains a suitable liquid
and its vapor. In a Subterrene, the evaporator end of the
heat pipe would be located within the heat source,
whether electrical or nuclear, and the condenser section
would be at or near the rock-melting surface. The heat-
pipe cavity is lined with a "wick," which is a capillary
structure commonly built up from multiple layers of
woven-wire screen, and occupying perhaps one-third of
the cross section of the cavity. The wick is constantly
saturated with the working liquid, which, by capillary
action, is continuously returned from the condenser sec-
tion to the evaporator. There it is continuously evapor-
ated, so that the interior space of the heat pipe is kept
tilled with vapor diffusing toward the slightly cooler
condenser. At the condenser, it deposits its heat of vapor-
ization and is returned as a liquid by the wick to be g
recycled. Heat pipe invented by G. M. Grwer at Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory.
20
 The unique advantage of the heat pipe is its ability can readily transport 10 kW/cm2 of vapor-passage cross-
to maintain extremely large heat fluxes while only very sectional area, and at 1800°K its capacity should increase
small temperature differences exist between its hot and by a factor of more than five. Thus, each square
cold ends. This is to be contrasted with the large tempera- centimeter of vapor passage can supply heat to at least 20
ture gradients (hundreds of degrees per centimeter) re- cm 1 of penetrator surface, and the penetrator can easily
quired to transfer heat at similar rates through a thermal accommodate the heat pipes required.
conductor. Wlwn the penetrator face must be maintained At heat fluxes above about 250 W/cm2 across the
at, say, 1500°K (1227°C) for weeks or months, and the liquid-vapor interface in the evaporator region, ebullition
heat source is many centimeters from this face, it is occurs in the wick and unacceptable hot spots are formed.
apparent that a heat pipe is the only practical method of However, since the side wall as well as the end of the
energy transfer that will avoid overheating of the reactor. cavity is available for heat transfer, a surface area 40 or
For an operating temperature in the range 1400 to more times the cross-sectional area of the vapor passage
1300°K (1127 to 1527°C), the heat-pipe container would can easily be provided in the evaporator, even within a
be a gastight refractory metal tube or shell. The appropri- very compact heat source.
ate working fluid would be lithium, which is apparently En principle, there is no reason why a heat flux of at
the best of all known heat-pipe fluids (Kemme, 1966; least SCO W/cm1 should! not be attainable in the con-
Busse et aL, 1968). Lithium heat pipes made of Nb-1% Zr denser section of a heat pipe. Experimentally, the largest
alloys have been operated at temperatures up to 1600°K condensation heat flux so far verified is about 30 W/cm3,
(1327°C) for several thousand hours; others made of TZM more than an order of magnitude less than is required at
molybdenum alloy have been operated for similar periods the melting face to achieve a desirable penetration
up to 1700°X (1427°C); and still others made of Ta-10% velocity. Undoubtedly this can be improved, but experi-
W alloy have been operated for short periods up to ments with large cooling fluxes have not yet been
2100°K (1827°C). A heat-pipe lifetime of at least one performed.
year can apparently be anticipated at the temperature
levels required for operation of a Subterrene.
At 1400 °K the vapor pressure of lithium is 0.2 bar, Electrical and Nuclear Heaters
and at 1800°K it is 3 bar. The heat-pipe container will
evidently receive little internal support from the working Much of the early development of rock-melting
vapor, and so must itself be designed to support any large devices will be done using electrical heaters. The design
external pressure to which it is exposed. No working fluid and construction of such heaters, whether resistive or
is known whose vapor pressure at these temperatures is inductive, is straightforward, and no major problems are
appreciable relative to an environmental pressure of, sax expected in making them compatible with the heat-pipe
10 kbar. If one were available, the opposite problem system. However, fast nuclear reactors will be required for
would exist-that of containing the fluid during the period the more ambitious types of Subtenenes, and conceptual
when the external pressure was increasing from 1 bar to design studies and materials research for such reactors
10 kbar. should begin very early in the development program.
If the energy source is above the penetrator face, The basic technology of a heavily armored, shield-
the working fluid must be transported up the wick, ed, insulated, fast reactor of the type required for a
against gravity, by capillary action. This limits the vertical Nudear Subterrene appears to have been established. The
dimension of the heat pipe which, with lithium and a necessary high-temperature fuels have been studied exten-
reasonable capillary pore size, cannot exceed about 1 m. sively in the SNAP-50 program, where a similar reactor
However, as suggested by Fig. C-2, as many 1-m heat technology is required. Critkality studies for reactors
pipes can be used in series as may be required, so that this whose cores are about 40 voi% heat pipes have indicated
does not limit the vertical length of the heat-pipe system. that for lOd kW to 10 MW thermal power outputs the
The figure also indicates another peculiarity of heat-pipe required core stees would be roughly from 18 cm diam
design: the heat-pipe cavity must be so constructed that and 25 cm long to 1 m diam and 1 m long. (To these
the vapor within it has an appreciable velocity parallel to dimensions must be added the requirements for nuclear
the surface on which it is required to coudense and shielding, thermal insulation, and protective armor.) A
deposit energy. This is because, in manufacture, such schematic cross section of a typical reactor core of this
cavities cannot be purged completely of noncondensable type is shown in Fig. C-3. This core concept was deviaed
gases. These gases are swept by the working vapor to the for a heat supply for use in space (Salmi and Graver,
end of the condenser, where they form a blanket having 1970). It appears that conventional reactor-poison control
very low thermal conductance. This, however, does not systems can be used with such designs. However, in
interfere with heat transfer to the sides of the condenser
Subterrene applications, particular attention must be
section.
given to provisions for inserting large amounts of shut-
A tunneling speed of 100 m/day would require a down poison. Since neither size nor mass is a stringent
heat flux shout of 500 W/cm* delivered to the melting restraint, the problem* of radiation shielding appear to be
surface of the penetrator. At 1400"K, a lithium heat pipe minimal.

21
 SHAFT OR BORE HOLE

INSULATION. SHIELD
AND ARMOR
HEAT SOURCE (REACTOR)
EVAPORATION
PORTIONS OF HEAT FLUX TO HEAT PIPES
HEAT PIPES
JOG FOR RAOMTION
SHIELDING
JOINTS

- I m SECTION OF
REFRACTORY METAL
HEAT PIPES

HEAT FLUX TO
REFRACTORY MELTING ROCK
METAL HEAT W E 2 0 * W MPC

OF
f
VERTICAL SHAFT 2r 7 ". ._
ROCK MELTEX

CONTINUOUS HEAT PIPE

• ; ' • • • • ' • % • ' •

-IV •.'„.. "-

. . • • ' • , ! : ; .
tm&ONTAL ROCK MUTER
Fig.C-Z
Schematic diagrams of heat-pipe systems installed in two types of rock-melting penetmtan.

22
 REACTOR
KEAT PIPE

CONTROL
ROD

Fig.C-4.
Schematic diagram of a heat-pipe reactor incor-
porating the concept of a replaceable core.

Fig. C-3.
Schematic cross section of a typical reactor core for
use in a Nuclear Subtemne.
A reactor installation concept for a Nuclear Subter-
rene is sketched in Fig. C-4, which also illustrates a
scheme that could allow reactor replacement.

Initial Field-Test Unit

Concurrently with the laboratory experiments
discussed in the body of this report, design and construc-
tion of a relatively ambitious mobile shaft-melter should
be undertaken. Such a unit is sketched in Fig. C-S. It
might well be based on a commercial truck-mounted drill
rig large enough to handle several hundred meters of drill
pipe into and out of the hole. The commercial unit would
be modified by omitting the drill-rotation system, adding
a generator to supply electrical energy to the melting
penetrator, providing a mechanical- or fluid-pressure
system to exert a controlled downward force on the drill
stem, and providing circulating water and compressed air
to cool vulnerable parts of the down-hole equipment and
bore wall and, if necessary, to eject scoriae from the hole.
As design information was collected in the laboratory it
would be incorporated into the design of an electrically
heated pemssrator to be mounted at the end of the rigid
drill string. When the mobile unit had been completed and
fully iiutnimented, ft would be used in the field to
produce vertical holes in a variety of in situ rock
formations and sediments. It would be used for hardware Rg.C-5.
The initial electrically heated field-tot wilt.

23
development and demonstration and for determinations possible, for example, a Type 1 Subterrene to bore
of pressure and power requirements, penetration rates, large-diameter vertical shafts to limited depths.
the feasibility of the lithofracturing technique, the pro-
duction of uncased holes in unconsolidated ground, the
difficulties experienced in wet or porous ground, etc. Type 1 Subterrene
There are teawns to believe that an Electric
Subterrene of this general type may eventually be useful Tunnels intended for such applications as transpor-
commercially for producing vertical holes for such appli- tation, water supply, and sewage disposal will deliberately
cations as recovery of oil, gas, water, or steam, and avoid the higher-temperature regions of the earth's crust.
inclined or horizontal holes for ventilation, sewage dis- The Type 1 Subterrene is intended to product such
posal, and conduits for utilities. Whether such applica- tunnels as well as to provide the basis for developing the
tions materialize or not, the information collected from design features required for more difficult rock-melting
this first field-test unit will be essential for rational design tasks and environments.
of the more ambitious Subterrenes discussed below. If the temperature of the rock to be entered is
200°C or less and the geothermal gradient is normal
(20°C/km), the Type 1 Subterrene will operate at depths
Subterrene Development no greater than about 10 km and therefore at rock
pressures no greater than about 3 kbar. The relatively
The development of Subterrene technology beyond shallow and cool tunnels produced will be filled with air.
its initial stages may take any of several directions, With ventilation systems of the kind usually provided fcr
depending largely on the results of laboratory tests and tunneling operations, they can be entered by men
experience with the field-test unit discussed above. unencumbered by special life-support systems, so that the
However, based on the function and environment of the Subterrene will be accessible for maintenance, repair,
tunnel or shaft to be bored, it is possible to divide the modification, and direct control and guidance. Auxiliary
program into three successive phases. These represent electrical power, cooling water, and compressed air can be
increasing degrees of difficulty in design, material selec- brought directly to it.
tion, construction, and control, and of temperature and The major components of the Type I Subterrene
pressure of the rock to be penetrated. Although each will will be:
evolve into the next, three specific types of Subterrenes
can be identified corresponding to these phases, and 1. The rock-melting penetrator, operating at a
representing successive stages in developing a self- surface temperature of perhaps 1150°C.
contained Nuclear Subterrene finally capable of produc-
ing large notes in and beneath the earth's crust. These 2. An electrical heat source, subsequently replaced
three types are: by a nuclear reactor, operating at about 15O0°C.

Type 1. A tunneling Subterrene for production of 3. Heat pipes to transport thenus! energy from the
open tunnels in rock at low temperatures and pressures. heat source to the penetrator.
Initially this would be electrically powered, and subse-
quently powered by a nuclear reactor. It would produce 4. A prime mover and thruster to advance the
large, long tunnels in rocks at temperatures no greater Subterrene against the rock race.
than about 200*C, depths no greater than about 3 km,
and pressures no greater than about 1 kbar. 5. A control, guidance, and service module.

Type 2. A hot-tunnel Subterrene. This would be a 6. At least initially, a materials-handling system to

nuclear-powered unft & signed to bore huge, long tunnels remove rock debris. Feasibility of the Httoftacturing
at depths and pressures similar to those encountered by technique, demonstrated early in the campaign of the
the Type 1 Subterrene, but at rock temperatures up to mobile field-test unit, would allow this feature of the
about SOO'C. Type 1 Subterrene to be eliminated.

Type 3 . The deep-probe Nuclear Subterrene. This is A design concept for a Subterrene intended to
visualized as a nuclear-powered device, ultimately self- produce a tunnel about 7 m in diameter is shown in Fig.
contained, that could operate at very high rock tempera- C-6. (No attempt has been made to show detailed
tures and pressures. It would bn designed to bore to component designs, and the configurations shown are
depths greater than 3 km, and eventually of 30 km or intended primarily to indicate problem areas and to
more. suggest general design solutions.) In this cats, the unit is
not intended to accomplish lithofmcturing, but rather is
These three types of Subterrenes are discussed individual- designed for minimum energy contumption and maxi-
ly in the sections that follow. Many variations of them are mum recovery of the rock beir<g penetrated. To maintain

24
 SUBTEUENE

HEAT
PIPES

GjWTJMJL
TWtMEi.

METERS

SECTION A - A SECTION A'-A'

Fig.C-6.
Design concept of a Type 1 Nuclear Subterrene equipped for continuous debris removal

25
 the rigidity required of the penetrator, its honeycomb Table C-I lists some significant parameters for this
structure must occupy about 20 to 25% of the cross- Type 1 Subterrene. Obviously, it is a very ambitious
sectional area of the tunnel, so that about this fraction of tunneling machine, and it is both larger and more
the rock m-jt be melted. Some of the melt will be complex than would be attempted early in the program.
back-extruded around the periphery of the penetrator and Once perfected, however, it would have broad usefulness
will glass-line the tunnel. However, most of it will flow and would be an ideal test vehicle for sorting the
backward through openings in the penetrator structure as problems associated with the Type 2 Subterrenes.
glass coatings on unmelted cores that would represent
about 75 to 80% of the rock. To facilitate handling, these
cores must be broken into short lengths which, in the Type 2 Sobteneae
figure, is accomplished by a core-breaker constituting the
forward end of a helical conveyor. (A simpler solution The most exciting possibility of a rock-melting
may be to design kinks or bends into the pass-through penetrator is its potential ability to bore into rocks at
channels of the petKtntor.) temperatures of the order of 500*C. Indeed, the melting
The nuclear heat source for such a reactor would be operation itself wiO become easier as the rocks being
required to produce about' 50 MW of power and to penetrated become hotter, because their initial tempera-
cperate continjoudy at *bout 1500°C. It WOMM be tures mU be closer to their melting ranges. High temper-
constructed of a refractory metal (perhaps tungsten or ature, however, introduces difficulties that affect the
Nb-1% Zr alloy), heavily armored, shielded with thick configuration and design details of the Nuclear Subter-
reflectors-insulators (perhaps of BeO), and cooL*4 by rene. In particular, (1) access to the Subterrene wiD be
refractory metal heat pipes with lithium as the working strictly limited, and either robots or complex, insulated,
fluid. To reduce radiation-streaming, the heat pipes would life-support systems will be required; (2) only minima]
be brought through the shield and armor in optically communication to the surface and service un&iicals from
blocked paths, and the external radiation level should be it will be possible; and (3) a l rock removed from the
very low. working face wiO be very hot, and its handling and
The thruster sketched in Fig. C-6 is similar to some removal will be exceedingly difficult.
used in existing rotary boring devices. It incorporates a Conceptually, at least, lhhofracturing-dtscussed in
double-compression lock-on to the tunnel walls and a Appendix D-cftas an attractive solution to the materiah
hydraulic forward thruster required in this case to provide handling problem. This technique wiO probably require a
controllable force of about 7 x 10* kg (15.4 x 10* 1b). A pointed or wedge-shaped bit, with very high pressures
sequential lock-unlock action produces continuous for- imposed on its sloping surfaces by a thruster. The pressure
ward motion with essentially uninterrupted thrust. (It levels required are of the order of the rock overburden
may be possible to purchase a commercial tunneling pressures which, for tunneling situations of the type
machine, without the boring head and rotary drive, to anticipated for die Type 2 Subterrene, are up to about
serve as a body for this type of Subterrece.) 700 bar (10,000 psi). Hie structural problems of such t
Debris removal in the Subterrene of Fig. C-6 is pmetrator are formidable, but they appear to be solvable.
accomplished by a breaker-pickup at the penetrator end, If the rate of forward advance, cone angle of die
feeding a helix inside a tube (an internal stoker). A penetrator, and crack-propagation and fracture character-
relatively slow rotation of the helix can move broken rock istics of the rock are favorable, it appears probable that all
at a high rate relative to the velocity of the Subterrenc. rock melted in making the tunnel can be forced into die
The tube containing the helix can therefore be small fractured rock surrounding die tunnel. If so, die problem
relative to the Subterrene diameter to sweep the debris of debris removal will have been solved, and a significant
past the reactor and other structures. With a materials breakthrough in tunneling and boring will have been
handling system of this type, it may be necessary to accomplished.
provide a water spray to cool the mixed rock. Thus, if Design details of a Type 2 Subterrene are neces-
25% of the rock is melt-id at 1200°C and tfiii is mixed sarily more speculative than are those presented above for
with the other 75% at 230°C, the mean temperature cf a Type 1 unit. Figure C-7 presents a conceptual design of
the mixed rock will stfU be above 500°C. To cool the a Type 2 Subterrene equipped for Udtofncturing. No
man of rock removed from a 7-m-diam tunnel to 200°C debris-handling machinery is required, but the prime
will require a water flow of about 400 liters/min (120 mover, thruster, and penetrator must be substantial
gal/min). An ingenious idea is needed to recapture the structures, and much of die hardware must operate
waste thermal energy of the melted rock and make it uncooled at temperatures of about SOO'C. Control and
usable in the Subterrene. guidance systems must be self-contained and remotely
The least well-defined component of this unit is tin. controlled, and telemetered communications will be
service module, which must provide control, guidance, essential.
services, surveillance, power, etc. Conceivably, the module Data are given ia Table C-II for a Type 2 Nuclear
could be occupied by a human operator if a modest Subterrene of this general design capable of producing a
life-support system were provided. tunnel 2 m in diameter hi hot rock at an advance rate of

26
 TABLE C-I

SUMMARY OF DATA FOR A TYPE 1 SUBTERRENE EXCAVATING A TUNNEL

OF ~ 7 m DIAMETER AND PROGRESSING AT A RATE OF 100 m/day

Quality Approximate Magnitude

Maximum Depth <3km

Maximum Rock Temperature <200°C

Total Rack Mas Flow ~ 10 xlO 6 kg/day (4.0 x 10 3 m 3 /day) = 10,000 tons/day

Power Required to Melt 25% of Rock ~50MW

Velocity of Subtenene 100 m/day = 12 ft/hi

Force Required on Melting Bit ~ 7 x 10 6 kg = 15.4x 10 s fb = 8000tons

Heat Flux Required at Bit Surface ~500W/cm 3

Rock-Cooling Water Flow Required

to Cool Rock Mass to ~ 200°C 2 gal/sec = 14 Ib/sec = 7 kg/sec

100 m/day. Its application might be in continuing an nearly 10 ktoar (about 145,000 psi). Design details of a
access tunnel produced by a Type 1 Subterrene to the Subterrene to operate under such extreme conditions are
periphery of a shallow geothermal energy reservoir. After necessarily men less definite than are ehose for Type 1
the Type 1 device had been withdrawn, or had followed a and Type 2 Subterrenes. It may be necessary to abandon
circular path back to the original tunnel, the self- the concept of a mechanical thnister as the prime mover
contained Type 2 drace would be advanced to the rock and to provide the thrust required for litbofncturing
face and, on command, would extend the tunnel into the either by fluid pressure controlled from the surface or by
high-temperature region. After the hot tunnel had been the weight of a drill stem above the penetntor. A fluid
completed and the Type 2 Subtenene withdrawn, it circulation system may be needed to cool the gfasc lining
might be necessary to increase the heat-transfer surface by the hole so that, even at great depth, it can resist closure
hydrofracturing, using high-pressure water. If so, hydro- by creep of the surrounding rock. A fluid-flow system for
fracturing would be greatly facilitated by the presence of recovering rock samples may therefore be needed.
fracture zones already created by lithofracturing. Figure C-8 is a schematic of a Type 3 Subterrene,
design and guidance for which would be based on data
from the truck-mounted, field-test unit and'the Type 2
Type 3 Sub&mne Subterrene. Mechanical structures, control, and guidance
will all be major engineering problems. The unit illus-
Ultimately, a rock-melting Subterrene should be trated has a sharp taper of about 10 to 1 to facilitate
possible that can probe very deeply into, and perhaps lithofracturing. Thrust is provided by a nonrotating pipe
beneath, the earth's crust to develop geothermal energy in string combined with a fluid-pressure scheme. A down-
regions where geothermal gradients are normal, and to hole pump is used to provide coolant out-flow through a
extend direct geologic and geophysical exploration to the porous metal wall on the cylindrical section behind the
upper mantle under the continents. Beneath the Colorado penetrator to chill the glass lining of the shaft. Provision
Plateau, the Mohorovicic discontinuity is at the anoma- for continuous geophysical sampling could probably be
lously shallow depth of about 30 km, which is a natural made by leaving a flow-through opening in the penetrator
goal for penetration by the Type 3 Nuclear Subterrene. and adding a core extractor. However, to allow access for
At a depth of 30 km, the normal geothermal experiments, it may be desirable to design the Type 3 unit
gradient (20°C/km) would result in rock temperatures of so that the heatet system can be withdrawn from the
about 600°C, and the overburden pressure would be penetrator shell, while fluid pressure is maintained to
support the wail of the hole.

27
 SUBTEUENE

I
CMCK EXTENDER
AND
MELT OUTFLOW
UL CASER
AND UNER

SECTFJN A - A
SECTION A'-A'
Fig. OZ
Design concept of a Type 2 Nuclear Subtermie intended for tunneling In hot rock and equipped for
Itthofmcttiring.

28
 TABLE C-II

SUMMARY OF DATA FOR A TYPE 2 SUBTERRENE MELTING A TUNNEL

2 m DIAMETER AT THE RATE OF 100 in/day
AND USING THE LITHOFRACTURING TECHNIQUE OF MELTED-ROCK DISPOSAL
Quantity Approximate Magnitude

Maximum Depth <3km

Maximum Rock Temperature <600°C

Rock Mass-Melting Rate 8 x 10s kg/day (314 m3/day) = 800 tons/day

Power Requirement* ~15MW
Force on Pcnetrator ~ 18 x 10* 1b = 9000 ton = 8.2 x 10* kg
Lithocracking Pressure at Cone Tip ~ l k b a r = ! 5,000 Ib/in*
Heat Flux at Penetrator Surface -50W/cm»

'Assuming thai all of the rock it melted.

It is apparent that some very difficult scientific and

engineering problems will be involved in the development
of the Nuclear Subterrene. In particular:
• The high heat fluxes at the melting face of the
penetrator can be provided only by heat pipes. High-
temperature, refractory-metal heat pipes must be adapted
to this purpose.
• Small, high-temperature, high-energy-density
nuclear reactors ere required, having fast neutron spectra
and provision for cooling by heat pipes. Such reactors are
now being developed for other purposes, but new designs
will be needed for Subtecrcnes.
• Very rugged refractory structures and compo-
nents will be required to operate for long periods at very
high temperatures. Their design and fabrication will
extend existing technology to its limits.

• Control, guidance, and communications systems

for self-contained Subterrenes present extremely difficult
problems.

• For Subterrenes that do no* utilize lithofnetur-

ing, a scheme i» needed to reclaim u much as poatible of
the energy deposited in the melted portion of the rack
debris. Even when lithofiacturtng is used, some cooling of
the glass bore lining will be required and, again, recovery
and utilization of this waste heat would produce a
desirable increase in efficiency of the boring operation.

Fortunately, a sequence of logical development

steps can be defined to accomplish these design objec-
tives, and a program of laboratory investigations and field
tests can be outlined to collect the data required to build
Flg.C-8. and operate progressively more advanced Subterrenes.
Schematic of a Type 3 Nuclear Subterrene.

29
 APPENDIX D

LITHOFRACTURING AND ROCK MECHANICS

In all drilling, tunneling, and shaft-sinking, a major where y is the average density of the overlying reck and h
source of delay, difficulty, and expense is the very as the vertical distance from the earth's surface to the
troublesome operation of removing the rock fragments point being considered. (In this notation, compressive
broken away from the working face. One of the most stress is considered negative.)
promising features of a rock-melting system is that it The horizontal components of stress, Ou, are lew
offers the possibility of completely eliminating debris than the vertical stress, to which they are related by either
removal. It would accomplish this by lithofracturing, the
technique of producing and extending cracks in solid rock °H =<7 X =
"y - voz/(l-»), the Elsslk Law, (D-2)
around the bore by means of tithostatic pressure de-
veloped in molten rock ahead of the advancing Subter- or
rene. All molten rock not used in glass-lining the bore
would be forced into these cracks, where it would freeze °H = °X (D-3)
and remain. Only solid cores saved for geologic and the Inelastic Law,
geophysicaS investigations would be transported back to
the surface. where i> is Poisson's ratio for rock and f is the internal
This appendix reviews some bask aspects of rock friction coefficient for rock (0,3 to 0.7). At least in a
stresses and rock mechanics, and provides background preliminary analysis, the rock may be assumed to behave
information on the lithofracturing concept. The actual elastkaUy, and Eq. (D-2) can be used. Lflce most other
conditions under which cracks form and extend in solid brittle materials, rocks have properties such that 0.1
rock and the mechanisms and parameters of the flow of < c < 0 . 2 5 , so that (from the eEastk b w ) o H will range
molten rock can, of course, be established only by between about 0.11 o> and about 0 J 3 o 2 . Since rock
laboratory experiments and Held tests. However, an densities are of the order of 2.5 g/em', the vertical stress
elementary analysis of the lithofracturing process is gradient due io the overburden will be approximately
possible, and the results of this analysis support the -25 g/cm 1 per centimeter of depth, or - 0 . 2 5 bar/n<,
feasibility of the technique.

Strews in Rocks Distant from the Excavation

lithostatk Conditions. The nominal stress field in

rock relatively deep in the earth's crust is represented by
the compressive state produced by the mass of rock above
the particular region of interest. This overburden, or
lithostatk, stress field will exist undisturbed only in areas
that are technically relaxed and are unperturbed by such
local inhomogeneities as gas or liquid bubbles, faults,
intrusions, and high thermal gradients. In such non-
nominal situations, the local structure and stress state
must be examined individually.
To illustrate the magnitudes of overburden stresses
at depth, it is convenient to refer to the coordinate
system shown in Fig. D-l, where the XY plane is
horizontal and the Z-axis it vertical. The compressive
stresses at a point deep in the rock are directly propor-
tional to the mass of the overlying rock, and increase
linearly with depth. Mathematically, the axial (vertical) COMPRESSIVE
component of the overburden stress, o%, is given by STRESS STATE
o z --tfi , (D-l) The nominal sum jttkt in rock dt depth kbenmih
the earth's su/fitce.

30
and the gradient or horizontal stress will be between been introduced into the lithostatic stress Held, and the
about -0.028 and -0.083 bar/m. For example, at a hole has been filled with a gas or liquid to produce an
depth of 3 km in rock whose mean density is 2.5 g/cin3 internal fluid pressure P o . At the wall c f the hole this
and whose Poisson's ratio is 0.2, the components of the internal pressure directly opposes that horizontal com-
lilhostatic stress field are ponent of lithostatic pressure I ( o H , Eq. (D-2)] exerted
radially, and this opposing pressure is transmitted elasti-
az = - 750 bar = ~ 0.75 kbar ( - 10,900 psi), cally through tnt solid rock around the hole. However,
the stress perturbation in the rock faUs off rapidly with
o H = - 190 bar = - 0.19 kbar ( - 2700 psi). radii! distance r from the center of the hok, and the
radial stress in the wall rock is given by
Pressurized Borehole. The relatively simple slate or
compressivc stress in deep rocks will be perturbed locally (D-4)
by any discontinuity, such as a shaft or tunnel melted by
a Sublerrcne. One of the simpler and more Uluminaiing The tangential stress prodursd at the surface of the hole
situations is the local stress condition produced by a by the internal pressure is additive to that produced by
vertical borehefc. Neglecting for the present the glass the horizontal component of iithostatte pressure, but
liner, any crscks or fractures around the hole, and any again the effect decays as (a/r) 1 with increasing distance
residual stresses or temperature gradients left by the into the rock, and the tangential stress in the wall rock is
Subterrene, the elastic stress slate is that UHisUaied by given by
Fig. D-2. Here a deep cylindrical hole of diameter 2a has

COMPRESSION

PREFERENTIAL
t
0RKNTATH3N

TENSION
COMPRESSION •""/a
(b)

in) p shemtklsimsmtetm
tmk mntmt ike hek; (e) the mmgat&d sum mte; (d) tmkal emekt J&nmd ty ikt Mwnwf
These stress distributions are indicated in Fig. D-2(b) and interesting that a water-filled hole would have an internal
(c). At distances of the order of 10 hole radii, the stress pressure at depth of approximately 0.4 of the overburden
perturbations have essentially died out, and the stress pressure.
situation has again become that represented by Eqs. (D-l) The situation for a horizontal tunnel is qualitatively
and(D4). the same as for a vertical shaft or borehole. The stress
The tangential stress in the wall created by internal state around the tunnel is more complex, but as internal
pressure is leniik, and so is opposite in sign to the pressure at the tunnel wall is increased one would expect
compressive stress represented by aH. Equation (D-S) cracks to form predominantly in vertical planes extending
therefore indicates that if sufficient internal pressure parallel to the tunnel axis.
(P o > 2ou) is developed in the hole, for example, by the
use of high-pressure pumps at the earth's surface the net Fracture Criteria for Rocks. As yet, little research
tangential stress in the wall will be positive, U . , tensile. has been directed toward determining the fracture crite-
Thus, from Eqs. (0-5), (D-2), and (D-l): rion for rocks under the conditions of higji hydrostatic
pressure and high tempcratute at depth. One notable
001 Po • 2«H - Po • 2vcz/(l - v) recent attempt has, however, been made by Cherry etal.
if (1968) to determine the strengths (onset of cracking) of
recks subjected to comptex stress states, and in particular
to high hydrostatic Odds. This work indicated that the
If » a 02. then the tangential stress PI the hole surface is oruet of fracture could be described by a quantity Y ,
which was found to increase with mean local hydrostatic
- 0 3 7 h - P e + 9JSo 2 . stress. The results for dolomite are shewn in Fig. D 4 ,
where the fracture parameter Y is plotted against magni-
tude of the mean stress at fracture.
Thus, the stress in the waJJ will just become tensile when
The current state of knowledge concerning the
internal pressure in the hole is approximately one>half the
fracture o f rock at depth has been reviewed by Fairhurst
overburden pressure. Since this tensile stress is tangential,
(1969). Cletrly, more study of rock fracture is needed for
a sufficient increase in internal pressure would be ex-
better than order-of-magnitude predictions of the stresses
pected to cause vertical cracks to appear in the wall, as is
required to initiate fracture at depth.
ffiostnted by Fig. O-2(d). The tensile strengths of rocks
« e low, of the order of only 40 to tOObarfSQOto 1500
psi). The pressure required te a deep hole to form cracks
in f » wall is therefore generally less than the overburden
pressure. This conchistoR is substantiated by extensive oB
field experience in hydfofneturing. The hydrofraeturiflg
data of Fig. D>3 demonstrate that, at least down to about
3.6 km in sedimentary rocks, the rock breakdown
(fracture) pressure is from about 0.44 to about 0.75 times
the overburden pressure (Harrison a at, 1954). it is

• COWMESSION
• EXTENSION
• TORSION

4 6 8 K>
MEAN STRESS (*»)
MOTH (») fCCT m «*»
Ftg.D-3.
The hydntmtic pressure required to produce The fmcture parameter Y for dolomite as a function
kydmfmmriHg « « fjnciton of the overburden #f man stress atflvcture. t'Adapted from Cherry et
pressure at the lemti u wMehfimetureeeetirred. al, 19681
i tf L, 1954).
 Near-Field Stresses-Crack Extension

The discussion above indicates that stresses applied

to a borehole or tunnel are local, and that their influence
would be expected to be significant only within a region
whose diameter was of the order of 10 times thz' of the
hole. Now it is instructive to review the near-Held stress
slates, to consider the thermal field and the thermal-stress
field around a hole being produced by melting, and to
discuss what is known about the extension of cracks in
rocks.

Thermal Boundary Layers and Thermal Stresses.

Most rocks are good thermal insulators. The effects of an
abrupt change in surface temperature or of a heat flux
suddenly applied to a rock surface will in general not Fig. D-5.
penetrate either very rapidly or, unless the time scale is Penetration into granite of the temperature wave
tor j , very deeply. from a bore surface whose temperature has been
For example, suppose that a cylindrical hole 2 m in raised abruptly by 10000C
diameter exists in a semi-infinite body of granite having
the following typical properties (IngersoU ctaL, 19S4):

Thermal conductivity = 1^ = 0.0065 cal/cm-sec-°C

16
Specific Heat =<C p «0.l9cal/g-°C
14
Density 9 = 2.7 g/cm s 12
Thermal Diffusivity = 10 = 0^I27cm 2 /sec. 10
8
Suppose thai the surface temperature of the hole, T, it
suddenly raised from 100 to ItOO'C, w.'ich is approxi- 6
mately the melting temperature of granite. To determine 4
the temperature of the surrounding rock as a function of
time and of dimensionless radial distance, r/a, from the 2
hole, the parameter of interest is the ttondimensional 1 1 1 1
2 5
Fourier number (Schneider, 1963) 0.1 1.0 10 IO IO I04
Fo»(D/aa)t , (D-7) TIME, HRS,

where time, t, is in seconds. For the rock properties Fig.D-6.

assumed, Time required for a 20 C temperature rise to occur
in granite at various radial distances from a bore
Fo*1.26xl0"*t . surface whose temperature has been raised abruptly
by IMlfC
Roughly, this is (iic stale factor cf time for a "thermal
wave" to move out into the granite. Progress of the
thermal wave is illustrated in Fig. D-5. In 1 h It has thermkl perturbation in the earth caused by passage of a
penetrated only about one hole radius from the hole rock-melting penetntor is extremely local.
surface, and for the temperature wave K reach 10 hole The insulating properties of rock illustrated above
radii would require something like 40 d / s . Alternatively, are of great importance to the rock-melting concept.
the results of this calculation can be expressed in terms of Unmelted rock in the immediate vicinity of the pene-
the time required for rock at a specified distance from the trator forms a thermal blanket that minimizes the energy
hole lo rise in temperature by a given amount, as hag been ion by unnecessary heating of rock farther from the hole.
done in Fig. D-6. To raise the rock temperature 20°C at a It is necessary to heat only a thin layer of rock, and not
distance of one hole radius from the heated surface will the whole earth.
require about 20 h, and at 5 hole radii this will require An estimate of the heat loss above that required to
several hundred hours. Such results indicate that the melt rock adjacent to the penetntor face can be made by

33
 considering the rate at which heat must be transferred TEMPERATURE OF
laterally from the moving heat source to raise the surface UN0ISTURKO
ROCK MASS
of the urunelted rock to its melting temperature. This is ROCK
approximately the heat flux required to flow through the SURFACE
layer of melted rock, and so is an estimate of the rate of
heat loss to unmelted rock beyond it. Using the example
of the Type 2 Subterrene described in Appendix C,
together with the thermophysical properties of granite,
the analysis shows that this heat flux is only about 2
W/cm 2 , or about 4% of the SO W/cm 2 required to melt
the rock. Heat transferred to solid rock ahead of the
Subterrene will subsequently be utilized as the Subterrene
advances, and only that conducted laterally will be lost.
Much of the lateral heat loss wilt be derived from molten
rock bsck*extruded from ahead of the Subterrene, so that
melting efficiency may in fact be considerably hither than
this calculation indicates.
Since the thermal perturbations are restricted to
very thin layers adjacent to rock surfaces, the thermal
stresses generated in rock near the heated (or chilled)
surface are easily estimated. For this situation, the
magnitude e f t h i thermal stress can be estimated from the
simple relation

°iha (To"1*)
where o t h * thermal stress, kg/cm 1 ,

a * mean coefficient of thermal expansion, °C* Ftz.D-7.

1
(a) A borehole surface which is abruptly heated or
E = elastic modulus, kg/cm . cooled; (b) biaxial compression developed at a
heated surface, which can cause spotting; (c) biaxial
v = Poisson's ratio, tension developed at a chilled surface. HAfc/t can
cause cracking.
To = temperature of undisturbed rock mass, °C,
and
T$ temperature of the rock surface, °C. thermal stress sufficient to cause tensile cracking. Spallirtj
appears to require a temperature difference about 10
The temperature gradients that cause thermal stresses are times this great, reflecting the fact that t h * comprcssto
illustrated in Fig. P-7. I f the surface is heated to abeve strengths of rocks (800 to 2500 kg/cm*) are much higher
the mean temperature of the suriuundins rock, the stress than their tensile strengths.
state is biaxial compression; if the surface is cooled, ii I* Maurci ( I 9 6 S ) hss reviewed the genera) situation of
biaxial tension. The magnitude of such stresses can be both spacing and !*nsk>n cracking as methods of breaking
indicated by substituting into Eq. (D-8) the following rocks.
typical rock properties:
Crack Extension in Reck. Of particular interest to
5=8xlO"*°Cl , the probable success of the rosk-melting penetraior is the
lithofreciuring concept, which requires that the high
E « 10* kg/cm* , interface pressures produced by the thrust of the pene-
traior form, openr and extend cracks in the solid rock
» -0.2. adjacent to the hole, and squeeze most of the pressurized
melt into these cracks.
With these substitutions, The basic facts or fracturing (Hubbert et at., 1957)
and crack extension (Harrison et«/., 1954) in rock by
o th sKXT o -T t )«±10AT. hydraulic pressurizatlon of a hole in the rock have been
well established. The available evidence indicates that,
Since the tensile strengths of rocks are of the order of 40 once a crack is opened in rock at depth, the crack will
to 100 kg/cm 3 , a A T of only 4 to !0°C may create extend over a large area and open wide enough to produce

34
 a large fracture volume. Harrison el a!. (1954) conclude: under the action of pressure P o imposed by a liquid that
". . J I large majority of pressure-induced well bore extends into the crack. Available solutions fot the
fractures are vertical, particularly in deeper wells; and liquid-rilled crack (Sncddou and Lowengrub, J969) indi-
variations in the pressures necessary to create and extend cate that estimates of crack volume U. width B. and
fractures can be explained largely on the basis of stress-intensity factor at the crack ran, s. will be given by
established rock properties. It is also shown that varia-
tions due JO tectonk forces should usually be expected to
be slight. Other results indicate that during the extension
of fractures rather large fracture volumes are.. .created by
the parting of the formation."
Verification of the snck-extensiGn behavior of
rocks pressurised hydraulically and of the fracture vol-
umes produced have been obtained in wells at Oak fttdgt
National Laboratory. The ORNL dais have bees analysed
by Sun (1969) of the U. S. Geological Survey, who feusd
reasonable quantitative agreement between these experi- Here & P » F ss - t 7 r W ( l - » ) is the net
p pressure « excess of
mental results and theoretical models o f ctack-exsensSon h horfzontM
the h th
tiiheitstk i
compression, andd theh crack
k
radii, crack widths, and crack volumes. Specifically, it was to A f .
dimemions are noted to b* Kncarty
demonstrated that the creels formed from a borehole 10 An indkaiion of the net pressure requited is extend
cm in diameter extended outwards to distances o f SO to a eraek is obtained from • ojusfitify C, the module of
60 m, Le., crack depths were 500 io 600 times the hols cehesioR sf s material, dttinud by
dismeter. Crack widths were small, o f the order o f i em.
These dimensions were in good agreemtas wish those
calculated from theoretical analyses of the extension o f
pressurized, liquid-filled cracks.
The physical situation of such a crack is tttttstrsttd
in Fig- DA. Here « circular crack4 o f radH I? is shown C has apparently not been determined for rocks. I f it is
extending outward from a borehole or lutiad t f radius £ truly a comma, the* Cq. ( I M 2 ) indicates tint iht tonfw
a eisck, the tower the net prcswrt required to extend it.
The volumes of cracks of several dincfCM ajeom-
*Tfce ciistk fjxiure-werfwates wtfcutoe* Mteate IRSI dw crack etrits, formed n gwnfc* hsvfef the prepenies listed
JJHJX * i « actuatl; be *» t*ta» * * of «Uipika9 waw ttcikm. •bevfv are Indkated in Table I M - T R C S * results stew gtss
tower pmsurcs are icqabvd to f « m veiy long, I M R cracks
than to form short, wide ones, and that the lent, thin
cracks have unexpectedly large vadtnes. ForcoinBtfisBn,
a 3-«t teflfih of s note 2 m in dimeter nas a votane «rf
anty 3.14 m 1 .

The prte«diatdfa«tie}owsBiveettiMbnt<t tnelwies

requires to develop the Wnoiractttring (s&notpt. Briefiy« it
is BostuiateJ thai a reck nwltim iwnetntor o f proper
shape sm be provided wfth wfffcfent tnrwi io erack iJw

prcswre w n (orcc tne melted rocs into ifeete crackst nst

the prcaMtriuv n w i flowing into sent wfll nrtner exscoel
the cracksi and Snai cowiwusttefj o f incsc proocsais w f l
produce a crack volume SHtitdtnf to S C C O M M C S M the
mdi H so that a ghsvlined note is prodwetd conti!nlnj no
rock deoris* in support or tnis concept* ine fonowina]
information KSvaMDle*
tWNtRWIc WTWIt
or o«j«aum» STMCSSM I. It is know) that, under iks action of a Heated
UNCtlTURKO NOCK
pcnctratOTt rock mete wio a vjicows, eJaatWce Kqufcl
whose densily »sngrtfiy lea then thai of tfce rrystaiint
The extensim of* circular cmck from a prtxturited T^p^fr^^ ^»^BHHB^P w^^e*^^B^aflff& ^^T^wfl^fra ^w^^^TB^as^a^ ajev^f^Ba^ea>v^vB^ '•^^^ew* i i ^ ^ r ^ m 9^^f^^J^f

hok.

35
 TABLE D-l

CALCULATED DIMENSIONS AND VOLUMES OF CRACKS FORMED IN GRANITE

Crack
Oacfc Crack Volume,
Radius, Lg, Width, B, u.
m em m» kg/e (Ib/hi3)

5 0.2 0.11 165 (2300)

10 03 1.05 200 (2300)
20 1.0 8.0 200 (2300)
JO 1.0 52.0 80 (MS0)
100 2.0 420 80 (1.150)

radially to openings in the peneteator and lo i » periphery, remain thin, seldom exceeding I to 2 cm in width, bui if
*nd backward through such openings and into any attikknt pressurized fluid is provided they will extend
over larje distances, which may he hundreds of hole
forms a |tas that can be handkd as a solid, and produces diameters. Therefore, the volume of sueh a crack system
a csfliinuous and adherent lintag on the wad of tte note. can be very large.

2. Molten rock flows wkhoiii slipping at« viscous 6. Rock-meittas &&*> which raelt rock but do noi
fluid in the vkmity of a hot surface. Near a cold surface develop :be pressures needed for fracturing, have been
th* melt cannot adhere, m& frictions) slipping oestus. At built and successfully operated. The principles of such
fntemadiaie temperatures, a bond can form between (be devices are understood, several functional designs have
pcaetnior and the gttss. However, with pfopcr design the bum tested, ttnd the bases for new and improved designs
iramMion region in which this occurs can be matt* very exist.
narrow m that the bond can be broken by relatively weak
shearing forces. Within this framework, and ta advance of actual
operating experience, what can be expected to happen
3. The general effects of pressure on viscosity are when s MgMemperatttre. Ngn-thrua. rockHmdiing pene>
know*, ft is afse known that water vapor lowers the iretor is forced into solid rock?
At least in its more advanced versions, the melting-
suflkfent to prcvtft! escape of carbon dioxide ptrmUs a penetraior teelf is visualised as a conical or wedge-shaped
carbonate rack, such as a iJHWtano, to be melted at the body (Appendix C, Figs. C<? and C-9% As the penamtor
relatively low melting temperature of the carbonate is forced «to the rock, a thin Mm of gbst^ke melt forms
instead of the much higher one of the oxide. Under even «wer its hat surface. This Arid serves as a viscous pra-
moderns) pressure, ttstt melts C M probably be produced me-traMmiiiiflg medium to convert the axial thrust of
from csantially aH typeset natww rocks at temperatures the penetrator ( M O uniformly distributed hydrostatic
wifhiit A t operating capability of a melting penetntof. pressure on the wall of the hole, represented by f9 in Fig.
D9. Stresm wg| be very Mflfc in rock at the lip of &e

hwdaiors. Very (Mile of the heat tarodwead by the of the sock should start there. l« general, the cracks
would be ftxptcted t»* dewfap w diametrically opposed
meted rack. Timanaitiie oidltnti wiH be Mali in rack pairs, as indicated in Fig. D-10. Woken rock foreaS into
HyKmi tp m mm WHKR is M R H or cooMit mcnmi the crack wouM te*e heat to the crack surfaces, frectc as *
*i*m *m alto be Wgh, a*d sptWng ani enckmt m glass at some distance from the penctrator, and prop we
Ww|y Wftwwr hi wchtflf tewtfiinni"ttfwi mlitinti. crack open. If the flow of molten rock were stopped by
such phigSa thest the watts of the (wjehole wouM again be
S. The tensile stfCHifhs of rocks aft low. As a subjected to huge blent hydrostatfe forces. Either 'he
result* moderate hydfattifc pressure M IS M W or tunfleJ can ^W^^BP^H^H ^frY^Bfft^R^V ^W^^^aj^V^pf ^c-vFr^V-^^r^nv^^p> W ^ ^P^FWSSIV^^PSF ^^np ^^Bi^^p^Ktr^V S^n^^^Bt

canes MMNe cracking M the adjaceM rack. Prsmtrfied width, permitiing die melt to flaw past the previous phtf.
fluWeftiertng the cracks produces tag* lateral forees that «e new pairs of cia«ksw«uld develop and start fiB
tend to open thewi, tot high itren cowctntraikmi at their mdi.
rims which tend to extend them. In geKtrai, the crack*
 . ROCK MEITING The processes of crack initiation, crack enlarge-
^PENETRATOR BIT ment, and crack filling may be either continuous or inter-
mittent. In the latter case, these processes might either be
locally intermittent or might occur during a crack-enlarge-
ment period alternating with a flowing and freezing phase.
An intermittent behavior, particularly if accompanied by
temporary borJing of glass to the intermediate-
temperature region o f the penetrator surface, might result
in a jerky forward motion of the advancing penetrator.
P . . UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED I f the cricks become sufficiently numerous to inter-
PRESSURE ON SURFACE act thermally, there will be a general rise in temperature
OF PENETRATOR
of the unmelted rock between the cracks. Heat deposited
in this way in the region ahead of the penetntor will
P . , REACTION ON ROCK
reduce the energy later required to melt the rock in that
region, and so will eventually be used as the penetrator
BOREHOLE OK advances. In the meantime, the temperature gradients will
TUNNEL create stress gradients That may result in additional crack-
ing and fragmentrfon, facilitating subsequent lithofrac-
turing and reducing the thrust required to produce it.
"''TVr ' *Vf£ 7>^v CRACK SMTIATiQN With such a variety o f concepts and possibilities, it
RECKON seems unlikely that any one solution will apply or any
Fig.D-9. single pattern of behavior will appear in ail rock forma-
Uihostatk pressure developed by a rock-nutting tions a melting penetntor may encounter. In particular,
penetntor. and cnck initiation in the region of its variations are expected with depth and with the thrust
tip. imposed by the penetrator, and natural zones o f weakness
in the rode, such as bedding planes, Mocky cleavages, and
nulls, win have effects that can be predicted only if the
local structure is known. Despite the difficulty of predict-
ing rock behavior in detail, it seems probable-if not, in
faci, necessary-that yielding and fracturing o f the rock
(a) will somehow occur to accommodate the volume o f melt
produced by the penetrator.
Grossly, the mechanical problem is simply that of
creating tensile forces sufficient to crack the rock by
producing corresponding compressive stresses on the
penetntor surface. The tensile strengths of rocks are
relatively low, and many refractory materials are available
MCS3U9C
for penetrator construction which have strength proper-
ties at rock-melting temperatures sufficient to sustain the
required compressive stresses. This problem can therefore
m a HILT souctma undoubtedly be solved. The quantitative detail of the
MHO «MC*
SECTION A - A solution, involving the Uroe-dependsnt processes of rock
rnehing, cnck formation, squeezing outflow o f melt,
cnck extension, freezing o f the melt, old-crack reopening,
new-civck formation, and progress o f the penetntor,
NCW MtLT *lfi» must u n i t experimental m u l t * and complete thermal
and mechanical analyse*. H o t ever, some qualitative
estimates of the probable penetretor action are potable.
The rate ot advance o f a rsck-mdting penetntor is
obviously governed by the n t e at which the rock is
melted, and this is contro&td by the power detfcered to
CITHER TMS
OR NEW the peattntor surface. Cracking of the rode and outflow
SECTiOH B-B CRACK M M o f the meh depend upon the thrust applied to the pene-
FORMS
trator. Receding the tip o f the penetntor wifi be a region
o f cracked and fractured rock. As the pemtntor enters
FltD-10. this region, it wiU start to squeeze molten rock from the
M The advancing nxk-metting pemtnuor; (b) a mrite4 byer adjacent to the psneirator surface into these
sectkm through rock turn the pmetmtor dp; (el a cracks. Since molten rock is relatively viscous and the
section tn the region of hate entmgmmi

37
 melt moves as a thin film along the penetrator surface, the of the pressurizing fluid were low.
circumferential pressure gradient will be high. It is there- An obvious question concerning this general con-
fore probable that a number of cracks will be extended by cept is: What is the net effect on the earth of creating this
Uqt 'i filling and pressurization instead of just one crack volume of cracks and squeezing out this quantity of glass
or one pair of cracks. The actual number will be governed into a previously solid rock formation? Essentially, a
by the nature of the original fracture zone produced by "tube" of voh'^trie strain (dilatation) is created around
the penetrator tip, the viscosity of the melt, and the the hole, extending outward approximately as far as the
velocity of the Subterrene, which represents the rate at cracks themselves extend. The increased bulk volume of
which melt is produced. Figure D-l 1 illustrates this prob- material in this tube tends to increase its diameter, but
able sequence of events.
The extent of the cracked and glass-filled region
around the hole will be determined by the number of
cracks generated and the volume of melted rock intruded TABLE D-U
into them. This is illustrated in Table D-II, which lists the
calculated average cirack lengths and spacings for various CRACK LENGTHS FOR A PENETRATOR MELTING
numbers ' f cracks produced by a Subterrene 2 m in A HOLE 2 METERS IN DIAMETER
diameter. Melt volume was assumed to be approximately
3 m 3 per meter of hole length, and net interface pressure
of 100 kg/cm2 was assumed to act on the penetrator Number Avenge Average
surface. of Crack Circumferential
Intuitively, it seems that the 6-cm spacing produced Cracks Length, m Crack Spacing, cm
when 100 cracks are formed represents a reasonable dis-
tance for circumferential flow of a rather viscous melt. 2 100 300
Probably, then, the usual case will be extension and filling 10 20 60
of a rather large number of relatively short cracks rather 4 12
than a few very long ones, as would occur if the viscosity so
100 2 6

EXTEN0ING CRACKS

(b)
KMTIM.
CRACK
0-
MiTTERN
SECTION A-A SECTION C-C
SECTION B - B

Fig.D-11.
(el Uthocracking by an advancing Subterrene; (b) initial crack pattern in the region ahead of the
penetrator tip: fc) theextending crack array;(d) the final cmck configuration.

38
 the increase is resisted by the solid rock around it. A laboratory investigation and field testing will reveal the
region of enhanced compressive stress, above the nominal details of these processes as they occur in a full-scale
compression produced by the overburden pressure, will be boring operation. Together, however, they offer the
created within another tube of rock somewhat larger than potential of a revolutionary advance in excavation
that in which dilatation has occurred. Only during the technique-borehole excavation without debris removal.
first few meters of penetration will there be a detectable This can be considered a direct response to the plea in a
effect at the earth's surface, and this will be a local bulge recent report of the National Research Council (1968):
at most a few millimeters high. At depth, the passage of
the Subterrene will leave behind a glass-lined hole sur- "The existing private mechanism for techno-
rounded by a limited region of enhanced compressive logical change is well developed, but it is largely di-
stress in which a volume increase has been accommodated rected toward the ingenious incremental changes in
by elastic strain of the rock and by collapse of any technique that are typical of competitive firms and
pre-existing voids. suppliers engaged in winning a larger share of a
This brief description of the extension of liquid- relatively fixed market. However, continued in-
filled cracks is based upon several known but distinct genious incremental improvements in technology
phenomena: initiation of cracking in rock at depth by a cannot so improve underground excavation that it
lubricated penetrator; crack extension and opening by a will become a realistic alternative to surface excava-
pressurized fluid (hydrofracturing); and the flow and tion for construction activities by the end of this
freezing of molten rock, as demonstrated in early experi- century. A radical change in the scope of thinking
ments with the LASL rock-melting drill. Only extensive about underground excavation is needed to achieve
that desirable goal."

39
 APPENDIX E

THE SOLUBILITIES OF NATURAL MINERALS IN HOT WATER

Most natural minerals have significant solubilities in pressure is circulated through fractured granite at the rate
hot water, which offers both possibilities and problems of 80 kg/sec, would be expected to dissolve and bring to
when underground circulation systems are considered. On the surface .ibout 3600 kg of minerals per day. Dissolu-
one hand, most commerce! ore bodies have been formed tion of these minerals would be expected to weaken the
by mineraS deposition from hot, aqueous, solutions, and granite and vicrease its permeability to the circulc'.ing
the process can be reversed to extract and recover these fluid, perhaps facilitating the extraction of its thermal
minerals. If a leaching operation is sufficiently selective or energy. Some enlargement of water-circulation channels
is applied to a sufficiently concentrated ore body, then a would result both from solution and from loosening of
geothermal energy development may also represent a particles which would be carried away in suspension in
profitable mining venture. On the other hand, the pres- the water. (Some of the early work on the solubility of
ence of significant concentrations of dissolved minerals in minerals was incorrect because it was not recognized that
the leed water to a power plant may require preliminary many minerals, or components of minerals, can form
processing of the water before steam flashed from it can colloidal suspensions and be transported by a fluid in
be allowed to go to the turbines. Unless the material much larger proportions than could be accounted for by
recovered from the water-treatment step has enough value true dissolution.) The general deterioration of the rock
to offset the additional processing cos1;, then the overall structure resulting from this type of attack should make
cast of power generation will be correspondingly in- further excavation easier wher it is desirable to extend
creased. tunnels or enlarge chambers.
Hie magnitude of this general problem is indicated Since one ton of average granite contains uranium
by the work of Kennedy (1944, 1950), Morey el al. and thorium equivalent in energy content to 50 tons of
(1951, 1962), Waserburg (1958), and Wetil and Fyfe coal (White, 1965), the recovery of these metals at the
(1964). These researchers have studied the solubilities of surface could represent a valuable by-product operation.
quartz and other minerals in water at temperatures to (It is interesting that a geothermal energy plant intended
600°C and pressures to 4 kbar. The conclusion w be to produce 10 MW of electricity, which could instead
drawn from their work is that, if the specific volume of have been designed to burn 100 tons of coal per day, has
water is kept constant as it is heated to above the critical the potential of recovering uranium and thorium at a rate
temperature (374°C), then there is no sharp change in
trend of the solubility vs temperature relations for min-
i I I I
erals such as quartz, albite, microcline, and enstatite. Thus
high-density supercritical steam seems to be as good a
solvent for minerals as is liquid wateir, and solubilities may
continue to increase during heating at constant volume to
tempeiat'ires distinctly above thai of the critical phe-
nomenon.
Quartz appears to be typical The mechanism of its
solution in water is described by the equation (Mosebach,
1957):

SsO2+2H;,O<*Si(OH)« .

Solubility-vs-tempsraturc curves for quartz in water at a

series of pressures are plotted in Fig. E-l, and demon-
strate that at pressures above about 750 bar solubility
increases smoothly with temperature to well above the 600
critical temperature. At very high temperatures and pres-
sures, the solub&ty of quartz in water is surprisingly ^ - VAPOR
PRESSURE
large, and this is also true of the solubilities of most other
natural minerals. Fig. E-l.
A geotRCTtuI energy system such as that described Iwbaric solubilities of quartz in water. (Adapted
m Appendix F, in which wateir at 250°C and 400 kg/cm2 from Kennedy. 1950).

40
equivalent in energy to 200 tons of coal per day.) It is, It is also evident that-whether the mineral recovery
however, unlikely that the minerals composing a granite is profitable or not-it will be necessary to treat water
would be dissolved nonsciectively, and so it is not clear from underground circulation systems to demineralize it
that the uranium and thorium would, in fact, be extracted before it can be used directly for power generation,
by a simple hot-water system. Nevertheless, the possibility domestic heating, and many other purposes. However, as
of leachinR : n place either as a direct mining operation or is suggested in Appeadix F, the alternative exists of ex-
as an adjunct to a geothermal energy development is tracting most of the thermal energy from the water in a
evident, and the selectivity of the operation could un- heat exchanger and then returning the water itself to the
doubtedly be increased by additions to the circulating underground system.
fluid of chelating or complexing agents, etc.

41
 APPENDIX F

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geotliermal energy (GTE), as the terni v, generally 1. Use long-term availability of these fuels at rea-
understood, represents that par: of the earth's thermal sonable cast -
energy thai can economically be converted into electricity
or other directly useful forms of energy. The require- 2. Air polliuiun produced by almost any combus-
ments of economics now limit exploitation of the earth's tion process.
natural heat to accessible regions in which targe quantities
of naturally occurring, high-quality steam have been dis- 3. Radiation hazards associated will* nuclear
covered. A detailed description of known sources ol' this reactors.
type, and of how they arc being utilized, appears in the
"Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on New 4. Thcnnai pollution of surface waters, by alinoM
Sources of Energy" (United Nations. 1964). The com- any type of power plant.
bination of geologic events needed to produce such a
natural source of steam is unusual, and the number of 5. Disposal of solid wasics. including ctm! ash sf>d
known sources is correspondingly small- This has some- contaminated reactor products.
times (cd to the conclusion that gcothermal energy lias
tittle chance of contributing significantly to the future Public concert: may eventually lead !o controls so
energy demands of the world (National Research Council, livo thai some or all of these fuels (eg., coal} will no
1969; Chem. & Eng. News. August 17, 1970). This longer be economical. This possibility and the rates >:
appendix challenges that conclusion, on the basis that the which known reserves (e.g., of natural gas) arc being
existence of an operating Sublerrene would make possible depleted make it uncertain that any one at' these fuels can
the economical exploitation of many underground qualify as the major energy source in 1990.
thermal-energy reservoirs not now considered to be useful
geoihermal energy sources.
The Advantages) of Gccihwrrul Energy
Energy Requirements and Sources
The question now to be considered is: Will gco-
According to Science News (August I. 1970), the thermal energy, if more widely developed, reduce these
installed electrical generating capacity in the United problems and not introduce new ones that arc equally
States at the end of 1969 was 315 gigawatts (I giga- serious? In this connection, it a known that:
watt = 10 6 kilowatts). If the forecast of the Federal
Power Commission is correct, the electrical power indus- 1. Steam now being obtained from gcothermal
try of the United States will be required to increase its sources is an economical source of thermal energy (Paper
generating capacity by a factor of almost 10 during the GR/3 |GJ in United Nations, 1964; Lessing, 5969).
tiext 30 years. There are, of course, also many require-
ments for energy in forms other than electricity, and 2. The experience of gcothcrmal energy plants i;i
these are increasing at similar rates. Italy, where noxious gasis arc present in the natural
According to Gambs (1970), the Federal Power steam, indicates that significant air pollution can be avoid-
Commission considers that the only commercial fuels ed in an operation of commercial scale (Paper G/S0 in
available to thermal power plants are coal, oil, natural gas, United Nations, 1964).
and uranium. His projection of the roles played by these
fuels is that by 1990 over 70% of the electrical energy of 3. A GTE plant presents no radiation hazard.
the United States will be produced from uranium, about
20% from oil and natural gas, and only about 10% from 4. Thermal pollution by waste heat is common to
coal, which is now the major power-plant fuel. all thermal energy plants, and must somehow be mini-
There are many reasons for concern over the eco- mized in each case. However, there are ways in which
nomic and environmental problems created by using these much of this heat can either be used or stored in the heat
fuels, which will evidently be multiplied many times if the sink represented by the cool upper region of the earth's
above projections are correct (Boffey, 1970; Lapp, 1970; crust.
Gambs, 1970). Some of the problems are:
5. In conventional GTE plants using natural steam,

42
there has been concern that stream* and riven would be Table F l Hut our estimates of the fosal and rate-
contanMnated by matsrtai brought to the surface by the able energy from each type of source in the continental
steam and retained ki the water condensed from it. Engi* United States, tl is apparent that a pessimistic forecast of
t*ercd GTE system* of the type discussed below will the role of gtotltcrniat energy would be made if~w has
require an inventory of water which inewases wfeh lime, normally been done-onry the energy of Type til and
» that r*o trumping of excess water will occur and this Type IV sources wmt eiMtkkrad to be economic ally
prabtem can be avoided. Alternatively, at is distuned in available. Type II so^KCSKfe much more {Meresting; they
Appendix E, the dissolved material can sometimes be could supply tht total electrical uqufaMnMls of die
recovered as a useful by-product. United States for ihoueands of years. Tbsy become Hatful
energy sources ai dfptns of about 3 km, wWche In cool
k is apparent that even widespread use of gfothtr- sedtowniary rocks, couM certaferfy bt twbti by comta*
mal energy would introduce no peculiar hamds and tional dilfilng methods. Howev«, these towces actually
would accomplish a majer and timely reduction in cnvjk exist is hoi, herd, igneous racks, which no coiivcMiowt
ronmertial pollution. The questions that remain are COB- drill of uscfuly tap dfamttcf is capable of ptwct'ating at
cetned with the magnitude and avaiabiliiy of CTE a reasonable rate. The existence of these emnHotts mergy
reserves, and the probability that they can be cxpio&cd reservoirs k we! known; it is Ike difftat&y of peMtntlng
aeam that bat so far prevented thdr exploMatkMi.
The uraem need of the United Stales for new
Geothi tjy cmrgy sources that win not aggravate the existing envi-
ronmental poVuiion crWs indisates that research on and
White (1965) classifies geothermat energy source* devdopmMt of artificial hyoYwhermal tnufff systems
into four categories, based on (he isothermal gradient and based on Type II gtothermai iou«es siwuid be concomi-
ihe presence or absence of circulating pound water. sant with Subtcrrene dewlopmeat. Tne foBowint exam-
pies are jHtRded to demonstrate that, is addition to
Type I sources are regions m which the geotherma) affording postfele soluilons to lh* existing electrical
gradient is normal (about 20aC/km). Temperatures great power and portion cites, a GTE system offers useful
enough to produce high-grade steam exist only at depths energy a other forms, and that Its comprahmaive exptoi-
of about 10 km or more, where there is probably no fret ittion could have a profound tfltet on future
water. This situation exists under most of the earth's
surface.
Type It sewces are local areas of higher than H n J e m s CsMen
normal geothermal gradient, which cannot at preseci be
exploited economically because the temperature and The town of Los Alamos, New Mexico, is situated
hardness of the rock make the source difficult to pen* at an elevation of about 7000 ft on a plateau cast of is*
irate and its low permeability prevents the ground-water extinct Jemex volcano. The geologic history of Utk
circutakm requited to produce natural steam. These are volcanic mass has been studied extensively, both for its
usually regions in wfcch there has been either volcanic inherent geologic significance and for the existence of
activity or intrusive flow in recent geologic lime. In the potential underground water supplies for the town (Ross
United Stales, such sources are common in the West, and tl tl., 1961: Conow w a/., 1963; Griejs, 196*). Briefly,
there art several in New Mexico. its history Is this:
Vokanten in the Jemer region probably began dur-
Type III sources are ln*t«springs areas, characterized ing the Miocene period, about 10 million years ago. At
by shallow ground water and convcciive heat transfer, tn that time, eruption of a series of rmstve andesite and
general, water temperatures are too low to be of inures! btite laves built up a typical volcanic cone, probably
for power generation. similar to Ml. Hood, which reached a final height of about
14,000 fUnd a base diamster of about 30 mies. A quiet
Type IV sources are regions in which impermeable period foSowed, during which erosion formed canyons
rock near the surface coven underlying formations that radiating from the summit. (These are at9 visMe in
are permeable to circulating ground water. At depth, heat detals of the present caldera rim.) Then, during toe late
transfer is convectWe, but near the surface it occurs only PUocerse or early Pleistocene period, about one million
hv conduction through the rock. All present power pro- yean ago, there occurred a succession of massive radial
duction from geothermal energy originates in Type IV ash flows which built up the Pajarito Plateau on which
sources. The major ones are Lardercilo in July, Wairakei Los Alamos is located. Expulsion of this material from
in New Zealand, and The Geysers and Sallon Sea areas in within the volcanic mass permitted collapse of the remain-
California. ing surface of Ihe cone to form a largs ceSdera that

43
 TAtLEFi
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES CMP THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES

Number of
vCOtlKtJMl i Total t h e m ! Available electrical
grannie, range at webl energy, gjgawatt- energy, gigawait- tfcmat3000
•CJkm yeew
I IS-30 20 300-600 SxlO* 10* 3x10*
if 3 10 100 300-1000 2x10' 7XI03
lit 0- 3 100*200 2x10* IO» 0.3
IV 0.5-3 200-500 2x10* 4x10*

ptojKtMt (Metrical nq»irantnl t f th* Unilcd S u m for tht year 2000.

eventually reached • maximum diameter of about 16 Development of the Los Alamos Geothermal Energy
miles. The final major vofcanfe event was the formation or Source
about 15 extrusive domes of a very vinous rhyoiite lava.
Thes* domes ftt much of the caldera floor, and at depth On the basis of the regional geology, drilling experi-
may grade into a singk mats. ence in the Jemez caldera, and approximate heat-flow
A straightforward heat-flow estimate shows thai the calculations, the rock temperature tt a depth of about 3
heat from the early vokanie activity In the Jemez region, km under the Los Alamos townsite is assumed to be
including both the Initial cone-building ami die aibae- 300*C. At this depth, the rock is Precambrian granite,
quern adt flows, has been distilled almost completely. assumed to have the properties listed In Appendix D.
However, the relative youth of the rhyolile extrusions After preliminary testing, perhaps by diamond core
(less than one million years) and their dose spacing within drilling to the maximum depth possible, a hole 40 cm
the large caJdera Juggest that rock temperatures at depths (about 16 in.) in diameter would be produced with an
o f 3 l o 5 k m m a y & s « h i g h a * 7 i W t e 8Q0*C. Explora- Electric Subterrene to a depth of approximately 5 km.
tory wells drilled through sediment* i ' the caldsra have This hole would be cased with steel pipe, which would be
encountered cemperaiunts at high u 2S0*C at depths of plugged and perforated at a depth of about 4 km to allow
riNHit 1 mile (5.6 km), where the drill holes had Just hydrofracturing to occur from that point. Water at a
entered the rhyoiite (Summers, 1965; U. S. Senate, pressure of about 100 kg/cm* (1500 psi) would then be
1964). What may represent the discovery of commercial- injected from the surface to form and extend a thin,
quality steam has recently been announced (Los Alamo* cireuixr, vertical crack centered at the 4-km depth. The
Monitor, October 22,1970). After four unsuccessful wells work required to produce the crack is approximately the
had been drilled, the fifth, in the western part of the product PV, where P is the pressure (100 kg/cm 3 ) and V
calden, encountered steam at a depth of 5000 ft (I.S is the crack volume. For a crack having a radius of 1 km
km). Since loose and was encountered in ths same hole (3300 ft), the volume is about S.3 x 10*m\ and the work
at 4800 ft, it appears that the steam is probably generated is 5.3 x 10 12 joules. A 700-hp pump would require about
from circulating ground water entering through the per- 3 month* and 1.3 x 10 s gal of water to form such a crack.
meable sand. This, then, at least locally, is a Type IV A technique developed by the petroleum industry is
geothemtal energy source. Its rate of energy production hydrofracturing with a sand slurry, so that when the
and probable life as an energy source are unknown, and pressure in the cavity is released the sand will act as a
will be determined by such factors as rock temperature, permeable prop to keep the crack open. !n the present
water supply, and the heat-transfer area available at case, a water slurry containing about 20% of carefully
depth. sized silica sand would probably be used for this purpose.
Figure F-l is adapted from a map prepared by the Another hole of the same (40 cm) diameter would
U. S. Geological Survey (Smith et «/., 1970), to show a be produced to intersect the upper region of the crack, at
potential Type 11 geothermal energy source underlying a depth of about 3 km. (This hole represents the hot-
the town of Los Alamos at a modest depth, and a possible water exit of the geothermal system.) The hydrofractur-
location for a geothermal energy plant designed to exploit ing port at the 4-km depth would then be sealed and a
it. A method for developing a source of this type is new opening would be formed at the bottom of the
outlined in the next section. original hole, at the 5-km depth. The system, illustrated in

44
 PAJARITO LOS
MOUNTAIN ALAMOS =I2|000.

-4,000
£2£~SGA LEVEL
TUFF -4,000
LATITE
.VOLCANIC
ROCK EXTRAPOLATED
ANDESITE J BOUNDARIES
@ SEDIMENTS
^ SANDSTONE
m LIMESTONE
E3 GRANITE (p-6) PRECAMBRIAN
RHYOLITE
Fig- W .
A geologic section through the Jemez caldera and the surrounding area, indicating a possible site for a
gecthermal energy development near the town of Los Alamos, New Mexico. (Adapted from R. L.
Smith et ai, 1970).

Fig. F-2, would then be ready for the extraction of amount of heat withdrawn after time t is
energy. j
The heat-flow properties of this system (Carslaw
and Jaeger, 19S9) are such that temperature, T, of rock at
XAT dt,r 2XAJ
a distance x (in centimeters) from the crack after time t
(in seconds) is given by
With a radius of_ 1 km, the crack srea is about
T(x)*(T o -T c )erf(x/2%/5t) , 6 x 10 l 0 cm '. For T of I50°C, ths amount of heai with-
drawn after 20 years is about 650,000 MW-days
where D is the thermal difiusivity of the rock. The gradi- (1.3 x I0 l 4 cal), giving an average rate of 89 MW.
ent of temperature- at the crack surface is Removal of heat from a body of rock resultsin a
volume_contraction, AV, given by - A V a 3 H a / c p ,
where a is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion in
°C"\ c is the heat capacity of the rock in cal/g-'C, and p
where T o is the original temperature of the undisturbed is the rock density in g/cm*. This thermd contraction will
rock and T c is the temperature of the crack surface. result in fracturing of rock adjacent to the primary crack
Assuming that heat is removed so that the temperature of (Appendix D). An extensive treatment of an analogous
the water leaving the system is always the same, then T, system, the cooling of a solidified iava bed, is given by
the average value of T o •- T c , is Lachenbruch (1961). His work indicates that contraction
cracks extend far beyond the thermally stressed zone. The
T=J4(TO-Tin + T o - T o u t ) . thermal contraction resulting from extraction of heat
equivalent to 4000 MW-days (8 x 1 0 " cal) will produce
= 300°C, T in = 5OcC, and T o u t = 250°C, then an additional crack volume of 2.4 x 10 9 cm 3 , or about
0°C. 0.5% of the volume of the original crack. If this new
Heat flow at any given time is given by volume is represented by cracks with an average thickness
of 0.5 cm, then the increment of heat-transfer surface
created is 10 l 0 cm 2 , or about 20% of the surface area of
the original crack. Thus, removing less than 1% of the
where A is the total surface area of the circular crack and immediately accessible thermal energy of the hot rack
X is the thermal conductivity of the rock. The total makes available a much greater amount of energy, whose

45
 THICKNESS
OF CRACK
AT CENTER
- . 3 m.

Fig. F2.
Proposed system for developing the Los Alamos geothermal energy source.

removal will further increase the proportion of the heat time until nearly all of the energy reservoir has been made
reservoir that can eventually be exploited. The general available to ths heat-transfer fluid. If, as seems possible,
nature of the crack system created is suggested by Fig. the downward extension of the geothermal reservoir is a
F-3. column of rock of continuously increasing temperature
This simple analysis indicates that a heat-extraction extending as far as the earth's mantle, then the useful life
system consisting of two large holes penetrating a Type II of the energy extraction system may be practically un-
geothermal energy source, plus a large initk! crack pro- limited.
duced by hydrofracturing, will be self-perpetuating in the C i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e amount o f water
sense that removal of heat from it will make even more (2 x 10* gal/day) required to extract energy at the rate of
heat available to it. Thermal-stress cracking will be con- 89 MW will be produced by the pressure head (about 100
centrated in regions where the thermal gradient due to kg/cm 2 ) that results from the density difference (about
heat removal is greatest. This will probably be where 0.2 g/cm 3 ) between cold water entering the thermal reser-
initial rock temperatures are highest. The spontaneously voir and hot water leaving it. The flow of this volume of
generated crack system should therefore extend preferen- water through the 40-cm-diam supply and return pipes
tially Into regions of increasing temperature, so that the will be turbulent, resulting in a pressure drop of about 30
quality of the steam produced may actually improve w'th kg/cm2 in the piping. Its flow through the circular bed

46
 tanks. If desired, SS.9 kg/see of wafer at §9*C emM be
withdrawn tm& the third tosh tank for domestic besting
or oihet USR.
The iHftxp m «apiu eo«M»p*k» of etcttrieal

"i/Z energy in the United States for household and commercial

purpost h about 0 J kW (Singer, 1970). Thus, the power
plant described above would supply the Deeds of a Mi-
deatfol community of atom 12400 people. Tfcte develop*
C M O S O U X O I T HCMOMMu Of MCJff mem, witfe its original crack a m of 6 a l O * * * * * , cot»M
MOM TMC HOCK. TMUC O t t O t t SHOW.C provide 89 MW (thermal) for 20 yean tc profo* that
MftTCMALLV AIO IN THC ««*T amount of power contimiottsry. Howestr, it is bstievad
that the fectease of Rcat-ifamfcr surface wltich results
from heat removal would,» fact, pratosg the ttstfid life
Section through « suttt-fUkd rerfkat eiwck pro- of the system far beyond 20 years.
duced by hydroffcturiHg, shttwba embsbk semi*
of mlditkmM asefc Cfmied by fliemat ttrtstcs re-
sailing from heat ntnmtiL

The gfMXhermal ?Mrgy jy*?tm described above

filled with fine gravel will involve an additional pressure appears to be retativciy incitKiefil, S4we it (enerates wvy
drop of about 0.5 kg/cm*, calculated from Dsrcy's law about 10 MW of electricity from 65 MW of dwrml
(Todd. (9S9) and an assumed permeability of 160 energy. Apparently it can be justified aeonomkalty only
kg/cm*-day under unit hydraulic gradient . Thus, onct if the thcrmat^Mrgy cost is tow or if a premhMt C M be
circulation has been established by pumping cold water paid for some spesM advantage of the system. In fact, a
down tbe supply pipe, not water at, say, 250*C win be geothermal system C M be justified eUkcr on in* basis of
brought to the surface spontaneously by the return line st low tMttv can or hssauik to nlataiatc j«witn«»mu«l
a pressure of about 70 kg/cm*. This is weD in excess of poButtoti. Further, ft offers the potsibffty of 4 nwMpit-
the vapor pressure of water at 2S0*C (about 40 kg/cm1), U K sysfarm that would bsih improve itt economic potf>
» that a liquid system will be maintained throughout. t fefi and besdli soeiety in ©Jher ways.
(This it considered an advantage because watcr-ualikc The heating of homes by not water obuJitid from
steam-decrease* in viscosity as its temperature increases, geotbcrmal sources has been used wiUk increasfaig success
so that the mode of heat removal in the reservoir should in Iceland since 1930, and k <*« * « d by Bodwston
be uniform, and because the thermal properties of water (Pspw CR/5 [CJ in Untt«d Nations, I964X Experience
do not change markedly with pressure.) The excess pres- there shows that the optimum temperatsi* of die
sure of about 30 kg/cm* above that required to maintain domestic source is about 90*C, and that the maxirmtia
a condensed phase would permit the flow to be approxi- heating rate needed per capita is sbout 400 cal/sec The
mately doubled during periods of peak energy demand. hot water can be piped •conomkaBy to nusn/ thousands
Banwell (1964) discusses the amount of electrical of homes at distanccc up io 100 ion from thegeodtermef
energy that can be produced from steam and hot water by wdl. USN(( these figures, it is calculated that the water st
an ideal heat engine. Using his figures and assuming 50% 89*C dbxharged from the final flash tank of the electrical
plant efficiency, a 10-MW electrical generating capacity power system outlined in Fig. F-4 could provide domestic
would require a flow of 80 kg/see (2 x 10* gal/day) of heating for a town of IOJOOO people under the most
water at 250*C. The thermal energy available from this severe whiter conditions. It could also supply all other
water, measured above S0°C, is about 65 MW. Hansen domestic needs for hot water-for bathing, washing
(Paper G/41 in United Nations, 1964) describes a multiple clothes and dishes, etc Distribution of the primary hot
flashing cycle for production of elestrical energy from water, at 250*C, would permit higher-temperature uses,
water at 200°C. A similar cycle for water at 25O"C is such as cooking and clothes-drying.
presented in Fig. F-4. With a flow rate of 80 kg/sec of The dual problem of obtaining adequate amounts of
water at 2S0°C and 40 kg/cm* pressure, which are reason- potable water and of purifying this water after it has been
able for the underground system described above, an used is a major concern of modern society. The problem
electrical output of 9.74 MW is predicted. To avoid the is compounded by the thermal pollution caused by energy
difficulty with dissolved minerals discussed in Appendix wasted into rivers, by heavy rains that overwhelm waste-
E, the thermal energy of the geothermal water is extract- treatment plants, by industrial wastes that arts not treated
ed in a primary heat exchanger and the min«nl-beaiing at all, and by other accidents and harmful practices. Its
water is returned to underground circulation. Alterna- solution may lie in another application of geotheimal
tively, a demineralizer could be used, and the demineral- energy.
feed geothermal water could be piped directly to the flash A typical American community of 10,000 people

47
 K£Y

4 mflUpk-flmhittg pawtmim fmm ge&ihmmUy Aewwrf wuet t! 250 m

sotrc
u m over swa mflWon gallons of water per Cty. f» jtnetat, (2 x 10 s gal/day) of impure water. The system constsss of
lltii wiitr h cwsfuSy ptoctsicd to itndti it pouble. optimised heal exchangers. Using heat-transfer ceeftV
However, even the bett present syaems w J not ftmo*e cientt from Perry (1950), and the temperature differences
ccnakt chtmicstl compounds (wch as DOT) when they « e indicated in Fig. F-5, a total heat-transfer area t.f 4000
presem, and die cMorktUort rn^ind to deiuoy bacteria m* {44£00 ft * ) is calculated.
f*d virusts often letves an »r?ensive :a»c A brft fraction The best treatment for a flownhrough water system
of the wrier b subsequently delivered to and processed by would be to distill the incoming water for health and
a wane-treatment phni and is finally dfetfcaifed into esthetic reasons, and !h* sewsge effluent for the same and
rivers where, it is heptd, natural processes will again also for ecological reasons, tf the public, through educa-
produce potable water. However, the rexi comnwnHy tion, could be assured of the complete pariScation that
downstream must, in fact, process it spin, ahd the sec- heat sterilization-distillation affords, then a closed-loop
tion of river between the two communities is often unat- system could be used, eliminating one distillation step and
tractive for recreational activities and is hostile tofishand greatly reducing the demand on the natural water supply.
plant life. The two types of systems are compared in Fig. F-6.
The only system that will guarantee a truly pure The remaining large energy requirement of the
water supply is distillation. If geothermal energy is avail- typical American community is transportation, primarily
able, the community can draw on it to operate a mul- in the form of the private automobile. In an analysis of
tipte-eflect distillation system which, because of the low total energy use in the United States, Singer (1970) as-
impurity concentration in the feed stream, would require signs a per capita use of 2 thermal kW (500 cal/sec) for
the minimum of distillation work. Such a system is out- ransportaiion. This can be translated into a per capita
lined in Fig. F-5, where 37 kg/sec of water at 25O°C from distance traveled per day: If all transport is by auto-
the geolhermai source are used to distill 80 kg/sec mobile, energy use is O.S gal/mile, and if I gallon of

48
 ST£AM HASH TANKS

4.8fc«/MC fflHBfWBC
COL
IK'C

PURE WOTER
7 9 2 +111 >
9(X3 kg/tee

REJECT WATER
Q« kg/Me

•Ohf/MC
( 8 M.U0N »«/«*?>
9MPURE WATER

/fc F-5.
A multlpk-effm dltliBatton system using uetm from the flash tanks of* geotkermol power plant

gasoline contains 32 x 10* cat of energy, then the equiva-

lent distance traveled is 27 miles/day per ptnoa.
The unique feature of the feothernul system fceie
ROW THROUGH SYSTEM being considered is its capability of delivering Urge
amount* of water at 25O*C. The question that now arises
is whether or not this represents an energy density high
enough to power vehicles economically. Hodman (1966)
presented a case for electric automobites fueled by the
more interesting types of storage batteries, such as the
z'nc-iir type. He HsU predicted performances (range vs
CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM speed under various driving conditions) for cars one-half
of whose weight is batteries. A turbodectrk system
driven by flash steam from 250°C water would provide an
available energy density of 6300 cal/kg of water carried.
In Fig. F-7, the range of a vehicle powered by such a
system is compared with that of one f>owered by lead-acid
batteries, with one-third of the vehicle wdght represent-
ing the energy source in each case. Evidently, die hot-
water unit is competitive in this regard. A community
Fig.F-6. whose main energy source was geothermal eneigy could
Flow-through ard closed-hop system', for water provide a net of outlets at which refueling with hot water
purification. could be done rapidly and automatically. The 27 mile/day

49
 per capita rate could be attained with 8 kg/sec of hot
VEHICLE CLASS water, or less than 10% of the total geothermal flow
ft 33^% OF VEHICLE WT IS 3 0 0 * C HOY *»TER
contemplated for the community. It would, of course, be
natural to extend such a system to widespread public
O 3 3 4 X OF VEHICLE WT. IS 2 5 0 *C HOT WkTER transportation and commercial traffic.
200
0 331 X OF VEHICLE WT IS I.EAO-ACIO If other methods of energy storage, such as very
STORAGE BATTERIES high-speed flywheels (Armagnsc. 1970) and advanced
0) types of storage batteries (Hoffman, 1966), prove success-
y ful in automotive applications, the contribution of geo-
J 150 thermal energy will be in the primary energy-transfer
system. The use of an emission-free electoral automobile,
5 OPEN ROAD

i
for example, merely shifts the source of pollution from
100 the vehicle itself to the fossil-fueled power plant that
generates electricity for it. An increase in capacity cf a
geothermal power plant would provide the electrical
VgMTt energy required by such a transportation system without
TRAFFIC
adding pollutants to the atmosphere.
50
US?1 Figure F-8 outlines a complete utility system for a
community of about 10,000 people supplied with geo-
thermal energy. Aside from the transport system, which
would require engineering development, all of the mate-
20 40 60 80 rial and equipment required is currently avaiiiable com-
SUSTAINED SPEED (MPH) mercially. The system is complex, and ti would not be
ng.F-7. easy to inUoduce all aspects of it into an existing town;
Ranges of hot-water and storage-battery powered thus, the proportion of homes designed for hot-water
automobiles under various driving conditions. heating is now usually small. However, where entire new

ll
250 C* WATER
S3

3 1 * % el STEAM 6&« % sf STEAM

ZSO'C WATER FLASH SYSTEM
GkgAtc
tkgA
89'CWKTER
«Bkg/MC

TRANSPORT
SYSTEM
300,000
VEHKXE*
mHKVdnr
at 4 0 MPH
SUSTAINED
OONESTK
SYSTEM
HEAT FOR
MORE THAN
15.000
PERSONS
J •; WATER
TREATMENT
(NOTUM
•Okf/MC
MMUNN

3PEE0

8kf/MC NSEP

A complete utility system boed on geothermal energy.

SO
 communities are to be built, a complete utility system A ,-elatively simple development of a zone of
based on geothermal energy might be ideal. For example, modest temperature in a Type II geothenrul energy
there are plans to develop at least seven entirely new source can supply a remarkably large amount of energy
communities in New Mexico within the next 20 yeirs. for a very long period of time. The energy is in such a
The expected total population of these communities is form that it can be used to satisfy most of the energy
500,000 (Albuquerque Journal, August 23, 1970) and requirements of a modem American community, produc-
important questions are being raised about their water ing minimum environmental pollution and helping to
suppf-as, sanitation facilities, and power requirements. It correct that which already exists. While shallow Type II
happens that most of these future towns will be located sources are common only in the western United States,
within 10 to SO km of the Jemez geothermal energy development of the Subtenene would permit probing for
source. them at greater depths elsewhere, and should eventually
The reasoning applied above to towns applies as permit similar development of Type I sources. These are
well to the needs of an industrial plant (for example, a essentially unlimited in extent and energy cc&tent, and
pulp mill) for electricity, water, heat, and w«ste treat- are potentially available anywhere on the earth.
ment. The ability to treat selectively and completely the
wastes from each different manufacturing process could
eliminate the industrial pollution of waterways.

51
 APPENDIX G

RESEARCH IN THE GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES

by

Orson L. Anderson

One of the most important insights of recent years along the San Andreas Fault. This consists primarily of
is the recognition that tectonic activity on a global scale is shearing displacements, involving only minor convergence
concentrated in relatively narrow zones, forming a net- and divergence of plates.
work that surrounds large areas of quiescence. The earth's The lithosphere includes the earth's crust and also a
surface structure is now considered to resemble an egg- portion of the mantle. It is distinguished from the under-
shell containing a network of cracks that form the boun- lying asthenosphere primarily on the basis of its physical
daries of several large curved plates and a dozen or so properties, particular!]' its rigidity as determined by seis-
small ones. The earth's tectonic zones~the cracks in the mological techniques. It is not uniform, and is marked by
eggshell-are the sites of natural events that limit human major discontinuities both vertically and, along the tec-
habitation. Much of the world's earthquake and volcanic tonically active belts, horizontally. Its lower surface is
activity, and important portions of its mineral resources, known only in a general way, but is ordinarily defined
are concentrated in these active zones. They must be through mapping of earthquake foci in the areas of under-
studied carefully if man is to stabilize the quality of his thrusting.
environment. For example, it is not simply an accident Between the rift zones lie the stable plates of the
that the Santa Barbara oil spill occurred in an area that lithosphere. The boundaries between plates 2re not often
was visited by a major earthquake less than 40 years ago. the same as the boundaries between oceans and conti-
Geological science has just passed through the stage nents, and the idea of a continent has lost much of its
of developing the time-and-motion relations (i.e., the uniqueness. A stable plate is relatively tranquil but not
kinematics) of the large plates comprising the outer shell absolutely so; movements, mainly vertical, take place.
of the earth. Plates move as individual units, and in Volcanism occurs, and the plate thickens and hardens
discussing them an old nomenclature has been revived: We Significant vertical displacements, called uplifts, occur
say that the plates comprise the lithosphere of the planet. over large areas, with extensive deformation on all sides.
On the plate boundaries, the forces that modify the Two such puzzling uplifts are the Colorado Plateau and
exterior of the earth are actively expressing themselves by the Himalayan Plateau. Such major vertical motions of
movements and deformations that can be observed and large regions in the plate interiors are, at present, anom-
whose intensities* can be measured. These forces create alies in the general scheme of plate kinematics.
major problems for the populations of the active zones, Vertical movements, both within plates and at their
and the results of the tectonic activity frequently yield boundaries, control the occurrence and distribution of
extensive mineralizations of economic interest. A deeper many of our important mineral resources. Certainly, the
understanding of the forces acting on the lithosphere is of fact that oil and gas are present only in sedimentary rocks
critical importance, not only for understanding the dy- restricts their occurrence to areas which at some time
namics of the planet but also for significant social and have subsided enough to accumulate sediments. Many
economic reasons. Geological sciences are therefore enter- mineral deposits of metamorphic origin require a history
ing an era in which great attention is being given to the of significant subsidence and subsequent uplift. Many of
geodynamic (as contrasted to the kinematic) processes of the traditional theories of economic geology have been
the earth. discredited as the evidence for plate tectonics has accumu-
On the plate boundaries, three types of interactions lated, and new theories must be sought in their place.
occur: (1) Divergence occurs at rift zones such as the This is the general situation of the new theory of
mid-Atlantic ridge, where upwelling from the underlying global tectonics, which is now revolutionizing the geologi-
zone, called the asthenosphere, creates the lithosphere. cal sciences. How can the drilling of a deep, wide hole
(2) Collision creates underthrusting of the lithosphere affect tectonic theory?
deep into the asthenosphere, where the lithosphere is By analogy, one might consider the results of dril-
consumed by chemical processes. Collision also creates ling series of relatively shallow holes (no more than 1 km
trenches, such as the Tonga Trench, and island areas such deep) across the ocean basins, as has been done in the
as the Aleutians. (3) Strike-slip movement, such as the JOIDES (Joint Oceanographic Institutions Deep Earth
relative motion of adjacent parts of southern California Sampling Group) drilling program. The results of this

52
 program, still in progress, are considered by many to possible u sample the mantle material in situ. Informa-
remove all doubts about the motion of plates from a tion on the composition and properties of mantle material
diverging source. It has been found that the age of the is vital to all geophysical and geochemical theories of
basalt basement of the ocean basin increases linearly with planet interiors. It represents the integrating constant
distance from the ridge which represents the source, and (which, when it has not been measured, must be assumed)
that the increase is symmetrical on opposite sides of the in the density profile of the earth arrived at by integrating
ridge. In this drilling program, cores have been taken sound-velocity profiles. Further, the mantle rock is the
which will provide a sedimentary history of the earth's mother material which, upon differentiation through
crust over a succession of precisely known, interlocking melting and other phase changes, ultimately produces the
intervals. Thus, we are beginning to acquire a library of great variety of materials we see in the crust. It is too
the history of the crustal formation of our planet, The much to expect that one sample of the mantle would be
dramatic effect of this information from sea-floor drilling typical and would end all disputes. It is not too much to
upon the revolution in the geological sciences is compar- expect, however, that even one such sample would have a
able to the impact of the evidence that Darwan brought profound effect upon the geological sciences. It is easy to
to bear upon the biological sciences. construct reasonable arguments that the worth of recover-
The parts of the plates that comprise continents are ed mantle samples of our own planet is comparable to the
much thicker than are those in ocean basins. We need worth of the returned lunar samples.
exploration holes drilled in the continents, but this task is Second, it would b« possible to make precise tem-
even more formidable than that of the JOIDES program perature measurements at depths much greater than those
because the continental holes must be very much deeper. so far reached. Information on the thermal gradient down
The ocean basins are recent additions to the plates, gener- to 20 to 30 km would provide a striking insight into the
ated by upwelling since the time of the dinosaurs, whereas thermal history of the planet. At the earth's surface, the
the continents are older, going back to the billion-year gradient is about 20°C/km; at 200 km depth, it is evident-
epoch in age. A core only 1 km deep, at most, gives much ly down to something like 4°C/km. However, our know-
of the history of the crust in ocean basins; a depth of 20 ledge in this area is limited by the fact that we can now
to 40 km will be required to obtain comparable informa- make measurements only at or very near the earth's
tion in the continental interior. surface. A more precisely determined thermal gradient is
Suppose that it became possible to drill a hole 20 to essential to geodynamical theories of the motion of the
30 km deep, the hole lining being hardened and having a earth's interior, because such theories must account for
diameter large enough so that instruments for physical heat transfer.
measurements could be lowered into it. Where should Third, the possession in the laboratory of a strati-
such a hole be drilled? graphic column descending to formations deposited bil-
One obvious place for deep-exploration drilling is lions of years ago would elucidate the history oi" the early
the Colorado Plateau. Insofar as plate tectonics is con- formation of the crust.
cerned, this region is a mystery. In terms of the general Fourth, the recovery of samples of material adja-
global concept, the lithosphere of the Colorado Plateau is cent to the rim of the hole at various depths might extend
too liigh, too thin, and too young. It is hard to explain the magnetic calendar of our earth by an order of magni-
why a structure this thin has undergone so little deforma- tude in time. The magnetic calendar, which is essentially a
tion relative to that which has occurred in the highly record of the reversals of the earth's magnetic poles, is
deformed Rocky Mountains on the east and the greatly known largely from investigations in the earth's ocean
faulted Basin and Range Province of Nevada on the west. basins, and extends back only 50 to 100 million years.
Being thin, however, the total crust of the Colorado Fifth, the actual determination of the density pro-
Plateau can be sampled by cores from a hole no more file down to the crust-mantle boundary would provide a
than about 30 km deep. Another obvious place for dril- very careful check on two geophysical disciplines: seis-
ling is the Midwest, perhaps around Missouri, where the mology and gravity. In both of these disciplines, the
granite basement is deep. This would give a section interpretation of measurements depends on the trade-off
through a stable, old, and typical aspect of the conti- of density against depth assumed in the particular model
nental part of a plate. A third place would be the Pacific chosen,
coastal margin, where one plate is in collision with an- Sixth, the use of metrology in the hole could pro-
other. One result is certain: The rocks obtained from vide a careful determination of relative motion around the
these three holes would be different, and all would add hole. We speak of the motion of rigid plates, but it may
immensely to our library of the history of the crust of the turn out that a plate moves like a glacier-in which case
earth. the hole would be deformed by the motion of rock
If such holes were drilled, what specific information around it. Thus, a check could be made on one of the
could be collected from experiments performed within fundamental notions of plate tectonics.
them?
First, at least in the Colorado Plateau, it would be

53
 APPENDIX H

OTHER APPLICATIONS OF LARGE SHAFTS AND TUNNELS

The list of existing and potential uses for large- Other Means of Storing Energy
diameter holes penetrating the earth to significant depths
is nearly endless. A few of these uses were considered It is reported (Business Week, August 1,1970) that
briefly in the body of this report, and some were further engineers in several European countries are now develop-
discussed in Appendixes E, F, and G. Several additional ing another method of storing energy underground in the
applications of large holes are reviewed in the paragraphs fonn of compressed air. During low-demand periods, ex-
that follow. cess power would be used to compress air and pump it
into underground caverns. During peak periods this air
would be released through turbines to drive electric gener-
Hydrogen Storage ators. A cavity suitable for storing the air must be tightly
sealed to prevent leakage, and must be large enough tc
Hydrogen exists in almost unlimited quantities in contain a useful volume of air and still small enough so
the biosphere, and the technology already exists for sepa- that relatively high pressure (e.g., 600 psi) can be de-
rating, liquefying, transporting, and storing it in very large veloped in it during a pumping period of a few hours. A
quantities. Liquid and gaseous hydrogen could eventually Swedish firm, Stal-Laval, has proposed a system which
replace fossil fuels in every application in which fuel is would require a shaft 1400 ft deep and 20 ft in diameter,
now burned for thermal energy, and this substitution leading into a 4.8-million ft3 cavern. For a 220,000 kW
could be made almost immediately with only minor plant of this type, they estimate a construction cost of
modifications to existing distribution systems and con- about $43/kW, of which about one-third would be for
sumer appliances, internal-combustion engines and tur- excavating the shaft and storage chamber. This is less Jian
bines can operate on hydrogen burned with air at tem- their estimated cost of a pumped hydroelectric storage
peratures low enough so that nitrogen oxides are not plant, such as that proposed by Consolidated Edison for
formed, or with oxygen so that nitrogen and other gases Storm King Mountain, New York (which has been violent-
do not enter the combustion system. Hydrogen-oxygen ly opposed by conservationists), and it could be con-
fuel cells are becoming common as portable generators of structed with much less scarring of the surface landscape.
electricity. In all of these cases, the only combustion
product is water vapor, which can safely be released to
the atmosphere. This use of hydrogen would produce no Chemical Processing
contamination of the environment, and would save the
limited supply of fossil fuels for more important uses in The high-temperature, high-pressure environment
chemical synthesis. that exists oeneath the earth's surface is ideal for many
Generation of electrical power from steam or other chemical processes. Ore bodies discovered by drilling and,
energy sources is most efficient if it is done at a constant if necessary, made permeable to liquids by hydrofractur-
rate near that for which the particular power plant was ing or the use of explosives could in many cases be
designed. However, in most areas, power demand varies exploited by introducing leaching solutions at the surface
drastically with the time of day and season of the year. or through a set of holes above the mineralized zone,
Means of utilizing the excess generating capacity that permitting the solutions to percolate through that zone,
exists during slack periods are now being sought, since and recovering them in horizontal tunnels in the barren
electrical energy itself is difficult to store. It should, rock below the ore body. Fossil fuels could be pyrolyzed,
however, be possible to "mine" geothermal energy or to hydrogenated, or partially oxidized in place, and the
operate a conventional power plant at a constant rate and carbonaceous gases could be recovered in similar systems
use the relatively inexpensive excess energy available dur- of tunnels for use as fuel gases or for production of
ing low-demand periods to electrolyze water. The hydro- petrochemicals. Most of the waste products fron. such an
gen and oxygen produced could then be stored separately operation would be left in place underground, and the
underground either as liquids or as compressed gases, to rest could be returned to the cavities created when the
be withdrawn and used when they were needed for heat, valuable minerals were extracted.
propulsion, or generation of additional electricity during Scientists working for the U. S. Department of the
peak-demand periods. Interior have produced useful fuel oil from domestic

54
 garbage and other wastes (Industrial Research, June Lindbo, an engineer of the State Power Board of Sweden,
1970). One ton of wet urban refuse treated with carbon has proposed (Design International, May 28, 1970) that
monoxide and steam at 250°C and 1500 psi (105 kg/cm2) radiator-like arrays of elliptical tubing be housed in rock
pressure yields more than a barrel of low-sulfur oil. Ac- formations, and that hot water from a nuclear power
cording to the National Research Council (ibid.), if anti- station be circulated through them. Excess heat would be
poliution standards on sulfur dioxide were rigidly en- deposited in the rocks, and the water would be returned
forced nationwide, there would not be enough low-sulfur to the reactor at near-ambient temperature for reuse as a
fuel available to meet the present demand just for generat- coolant. A second circulation system might be used to
ing electric power. The pressures and temperatures in recover the excess heat from the rocks and use it for
deep holes are well suited for converting garbage and domestic heating in about 10,000 nearby family units.
other wastes into such an oil, which would contribute Heat-exchange systems of this type are potentially
both to garbage disposal and to a reduction in air pollu- useful for a wide variety of industrial opeiations, and
tion by oil-fueled power plants. (Wood by-products and app*" promising for combating a type of environmental
sewage sludge can also be processed into oil. However, the pollution that has become common. They would, of
su1fur content of the oil produced from these materials is course, be especially convenient for power plants or
about 0.5%.) manufacturing facilities which were themselves built
underground.

High-Pressuie Treatment
Cities
In estimating the relation between pressure and
depth in the earth, the usual approximation is to consider In addition to underground power plants, water
that the earth is made up of a heavy hydrostatic liquid. At supplies, sewage systems, transportation, factories, and
depths greater than about 20 km, this "lithostatic" ap- warehouses, it is evident that cities of the future must
proximation is fairly accurate, because the pressure is eventually be built downward as well as upward and
comparable to the strengths of the rocks. At the outward. The advantages of doing so have already been
Mohorovicic discontinuity under the continents, the cal- realized in several school systems in the United States,
culated reck pressure is about 9 kbar. A large hole extend- including that of Artesia, New Mexico. The underground
ing to this depth would make available a relatively inert temperature is nearly constant throughout the year, mini-
environment in which high-pressure experiments, and mizing heating and air-conditioning requirements. There
perhaps industrial processing, could be carried out on a are no distractions from outside lights, traffic noise, and
scale now unattainable on the earth's surface. aircraft. No maintenance is required of a building ex-
In one of his last papers, Bridgman (1963) pointed terior, and off-hours vandalism is nearly impossible. Light-
out that the cascading method of supporting vessels, by ing costs are insignificant, and with skillful interior deco-
nesting them in outer vessels, offered the most promising rating the underground environment can be very pleasant.
solution for extending the available range of hydrostatic Expensive surface land is preserved for athletic and recrea-
pressures. An obvious difficulty is that each successive tional facilities and green areas. As pollution, noise, and
containing chamber is much larger and more complex. congestion increase on the surface, the concept of a
Bridgman was able to construct only a two-stage appa- subterranean city in a "temperate zone" beneath the
ratus, in which he measured the compressibilities of mate- surface becomes more and more attractive.
rials up to '00 kbar. However, he visualized equipment
the size of a cyclotron, which, with normal design and
construction, would be enormously expensive. The high Agriculture
lithostatic pressures in the wall rock around a deep hole
might be used to provide cascading support for experi- Not only mushrooms, but also flowers, vegetables,
mental vessels within the hole, and so permit a consider- and even grasses are grown commercially underground.
able extension of the range of hydrostatic pressures now Hydroponic systems are normally used, with ultraviolet
available to the experimentalist. lighting, and in some cases (e.g., in growing barley for
cattle feed) the operations have become highly mecha-
nized. The environmental advantages are apparent, and
Heat Sinks the growing season is unlimited. With increasing land costs
and pollution problems on the earth's surface, under-
Thermal pollution produced by hot water dis- ground farming and gardening are certain to expand.
charged into streams and lakes by factories and power
plants is now a serious problem in many parts of the
world. Where geothermal gradients are at or below nor-
mal, rocks at shallow and moderate depths can be used to
dissipate or store excess heat from such sources. Thus T.

55
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ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPLICATIONS OF LARGE HOLES AND TUNNELS A. G. Sylvester, "Fluid Pressure Variations and Prediction of
Shallow Earthquakes," Science 169,1231 (1970).
A discussion of the possibility of predicting shallow earth-
L. K. Edwards, "High Speed Tube Transportation," Scientific quakes by continuously monitoring variations in fluid pres-
American 213, 30 (August 1965) sure in deep wells.
A discussion of possible uses of long underground tunnels
for high-speed transportation. T. L. Thompson and E. J. Wasp, "Economics of Regional Waste
Transport and Disposal Systems," Paper No. 26e presented at the
C. Emiiiani, C. G. A. Harrison, and M. Swanson, "Underground Symposium on Ultimate Disposal of Wastes, Third Joint Meeting
Nuclear Explosions and the Control of Earthquakes,'' Science 165, of the A.I.Ch.E., Denver, Colo., August 30-September 2,1970.
1255 (1969).
The authors suggest that underground nuclear explosions b G. Young, "Dry Lands and Desalted Water," Science 167, 339
used to re'ease stresses accumulating in the lithosphere anu (1970).
prevent disastrous earthquakes. A general discussion of the economic and social importance
of developing economical desalination processes, particularly
•'Finding a Place to Put Heat," Science News, August 1, 1970, p. including evaporative processes.
98.
Quotes the Edison Electric Institute with regard to means of
storing excess energy. DRILLING AND TUNNELING
"Lest We Forgei . . . Converting Garbage to Oil," Ind. Res. 12, W. M. Adams, "A Direct Method for Investigating the Interior of
43 (June 1970). the Earth," Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Report UCRL-6306
Describes research by the United States Bureau of Mines on (February 1961).
the conversion of garbage and waste paper to oil. A proposal that a small, unshielded nuclear reactor be per-
mitted to melt its way through the crust and upper mantle
National Research Council, Rapid Excavation, National Academy to collect magma samples in bottles originally closed by
of Sciences, Washington (1968). conodible plugs. A corrodible bolt would eventually permit
A survey of the usefulness and importance of underground release of a high-density ballast, and f'-'-eactor would then
excavations, which concludes that the new needs now being melt its way back to the surface.
defined require that development of underground excava-
tion technoiogy-particularly for boring tunnels and shafts in D. E. Armstrong, J. S. Ccleman, B. B. Mclnteer, R. M. Potter, and
hard, abrasive tock-be greatly accelerated. E. S. Robinson, "Rock Melting as a Drilling Technique," Los
Alamos Scientific Laboratory Report LA-3243 (March 1965).
"'Rock Chambers Could Store Thermal Polution," Design Inter- A technical report on the initial LASL development of a
national, May 28,1970, p. 47. rock-meiiing drill.

57
 J. E. Biantly, Rotary DrillingHandbook,Ps>lmer Publications, New W. C. McClain and G. A. Cristy, "Examination of High Pressure
York (1961). Water Jets for Use in Rock Tunnel Excavation," Oak Ridge
A very complete and understandable handbook on tiie National Laboratory Report ORNL-HUD-1 (January 1970).
equipment and techniques of conventional rotary drilling. A technical report of laboratory studies of the use of water
jets of various diameters, operating at various pressures and
J. C. Bresee, G. A. Crisiy, and W. C. McClain, "Research Results relative velocities, to cut sandstone, limestone, and granite.
Show Interesting Potential of Hydraulic Tunneling," Eng. and Pressure and energy requirements were low enough so that
Mining J. 171, 75 (July 1970). the authors recommended tether development of the tech-
A summary of laboratory investigations st ORNL on use of nique for possible use on a continuous tunneling machine to
high-pressure water jets for tunnel excavation. Greater detail produce tunnels for underground utility distribution in
is given by McClain and Cristy (1970). urban areas.
B. C. Craft, W. R. Holden, and E. D. Graves, Jr., Well Design: National Research Council, Rapid Excavation, Washington, 1968,
Drilling and Production, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. National Academy of Sciences.
(1962). Reviews the current status of rapid excavation techniques
A general textbook of oil-well drilling and well-treating and the significance, opportunities, and needs of this area.
practice, including a good chapter on hydraulic fracturing. Urges vigorous, federally funded research efforts on new
drilling technology, with a 10-year research investment of
C. Fairhurst (Ed.), Failure and Breakage of Rock, American Insti- $200 million.
tute cf Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, New York
(1969). A. P. Ostrovskii, Deep-Hole Drilling with Explosives,
A review of the state of knowledge in rock fracture mechan- Gostoptekhizat, Moscow (1960). [English translation by Consul-
ics, including cracking and fracture patterns, force-crack tants Bureau, New York (1970)]
relations, and resulting spalls due to penetrator debris. The A detailed discussion of research, development, and testing
penetrator action discussed is central to the success of all of the Russian explosive drill, written by the man principally
rotary-bit rock-drilling applications. responsible for the entire program. An introductory section
reviews other means of drilling by shattering the rock, in-
Fenix and Scisson, Inc., "Deep Hole Drilling Feasibility Study," A cluding devices that use high-pressure impulses and others
report prepared for the Advanced Research Projects Agency and that develop high thermal stresses.
the United States Atomic Energy Commission (May 1969).
A detailed study of the feasibility of drilling a hole to a final K. Thirumalai, "Rock Fragmentation by Crsating a Thermo.' In-
depth of 50,000 ft. Two California locations are considered. clusion with Dielectric Heating," U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
It is concluded that with certain significant development's in Investigations 7424 (1970).
equipment and techniques, a hole finally 9-7/8 in. diam can An investigation of the use of high-frequency dielectric
probably be drilled to that depth, using heavy-duty rotary heating to heat a constrained inner volume in a rock body,
drilling equipment and, perhaps, down-hole hydraulic producing thermal stresses to fragment it. Fragmentation
motors (turbine drills) at depth. The estimated time required was strongly dependent on dielectric properties of the rock,
to drill the hole is 4.75 to 6.5 years, and the estimated cost but was produced in rocks which did not spall from surface
is $19,542,000 to $26,735,000, not including contingencies, heating.
overhead, or the services of an architect/engineer.
D. H. Yardley (Ed.), Rapid Excavation-Problems and Progress,
D. C. Findlay and C. H. Smith (Eds.), Drilling for Scientific American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum En-
Purposes, Geological Survey of Canada Paper 66-13, Queen's gineers, New York (1970).
Printer, Ottawa (1966). Proceedings of a 1968 conference which reviewed current
Proceedings of a symposium held in Ottawa in 1965 by the tunneling and shaft-drilling techniques, with emphasis on use
International Upper Mantle Committee. Includes papers on of the newer continuous tunneling machines. This is an
science-oriented drilling programs in several countries, meas- active and highly competitive field, and ail present manu-
urement techniques used in boreholes, scientific objectives, facturers of large continuous machines were represented.
and existing deep-drilling technology. In-depth treatments are given of designs, sizes, boring rates,
thrust ratings, power requirements, etc., and there is re-
C. Gatlin, Petroleum Engineering, Drilling ind Well Completions, peated lament that debris removal is a continuous problem
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1960). and a limiting performance factor. Reference is made to
A general textbook of oil-well drilling techniques and laser-beam guidance of continuous machines.
practices.
T. E. Howard, "Rapid Excavation," Scientific American 217, 74 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
(November 1967).
A review article which indicates the difficulties involved in R. B. Aronson, "Thermal Pollution and the Power Crisis,"
using the large continuous tunneling machines. Machine Design 42, 30 (June 25,1970).
A general discussion of the effects of the heating of lak^s,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics ano Mining Sciences. streams, and rivers by industrial cooling water. About 80%
A useful source of current information on rock cracking and of the industrial heat added to natural waters comes from
fracture. electric power generating plants, which use about 70% of the
water required by U.S. industry.
W. C. Maurer, Novel Drilling Techniques, Pergamon Press, i\ew
York (1968). P. M. Boffey, "Energy Crisis: Environmental Issue Exacerbates
Describes, discusses, and evaluates a wide variety of rock- Power Supply Problem," Science 168,1554 (1970).
drilling methods, both tested and pioposed, including several An examination of the conflict between the need for more
not considered in the text of this report. An excellent review energy and the desire for a clean environment.
both of drilling concepts and of proposed and tested
machines.

58
 "Clean Air or Electric Power," Ind. Res. 12, 25 (July 1970). J. B. Bumham and D. H. Stewart, "The Economics of Geothermal
A discussion of sulfur-dioxide emissions from fuel-fired elec- Power," a paper presented January 16, 1970, at tho ANS Sympo-
tric power generating plants. sium on Engineering with Nuclear Explosives, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Outlines the possibility of using a Plowshare nuclear de\ ice
"First Environment Report Goes to Congress," Cfcem. and Eng. to produce a large cavity filled with broken rock from which
News 48, 29 (August 17,1970). geothermal energy can be removed as steam. Power costs are
A discussion of the First Annual Report to Congress of the estimated to be highly competitive with those for conven-
Council on Environmental Quality. tional power plants. Some of the engineering difficulties
associated with such a development are outlined.
"Lest We Forget . . . Converting Garbage to Oil," Ind. Res. 12,
48 (June 1970). "Geothermel Power Is Aim of New Plowshare Project," Ind. Res.
A brief summary of successful experiments at the Pittsburgh 12,22 (Jury 1970).
Coal Research Center of the U.S. Bureau of Mines in tile Describes a Project Plowshare proposal to increase the heat-
conversion of garbage, waite paper, wood by-products, and transfer surface within geothermal-energy reservoirs by
sewage sludge to oil. detonating nuclear devices within boreholes penetrating such
reservoirs.
National Research Council, Rapid Excavation, National Academy
of Sciences, Washington (1968). United Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy, Proceed-
Concludes that the growing national concern for enhancing ings, United Nations, New York (1964).
and maintaining the quality of the environment, in the fact, Of particular interest are the following papers: A. Hanscn,
oi growing resource- and urban-development demands, "Thermal Cycles for Geothermal Sites and Turbine Installa-
would be substantially lessened if greatly improved under- tion at the Geysers Power Plant, Claiforhia," Paper G/41; G.
ground-excavation technology were a"ailable. Bodvarsson, "Utilization of Geothermal Energy for Keating
Purposes and Combined Schemes Involving Power Genera-
"Rock Chambers Could Store Thermal Pollution," Design Inter- tion, Heating and/or By-Products," Paper GR/S [G]; C. F.
national, May 28,1970, p. 47. A. Zancani, "Comparison Between Surface and Jet Con-
densers in the Production of Energy From, and the Chemical
S. F. Singer, "Human Energy Production as a Process in the Utilization of, Larderello's Boraciferous Steam Jets," Paper
Biosphere," Scientific American 223,174 (September 1970). G/50.
A review of energy requirements, methods of energy produc-
tion, and the effects on the environment of the by-products
of energy production-including combustion products, solid
particles, radioactive wastes, and waste heat.
GE0THE3MAL ENERGY SOURCES
C. J. Banwell, "Thermal Energy From the Earth's Crust," New
Zealand J. Geol. Geophys. 7,585 (1964).
GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
C. S. Conover, C. V. TheSs, and R. L. Griggs, Geology and
D. C. Findlay and C. H. Smith (Eds.), Drilling for Scientific Hydrology of Vatte Grande and Valle Toledo, Sandoval County,
Purposes, Geological Survey of Canada Paper 66-13, Queen's New Mexico, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1619-Y
Printer, Ottawa, (1966). (1963).
Discussed above under "Drilling and Tunneling." History and geology of the Jemez caldera.

F. Birch, "Some Geophysical Applications of High-Pressure Re- R. L. Griggs, Geology and Ground-Water Resources of the Lot
search," in W. Paul and D. M. Warschaucr (Eus.), Solids Undtr Alamos Area, New Mexico, With a Section on Quality of Wattr by
Pressure, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York (1963). John D. Hem, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1753
(1964).
S. P. Clark, Jr., "Recent Geochemical Research at High Pressures,"
in F, P. Bundy, VV. R. Hibbard, Jr., and H. M. Strong (Eds.), J. Lear, "Clean Power from Inside the Earth," Saturday Review,
Progress in Very High Pressure Research, John Wiley and Sons, Decembers, 1970, p. 53.
Inc., New York (1961). A general description of the potential for geotheroal energy
development, based on natural steam, of the western United
R. C. Newton, "The Status and Future of High Static-Piessuie States. The Mexican development at Ceno Prieto, in,the
Geophysical Research," in R. S. Bradley (Ed.), Advances in High Salton trough, ii discussed, together with the northward
Pressure Research, Vol. 1, Academic Press, London (1966). extension of this gs-athermal source in the Imperial Valley of
California.
J. Weertman, "Theory of Water-Filled Crevasses in Glaciers Ap-
plisd to Vertical Magma Transport Beneath Oceanic Ridges," to be L. Lessing, "Power From the Earth's Own Heat," Fortune, June
published in J. Gecph.'sical Res. 1969, p. 138.
Includes a good bibliography on liquid-filled cracks, with
emphasis on geophysical applications. National Research Council, Resources and Man, National
Academy of Sciences, Washington (1969).
P. J. Wyliie, "Applications of High Pressure Studies to the Earth Based largely on the data of White (1965), this study con-
Sciences," in R. S. Bradley (Ed.), High Pressure Physics and cludes that geothermal energy can sustain a large numbn of
Chemistry, VcL 2, Academic Press, London (1963). small power plants in a limited number of localities, but
represents only a small fraction of the world's total energy
requirements, and can supply this for only a limited time.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
C. J, BanweU, "Thermal Energy from the Earth's Crust," New
Zealand J. Geo!. Geophys. 7,585 (1964).
 C. S. Ross, R. L. Smith, and R. A. Bailey, "Outline of the Geology J. E. Kemme, "Ultimate Heat Pipe Performance," IEEE Trans.
of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico," New Mexico Geological ED-16, 717 (1969).
Society Twelfth Field Conference, 1961, p. 139. A discussion of the factors that limit heat-pipe performance.
History and geology of the Jcmez Mountains, including the
Jemez Caldera. J. E. Ke:nmt, "Heat Pipe Capability Experiments," Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory Report LA-3585-MS (October 1966).
R. L. Smith, R. A. Bailey, and C. S. Ross, Geologic Map of the The results of early work on lithium heat pipes using
Jemez Mountain/, New Mexico, Miscellaneous Geologic Investiga- niobiuTi-1% zirconium alloy containers.
tions, U.S. Geological Survey Map 1-571 (1970).
C. A. Busse, F. Geiger, and H. Strub, "High Temperature Lithium
W. K. Summers, A Preliminary Report on New Mexico's Geo- Heat Pipes," Second Int. Conf. on Thermionic Electrical Power
thermal Energy Resources, New Mexico State Bureau of Mines and Generation, Stresa, Italy, May 1968.
Mineral Resources Circular 80 (196S). The tantalum-li*hium heat pipe is shown to have a lifetime
of more than 1000 h at 1600°C with a heat-flux capacity
D. K. Todd, Ground Water Hydrology, John W<ley and Sons, Inc., well in excess of 100 kW/cm2.
New York (1959).

United Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy, Proceed- HIGH-PRESSLRE STUDIES

ings, United Nations, New York (1964).
Of particular interest is the paper by J. R. Elizondo, "Pro- F. Bitch, "Some Geophysical Applications of High-Pressure Re-
spection of Gcothermal Fields and Investigations Necessary search," in W. ?aul and D. M. Warschauer (Eds.), Solids Under
to Evaluate their Capacity," Paper GR/3 [Gj. Pressure, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York (1963).
A review of tile geophysical applications of high-pressure
United States Senate, Vatte Grande-BandelierNational Park, Heat- research, emphasizing the bearing of experiments at high
ing Before the Subcommittee on Public Lands of the Committee pressures on the interpretation of seismic discontinuities.
on Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Wasington (1964). P. W. Bridgman, "General Outlook on the Field of High-Pressure
Research," in W. Paul and D. M. Warschauer (Eds.), Solids Under
D. E. White, Geothermal Energy, VS. Geological Survey Circular Pressure, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York (1963).
519 (1965).
A comprehensive survey of the quantity and quality of S. P. Clark, Jr., "Recent Geochemical Research at High Pressures,"
energy present in the world's geothermal energy reservoirs. in F. P. Bundy, W. R. Hibbard, Jr.s and H. M. Strong (Eds.),
The author considers that only those regions in which high- Progress in Very High Pressure Research, John Wiley and Sons,
quality natural steam can be produced are potentially useful Inc., New York (1961).
energy sources, and therefore assumes that only about 1% of
the hydrothermal energy can be converted into electrical R. C. Newton, "The Status and Future of High Static-Pressure
energy. Geophysical Research," in R. S. Bradley (Ed.), Advances in High
Pressure Research, Vol. 1, Academic Press, London (1966).

HEAT CONDUCTION P. J. Wyllie, "Application of High Pressure Studies to the Earth

Sciences," in R. S. Bradley (Ed.), High Pressure Physics and
H. S. Caislaw and I. C. Jaeger, Conduction of Heat in Solids, The Chemistry, VoL 2, Academic Press, London (1963).
Clarendon Press, Oxford (1959).
L. R. Ingersoll, O. J. Zobel, and A. C. Ingersoll, Heat Conduc- HYDROFRACTURING AND RELATED
tion-With Engineering, Geological, and Other Applications, ROCK MECHANICS
University of Wisconsin Press (1954).
Contains many illustrations of heat flow and temperature J. T. Cherry, D. B. Larson, and E. G. Rapp, "A Unique Descrip-
solutions for geological problems, including the geyser prob- tion of the Failure of a Brittle Material," Int. J. of Rock Mech. 5,
lem (pp. 140-154) and cooling of a laccolith (pp. 141-143). 455 (1968).
An attempt to develop a rock fracture criterion under com-
D. J. Schneider, Temperature Response Charts, John Wiley and plex stress states, with particular emphasis on high hydro-
Sons, Inc., New York (1963). static stress fields. Correlation with rock fracture data is
A valuable set of charts for quick solution of transient good.
temperature problems.
B. C. Craft, W. R. Holden, and E. JR. Graves, Jr., Well Design-
Drilling and Production, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
HEAT PIPES (1962).
A general textbook which includes a good chapter on hy-
K. T. Feldman, Jr., and G. H. Whiting, "Applications of the Heat draulic fracturing.
Pipe," Mech. Eng. 90,48 (November 1968).
The operating principles of heat pipes, and the probable C. Fairhurst (Ed.), Failure and Breakage of Rock, American Insti-
usefulness of heat pipes in such applications as energy con- tute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers New York
version devices, thermal energy removal, temperature con- (1969).
trol, and power flattening. Discussed above under "Drilling and Tunneling."
J. E. Kemme, "Heat Pipe Design Considerations," Los Alamos
Scientific Laboratory Report LA-4221-MS (August 1969).
A general survey of fundamental design parameters of im-
portance to heat-pipe performance.

60
 E, Harrison, W. F. Kieschmck: Jr., and W. J. McGuire, "The R. E. Lapp, "Where Will We Get the Ener^, ?" New Republic, J>V
Mechanics of Fracture Induction and Extension," Pet. Trans. 11,1970, p. 17.
AIME 201,252 (1954).
Presents extensive data from oil-field experience with rock National Research Council, Resources and Man, National
fractu-ing. The data are primarily from sedimentary rocks, Academy of Sciences, Washington (1969).
but show that vertical fractures are formed at pressures of
about 0.75 of the overburden strength level. S. F. Singer, "Human Energy Production as a Process in the
Biosphere," Scientific American 223,174 (September W O ) .
M. K. Hubbert and D. G. Willis, "Mechanics of Hydraulic Fractur- A review of energy requirements, methods of energy produc-
ing," Pet. Trans. AIME 210,133 (1957). tion, and the effects of conventional methods on the envi-
A discussion of the stress state produced in rocks by hydrau- ronment.
lic pressurization of a borehole. Laboratory and oil-field
data are presented to support the conclusions drawn con-
cerning directions of initial fractures. ROCK PROPERTIES
A. H. Lachenbruch, "Depth and Spacing of Tension Cracks," J. B. V. Baidyuk, Mechanical Properties of Rocks at High Tempera'
Geophys. Res. 66,4273 (1961). tares and Pressures, Gostoptekhizdat, Moscow (1963). [English
translation by J. P. Fitzsimmons, New York, 1967, Conswtants
I. N. Sneddon and M. Lovvengrub, Crack Problems in Classical Bureau.]
Theory of Elasticity, John Wiley aud Sons, Inc., New York Equipment and techniques for determining the mechanical
(1969). properties cf rucks at confining pressures up to 10,000
A thorough treatment of the mathematical theory of cracks kg/cm 2 and temperatures up to 800 C. Properties and be-
in elastic media. The material of interest for three- havior of a variety of sedimentary rocks.
dimensional, pressurized, "penny-shaped" cracks is contain-
ed in Chapter 3. C. Fairhurst (Ed.), Failure and Breakage of Rock, American Insti-
tute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, New York
R. J. Sun, "Theoretical Size of Hydraulically Induced Fractures (1969).
and Corresponding Uplift in an Idealized Medium," J. Geophys. Discussed above under "Drilling and Tunneling."
Res. 74,5995 (1969).
Extensive measurements of ground surface uplift and post- I. W. Farmer, Engineering Properties of Rocks, E. and F. N. Spon,
drilling after hydraulic fracturing fro.i, a borehole confirmed Ltd., London (1968).
the size and extent of the extended cracks produced in a A textbook of structural design in rock, for civil and mining
horizontally bedded shale. A borehole 10 cm diam and engineers. Concerned primarily with analytical techniques,
injection pressure of about 150 kg/cm 2 (at the well-head) but includes some handbook data on stress vs strain, elastic,
were used, at a depth of about 300 m. Extended cracks, and dynamic properties of rocks.
about 1 to 2 cm wide with indicated radii of 50 to 60 m,
were produced, D. Griggs and J. Handin (Eds.), Reck Deformation, Geological
Society of America Memoir 79, Waverly Press, Baltimore (1960).
D. K. Todd, Ground Water Hydro: s», John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Papers presented at a 1956 symposium, covering such sub-
New York (1959). jects as: compressive deformation at 5 kbsr confining pres-
sure to 800 C, shear deformation at 20 kbar confining
J. Weertman, "Theory of Water-Filled Crevasses in Glaciers Ap- pressure to 800 C, of various rocks and minerals; compac-
plied to Vertical Magma Transport Beneath Oceanic Ridges," to be tion and cementation of sands and sandstones; deformation
published in J. Geophys. Res. behavior of sand, limestone, and marble; faulting; fracture.
Includes a good bibliography on liquid-filled cracks, with
emphasis on geophysical applications. R. E. T. Hill and A. L. Boettcher, "Water in the Earth's fciantle:
Melting Curves of Basalt-Water and Basalt-Water-Carbon Dioxide,"
Science 167,980 (1970).
POWER PRODUCTION, CONVENTIONAL The effects of water, carbon dioxide, and pressure on the
temperatures at which melting begins in rocks of basaltic
R. B. Aronson, "Thermal Pollution and the Power Crisis," Ma- composition.
chine Design 42, 30 (June 25,1970).
Electric power generating plants use about 70% of the water G. C. Kennedy, 'The Hydrothermal Solubility of Silica," Econ.
required by U.S. industry, and contribute about 80% of the GeoL 39,25 (1944).
industrial heat added to natural lakes, streams, and livers.
G. C. Kennedy, "A Portion of the System Silica-Water," Econ.
P. M. Boffey, "Energy Crisis: Environmental Issue Exacerbates Geol.45,629(1950).
Power Supply Problem," Science 168,1554 (1970).
A discussion of the conflict between the heed for more R. L. MaroveUi and K. F. Veith, Thermal Conductivity of Rock:
energy and the desire for a clean environment. Measurement by the Transient Line Source Method, VS. Depart-
ment of the Interior RJ. 6604 (1965). v
"Clean Air or Electric Power," Ind. Res. 12,25 (July 1970). Thermal conductivities of taconite, gtanite, quarts, and
A discussion of sulfur dioxide emissions from fuel-fired basalt, from -85 F to 1500 F, measured by a transient
electric power generating plants. technique.

G. C. Gambs, "The Electric Utility Industry: Future Fuel Require- S. Matsushima, '^Viscosity of Obsidian and Basalt Glass Under
ments 1970-1990," Mech. Eng. 92,42 (April 1970). Pressure at High Temperature," Eleventh Symposium on High
Reports preliminary figures prepared for the Federal Power Pressure, Sendai, Japan, 1969,, Chemical Society of Japan.
Commission by six Regional Advisory Committees. These
data will be the basis of the National Power Survey of 1970.

6]
G. W. Moiey and J. M. Hesselgesset, "The Solubility of Some D. F. Weill and W. S. Fyfe, "Solubility of Quartz in H 2 G in the
Minerals in Superheated Steam at High Pressures," Econ. Geol. 46, Range 1000-4000 Bars and 400-550 C," Geochim. et Cosmochim.
821 (1951). Acta 28,1243 (1964).
G. W. Morey, R. O. Fournier, and J. J. Rowe, "The Solubility of C. F. Wingquist, Elastic Moduli of Rock at Elevated Temperatures,
Quartz in Water in the Temperature Interval from 25-300 C," U.S. Department of the Interior RI7269 (1969).
Geochim. ei Cosmochim. Acta 26,1028 (1962). Sonic moduli o / a basalt, a taconite, a quartzite, and a
granite, to 1500 F.
R. Mosebach, "Thcrmodynamic Behavior of Quartz and Other
Forms of Silica in Pure Water at Elevated Temperatures and B. V. Zalesski (Ed.), Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks,
Pressures Whh Conclusions on Their Mechanisms of Solution," J. Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Moscow (1964). (English translation by
of GeoL 65,347(1C57). Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1967, U.S. Department
of Commerce Publication TT67-51256.]
R, F Scott, "The Physics and Mechanics of Soil," Contemp. Phys. Methods of determining the physical, mechanical, and stiiic-
10449(1969). tural characteristics of rocks, plus handbook data from such
A review of the origins of various types of soils, their measurements.
natures and mechanical behaviors, and some of the engineer-
ing problems in which they are involved.
TELEMETRY, SUBTERRANEAN
N. M. Short, "Shock Metamorphism of Basalt," NASA Technical
Memorandum NASA-TM-X-63506 (March 1969). M. Dolukhanov, "Underground Propagation of Radio Waves,"
Radio (Moscow), 1970 [English translation by Joint Publications
D. Turnbull, "Under What Conditions Can a Glass be Formed?" Research Service, Publication No. JPRS49894 (1970).}
Contemp. Phys. 10,473 (1969). A short review of general methods of establishing radio
Characteristics of the glassy state, and the conditions under communication through the earth's crust at various depths.
which glasses are formed.
"Sensing Goes Undergroiuid at Amchitka," Ind. Res. 12,61 (June
G. J. Wasserburg, "The Solubility of Quartz in Supercritical Water 1970).
as a Function of Pressure," J. of Geol. 6 6 , 5 5 9 (1958). Brief description of a subtenanean telemetry system used to
monitor an underground nuclear test through 110 m of
dolomite rock. Plans are described for an advanced version
of the system.

McD/cb: 750(690)

62