Relay:

Relays and contactors use a low level control signal to switch a much higher voltage or
current supply using a number of different contact arrangements.
Thus far we have seen a selection of Input devices that can be used to detect or “sense” a
variety of physical variables and signals and are therefore called Sensors. But there are
also a variety of electrical and electronic devices which are classed as Output devices
used to control or operate some external physical process. These output devices are
commonly called Actuators.

Actuators convert an electrical signal into a corresponding physical quantity such as

movement, force, sound etc. An actuator is also classed as a transducer because it
changes one type of physical quantity into another and is usually activated or operated by
a low voltage command signal. Actuators can be classed as either binary or continuous
devices based upon the number of stable states their output has.

For example, a relay is a binary actuator as it has two stable states, either energised and
latched or de-energised and unlatched, while a motor is a continuous actuator because it
can rotate through a full 360o motion. The most common types of actuators or output
devices are Electrical Relays, Lights, Motors and Loudspeakers.

We saw previously that solenoids can be used to electrically open latches, doors, open or
close valves, and in a variety of robotic and mechatronic applications, etc. However, if
the solenoid plunger is used to operate one or more sets of electrical contacts, we have a
device called a relay that is so useful it can be used in an infinite number of different
ways and in this tutorial we will look at Electrical Relays.

Electrical Relays can also be divided into mechanical action relays called
“Electromechanical Relays” and those which use semiconductor transistors, thyristors,
triacs, etc, as their switching device called “Solid State Relays” or SSR’s.

Electrical Relays however, are basically electrically operated switches that come in
many shapes, sizes and power ratings suitable for all types of applications. Relays can
also have single or multiple contacts within a single package with the larger power relays
used for mains voltage or high current switching applications being called “Contactors”.
 electrical relays we are just concerned with the fundamental operating principles of
“light duty” electromechanical relays we can use in motor control or robotic circuits.
Such relays are used in general electrical and electronic control or switching circuits
either mounted directly onto PCB boards or connected free standing and in which the
load currents are normally fractions of an ampere up to 20+ amperes. The relay circuit are
common in Electronics applications.

As their name implies, electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert
a magnetic flux generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal
either AC or DC across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which
operates the electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of
electromechanical relay consist of an energizing coil called the “primary circuit” wound
around a permeable iron core.

This iron core has both a fixed portion called the yoke, and a moveable spring loaded part
called the armature, that completes the magnetic field circuit by closing the air gap
between the fixed electrical coil and the moveable armature. The armature is hinged or
pivoted allowing it to freely move within the generated magnetic field closing the
electrical contacts that are attached to it. Connected between the yoke and armature is
normally a spring (or springs) for the return stroke to “reset” the contacts back to their
initial rest position when the relay coil is in the “de-energized” condition, i.e. turned
“OFF”.
Electrical Relay Contact Types.

As well as the standard descriptions of Normally Open, (NO) and Normally Closed, (NC)
used to describe how the relays contacts are connected, relay contact arrangements can
also be classed by their actions. Electrical relays can be made up of one or more
individual switch contacts with each “contact” being referred to as a “pole”. Each one of
these contacts or poles can be connected or “thrown” together by energizing the relays
coil and this gives rise to the description of the contact types as being:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw

 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw

 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw

 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw

with the action of the contacts being described as “Make” (M) or “Break” (B). Then a
simple relay with one set of contacts as shown above can have a contact description of:

“Single Pole Double Throw – (Break before Make)”, or SPDT – (B-M)

Examples of just some of the more common diagrams used for electrical relay contact
types to identify relays in circuit or schematic diagrams is given below but there are
many more possible configurations.

Electrical Relay Contact Configurations

 Where:

 C is the Common terminal

 NO is the Normally Open contact

 NC is the Normally Closed contact

Relays are also denoted by the combinations of their contacts or switching elements and
the number of contacts combined within a single relay. For example, a contact which is
normally open in the de-energised position of the relay is called a “Form A contact” or
make contact. Whereas a contact which is normally closed in the de-energised position of
the relay is called a “Form B contact” or break contact.

When both a make and a break set of contact elements are present at the same time so
that the two contacts are electrically connected to produce a common point (identified by
three connections), the set of contacts are referred to as “Form C contacts” or change-
over contacts. If no electrical connection exists between the make and break contacts it is
referred to as a double change-over contact.

One final point to remember about using electrical relays. It is not advisable at all to
connect relay contacts in parallel to handle higher load currents. For example, never
attempt to supply a 10A load with two relay contacts in parallel that have 5A contact
ratings each, as the mechanically operated relay contacts never close or open at exactly
the same instant of time. The result is that one of the contacts will always be overloaded
even for a brief instant resulting in premature failure of the relay over time.

Also, while electrical relays can be used to allow low power electronic or computer type
circuits to switch relatively high currents or voltages both “ON” or “OFF”. Never mix
different load voltages through adjacent contacts within the same relay such as for
example, high voltage AC (240v) and low voltage DC (12v), always use separate relays
for safety.

One of the more important parts of any electrical relay is its coil. This converts electrical
current into an electromagnetic flux which is used to mechanically operate the relays
contacts. The main problem with relay coils is that they are “highly inductive loads” as
they are made from coils of wire. Any coil of wire has an impedance value made up of
resistance ( R ) and inductance ( L ) in series (LR Series Circuit).

As the current flows through the coil a self induced magnetic field is generated around it.
When the current in the coil is turned “OFF”, a large back emf (electromotive force)
voltage is produced as the magnetic flux collapses within the coil (transformer theory).
This induced reverse voltage value may be very high in comparison to the switching
voltage, and may damage any semiconductor device such as a transistor, FET or micro-
controller used to operate the relay coil.

One way of preventing damage to the transistor or any switching semiconductor device,
is to connect a reverse biased diode across the relay coil.

When the current flowing through the coil is switched “OFF”, an induced back emf is
generated as the magnetic flux collapses in the coil.

This reverse voltage forward biases the diode which conducts and dissipates the stored
energy preventing any damage to the semiconductor transistor.

When used in this type of application the diode is generally known as a Flywheel
Diode, Free-wheeling Diode and even Fly-back Diode, but they all mean the same thing.
Other types of inductive loads which require a flywheel diode for protection are
solenoids, motors and inductive coils.
As well as using flywheel Diodes for protection of semiconductor components, other
devices used for protection include RC Snubber Networks, Metal Oxide
Varistors or MOV and Zener Diodes.

The Solid State Relay, While the electromechanical relay (EMR) are inexpensive, easy
to use and allow the switching of a load circuit controlled by a low power, electrically
isolated input signal, one of the main disadvantages of an electromechanical relay is that
it is a “mechanical device”, that is it has moving parts so their switching speed (response
time) due to physically movement of the metal contacts using a magnetic field is slow.

Over a period of time these moving parts will wear out and fail, or that the contact
resistance through the constant arcing and erosion may make the relay unusable and
shortens its life. Also, they are electrically noisy with the contacts suffering from contact
bounce which may affect any electronic circuits to which they are connected.

To overcome these disadvantages of the electrical relay, another type of relay called
a Solid State Relay or (SSR) for short was developed which is a solid state contactless,
pure electronic relay.

The solid state relay being a purely electronic device has no moving parts within its
design as the mechanical contacts have been replaced by power transistors, thyristors or
triac’s. The electrical separation between the input control signal and the output load
voltage is accomplished with the aid of an opto-coupler type Light Sensor.

The Solid State Relay provides a high degree of reliability, long life and reduced
electromagnetic interference (EMI), (no arcing contacts or magnetic fields), together with
a much faster almost instant response time, as compared to the conventional
electromechanical relay.

Also the input control power requirements of the solid state relay are generally low
enough to make them compatible with most IC logic families without the need for
additional buffers, drivers or amplifiers. However, being a semiconductor device they
must be mounted onto suitable heatsinks to prevent the output switching semiconductor
device from over heating.
WORKING:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay
creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw
(changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate
from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V
AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two
circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it
can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs
(chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually used to amplify the small IC
current to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for the
popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly without
amplification.

Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the
page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be
obvious and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage
'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit.
To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.

The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can
see a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This
lever moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground
and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

ULN2003

DESCRIPTION
 The ULN2003 is a monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistor
arrays. It consists of seven NPN darlington pairs that features high-voltage outputs with
common-cathodeclamp diode for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating
of a single darlington pair is 500mA.

The darlington pairs may be parrlleled for higher current capability. Applications
includerelay drivers,hammer drivers, lampdrivers,display drivers(LED gasdischarge),line
drivers, and logic buffers.The ULN2003 has a 2.7kW series base resistor for
eachdarlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5V CMOSdevices.

FEATURES

* 500mA rated collector current(Single output)

* High-voltage outputs: 50V
* Inputs compatible with various types of logic.
* Relay driver application

Relay application considerations

A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone
switching system.

Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and
5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many

different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example,
the old style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the
connection didn't get dropped while dialing the number.
 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated
for up to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC,
automotive types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V
 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few
milliamperes
 Coil current
 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between
circuits, explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed
circuit board assembly
 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow
PCB post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.
 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount,
enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment
 Switching time – where high speed is required
 "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact materials
may be needed such as gold-plated contacts
 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil
current
 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in aerospace
applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more
 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
 Regulatory approvals
 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.