Suspension System

INTRODUCTION
The suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel/axle
assembly from the body. All the power from the engine ultimately
reaches the wheel through the power transmission system. With this
power the vehicle moves on the road. The irregularities of the road are
felt in the form of shocks on the wheel and at this point the suspension
system acts more as a filter to screen out the shocks which would
otherwise damage the body structure and cause discomfort to occupants
of the vehicle. The primary function of the suspension system is to
isolate the vehicle structure from shocks and vibrations due to
irregularities of the road surface.
 NEED FOR A GOOD SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Although there cannot be a vehicle without a suspension system which is
intermediate between the wheel axle system and the body, a good suspension system
will be one which will take up all the shocks and vibrations generated due to the
irregularities of the road and transmit as small a component as possible to the
passenger carriage. A good suspension system must have springiness and damping.
Springiness is elastic resistance to a load. On application of a sudden load the spring
will compress/expand as the case may be without transmitting the same to the body.
As the spring compression is complete it expands on rebound, and now damping
becomes important since this will absorb the work energy as heat energy and the
continuous oscillations of the spring which normally would have taken place are
absorbed.
Thus the primary function of a good suspension system is to isolate the structure, as
far as practicable, from shock loading and vibrations due to the irregularities of the
road surface. This is achieved by flexible elements like springs and dampers. The
secondary function is to achieve the first function without impairing the stability,
steering or general handling qualities of the vehicle.
This is achieved by controlling, by the use of mechanical linkages, the relative
motions between the unsprung masses-wheel and axle assemblies and the sprung
masses.
 STAGES IN SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The function of isolation of shocks and vibrations between road and carriage is
achieved by different elements at different stages. The first element which takes the
impact is the tyre. With pneumatic tyres, this is achieved by flexing and
compression of pneumatic tyres at the contact point.
The second stage is between the axle/wheel system and the body. The elements
incorporate springs, dampers/shock absorbers, various linkages and tie bars. This
part is called the suspension system.
Finally, the last stage of the suspension system are the seats of the automobile which
the passengers occupy. They are made of springs and foam/rubber cushions. They
absorb all short amplitude high frequency vibrations which pass from the system to
the passenger compartment.
It may further be mentioned that the wheel and the seats usually overcome these
high frequency low amplitude vibrations. The central suspension system has to cope
with the greater irregularities of the road which may impact all the wheels, both the
wheels on one side, or one axle or only one wheel at a time. The suspension system
tries to overcome these irregularities while transmitting minimum vibrations to the
passenger compartment.
 ELEMENTS OF A SUSPENSION SYSTEM
A suspension system can be represented in a schematic form as shown in Fig. 18.1
where Wsp and Wus are the sprung and unsprung weights respectively. Rs is the
spring system, Rt is the tyre system and D is the damper, i.e. shock absorber. The
sprung mass is the mass of the passenger carriage while the unsprung mass is the
mass of the wheel axle system. While it is clear that the spring effect is provided to a
small extent by the tyre and to a large extent by the spring used, the damping effect
is to a large extent provided by the hydraulic dampers (or shock absorbers).
However in case of leaf springs, the friction between the leaves in motion does
generate some damping effect.
Dampers in fact have two important functions. First, they reduce the tendency
of the carriage unit to continue to bounce up and down on its springs after the
disturbance that caused the initial motion has ceased. Secondly, they prevent
excessive build up of amplitude of bounce as a result of periodic excitation at
a frequency identical to the natural frequency of vibration of the spring mass
system.
Apart from a simple bounce or vibration of the carriage unit as a whole, there
are two more types of vibrations known as rolling and pitching. In rolling, the
carriage unit rolls about the longitudinal axis of the vehicle while in pitching,
the carriage unit rolls about a transverse axis. Thus in rolling, one side of the
car goes down and the rear goes up and vice versa. These actions place
further constraints on the design of the suspension system.
While rolling can be checked by using anti-roll bars, pitching is a more
complex phenomenon and is affected by what is known as vibration
coupling effect, i.e. interaction between front and rear suspension. It has
been found that pitching persists for longer if the rear suspension has a
lower natural frequency than the front suspension. Consequently, the
natural frequency of the rear suspension is normally made higher than
that of the front. It must however be underlined that pitching will in
general depend on the frequency of disturbances, or bumps over which
the car rolls, spacing of bumps, speed of the vehicle, its mass moment of
inertia about the axis of pitch and its wheel base.
Important elements of a suspension system are:
1. Springs
2. Dampers.
Springs
1. Leaf Springs Leaf springs are referred to as laminated springs since they use
steel strips or laminations one over the other with reducing length (Fig. 18.2). They
are also called semi-elliptical springs as they are bent in that form. However
nowadays they are almost straight. Leaf springs, in terms of mechanics, are beams
of uniform strength, since the stress developed is maximum at the centre while it is
minimum at the ends. Laminations provide damping effect due to the friction
between the laminations which move relative to each other when flexing takes
place. The two ends of the topmost spring form an eye which is fitted to the body of
the car through rubber bushes. One end is fitted directly to a pin while the other end
is fitted through a shackle link to accommodate the increase or decrease in length of
the spring due to flexing. Leaf springs in general have approximately only a quarter
of the energy storage capacity for a given stress level of either coil spring or torsion
bar. Calculated on the basis of weight for a given energy storage capacity, the ratio is
3.9:1 in favour of coil or torsion bar springs.
The springiness of the leaf spring can be varied by varying the number of leaf
laminations. Increase in number would stiffen it while reduction will make it
more flexible. Similarly, on repeated use due to constant flexing, the leaves
become flatter and their springiness is reduced. In other words, they become
‘soft’. In such a case further tension is given to the leaves. After a few such
operations, the springs become totally unsuitable for their purpose and have
to be changed.
Another disadvantage of the leaf spring is that it is heavier than the coil or
torsion bar spring. Moreover, whereas two thirds of the weight of a semi-
elliptic spring is carried by the axle that has to be considered as unsprung-
weight, only half that of a coil spring and virtually none of that of a torsion
bar is unsprung weight.
2 . Coil Springs The best energy storing shape for a given weight for a spring is
circular, and a coil spring stores the energy produced by its up and down movement
in the most efficient way. Coil springs have the advantage of fitting in a compact
space. It is stressed during torsion like a torsion bar although there is some bending
(Fig. 18.3). The life of coil springs is increased by shot peening their surfaces to
induce compressive stresses in them and to reduce the effect of scratches in
initiating fatigue cracks. Immediately after shot peening, such springs may be given
an anticorrosion treatment again to increase their fatigue life. Where coil springs are
used the end coils usually sit square, for stability, upon surfaces through which the
load is applied to the rest of the spring. Coil springs sometimes have a tendency to
bend under the action of compressive load. However in many cases, coil springs are
mounted in such a way that the cylindrical dampers or shock absorbers pass through
them so that the possibility of bending is reduced to a minimum.
Coil springs were initially preferred for independent suspension only and hence
were used in front axles However with improved design, coil springs have been
used in live as well as dead axle and in independent as well as rigid suspension
systems.
3. Torsion Bars : In case of torsion bars (Fig. 18.4), a spring steel bar is fixed
rigidly at one end to the body while the movement of axle or wheels is transmitted
to the torsion bar through a lever in the form of torque. The resulting deformation of
the torsion bar is twisting and the stress produced is shear stress. The inherent elastic
properties of the material cause the bar to come back to its normal state (i.e. untwist)
so that under the action of the wheel movement, the torsion bar twists and untwists.
Torsion bars are scragged-that is overloaded in torsion during manufacture—to
stretch outer layers beyond the elastic limit. As this leaves a residual stress in the
outer layers, the maximum stress under service occurs beneath the surface where it
is less likely to initiate cracks. This helps to increase the fatigue life. As in coil
springs, shot peening and anticorrosion treatment is also given to the torsion bars to
improve fatigue life.
Torsion bars are not very popular as suspension springs because their end fixings are
more costly and provision has to be made for the adjustment of the ride height on
the vehicle assembly line. Torsion bars are however often used as antiroll devices. A
steel bar is mounted in rubber bushes across the vehicle, with its ends bent round to
act as levers which in turn are connected to the suspension.
When both wheels of the same axle move up and down as a pair, the antiroll bar
merely rotates in bearings without any effect on suspension. However, when only
one wheel rises or falls causing the vehicle to roll, for example, on a bend, the
torsion bar twists reacting against the movement of the wheel.
4. Other Springs Rubber springs are used more in commercial vehicles. Rubber is
however used as bushes to check the transmission of vibration, for example, in the
ends of a key spring. Rubber springs have been used only in a few cases in
passenger cars since the precise control of ride essential for comfort is difficult to
achieve with such springs.
Rubber material is best suited for a combination of shear (side to side movement of
successive layers) and compression. They have a good fatigue strength in
compression. However it is worst in tension since there is a tendency for the cracks
to open out. Their biggest advantage is that they are free of maintenance.
5. Air and Gas Springs In air and gas springs, compressed air or gas is filled in the
cylinder or bellows against which the wheel movement is transmitted through a
diaphragm. As soon as the wheel has passed over a road irregularity the compressed
air pressure returns the system to its original position.
Air springs are fairly widely employed in many countries in vehicles whose loaded
and unloaded weights differ greatly, for example, trucks, large draw bar trailers,
tractors, etc. Air springs give a high quality ride particularly with independent
suspension. However the disadvantages overweigh this advantage.
The main disadvantages of the air/gas springs are high cost, complexity of
compressed air ancillary system, risk of break down, greater maintenance than other
types of springs and freezing of moisture in air in cold weather. Air suspension
systems are in general too bulky and too complex for cars.
 Dampers
Dampers are used in the suspension system to check any continuous vibration which
may follow the initial force on the spring. Damping action is provided by the
absorption of energy in one form or the other. In old days, friction was used as the
damping agent. These dampers had packs of friction material interleaved between
blades, or arms which were attached alternately to spring and unsprung masses.
Semirotary vane type dampers were also used. However they were abandoned
because the ratio of sealing length around their vanes to volume displaced was so
high that these units were rapidly adversely affected by wear.
Modern cars mostly have hydraulic dampers which are of two types:
1. Telescopic dampers
2. Rocking lever dampers.
Both these dampers use hydraulic fluid as damping agent. Damping is effected by
the damper piston or pistons forcing the hydraulic fluid at high velocities through
small holes. Thus energy is absorbed by the fluid, converted into heat and then
dissipated partly by conduction into the surrounding structure of the vehicle, but
ultimately all heat passes into the air stream flowing past these components.
The amount of energy thus absorbed and dissipated for any given rate of energy
input is a function of the volume, viscosity of the fluid and the number, sizes and
geometry of the holes through which it is forced.
A major advantage of hydraulic damping is that the resistance to deflection of the
damper is a function of the square of its velocity. Therefore, slow movements of the
wheels can occur with relative freedom but the resistance increases rapidly with the
velocity of motion.
1. Telescopic Dampers Telescopic dampers are quite often called incorrectly as
shock absorbers. As mentioned in the previous section, they use the flow of
hydraulic fluid past their pistons as the damping medium.
As shown in Fig. 18.5, telescopic dampers use a cylinder and a piston assembly
which is sealed and the cylinder is completely filled with hydraulic fluid. The
cylinder and the piston in turn are fitted to the wheel axle and the car body
respectively through rubber bush eyes. The piston rod passes through a sealing
gland on the open side of the cylinder. The piston has a small hole through which
the fluid rushes to the other side as the piston is forced to move in any direction due
to the motion of the wheel.
Relief valves and leak passages provide controlled flow of the oil each way through
the piston. The space above the piston is smaller than that below it and this space
cannot accept all the oil displaced by the piston as it travels towards the lower end of
the cylinder. A valve controls the escape of the surplus oil into a reservoir or
‘recuperating chamber’ which surrounds the cylinder.
As the damper extends, the piston does not displace enough oil from the top section
of the cylinder to fill the lower, which is topped up from the reservoir through the
replenishment valve.
2 . Rocking Lever Damper : Rocking lever dampers (Fig. 18.6) work on the same
principal as telescopic dampers but have two pistons which move in a cylinder while
the oil is displaced through a valve. The motion of the dual pistons takes place due
to the motion of the wheels which is passed on to the pistons through the rocker
levers.
The body, incorporating the hydraulic cylinder of the lever type damper is usually
mounted on the carriage unit, with its actuating lever connected to the axle. If the
body were mounted on the axle, the high frequency, high velocity motions to which
it would be subjected might cause aeration of the hydraulic fluid and hence
adversely affect the damping capacity of the unit.
 SUSPENSION SYSTEMS
The suspension system is assembled with the elements mentioned in the preceeding
sections. The suspension of a car initially was rigid. Both the front and rear axles
were connected to the carriage unit through springs. Later on, dampers were added
to give better ride. Still later, suspension became independent. In what is called the
one piece suspension system, the two wheels mounted on the same axle (live or
dead) move together, in a way. That is, if a wheel comes over a bump it gets lifted
and the whole axle is tilted and with it the car itself. This was a major drawback and
hence the need gave way to the independent suspension system. In this system, a
wheel moves up and down to some extent without affecting the second wheel on the
same axle.
 Independent Suspension
Independent suspension is a term used to describe any arrangement by which the
wheels are connected to the carriage unit in a manner such that the rise and fall of
one wheel has no effect on the others.
There are many advantages of the independent suspension system:
(i) Since in the independent suspension system, the wheels more or less travel with
their planes perpendicular to the road surface, the gyroscopic affects are reduced to a
minimum.
(ii) Steering effects due to lateral movements of the tyre/road contact path, as the
wheel rises and falls are avoided.
(iii) Variations in caster angle are reduced.
(iv) Unsprung mass is less, hence the ride quality is improved.
(v) Engine can be moved further. Since it has not to clear beam axle. Hence there is
more passenger space.
(vi) Independent suspension uses coil springs which can be placed closer to the
wheel. This is a definite advantage vis-a-vis leaf springs for a wheel to be steered.
In a car, the front axle is usually a dead axle although some cars do have front wheel
drive. Independent suspension systems therefore have been almost universally
adopted for the front wheels. The independent suspension system for the front wheel
has to cope with the fact that they are to be steered.
Rear axle is usually a live axle with power being transmitted to the rear wheels.
Hence independent suspension has not become very popular for the rear wheels.
Further, the rear wheels have to carry lot of weight and while the weight on the front
wheel remains more or less constant, in case of rear wheels it makes a lot of
difference when the car is running empty or when it is fully occupied. The
suspension system has to cater to both these conditions.
 Front Wheel Suspension System
Right from the advent of the car, designers have strived hard to enhance the comfort
along with other improvements. The one piece beam axle arrangement of the earliest
cars was a legacy from the horse cart era. However it had the biggest disadvantage
of tilting the car even on small bumps or despressions of the road resulting in most
uncomfortable rides. It was during the second world war that the beam axle
arrangement gave way totally to independent suspension for the front wheels.
The independent suspension, as the name clearly suggests had independent
suspension system for each of the front wheels. Each wheel has its own linkage,
springs and dampers. The up and down motion of one wheel up and down with the
forces of the road is totally independent of the other. However to prevent roll of the
car, the antiroll bar which is hinged across the chassis, bent and joined to the lower
wish bone on each side to resist body roll when cornering, does join the two
independent suspensions.
The front suspension in a car has to bear a lot of forces particularly due to
acceleration, braking and cornering. The assembly used for the front suspension has
to provide a movement in the up and down direction along with steering. It has
therefore to adhere to the following conditions:
(i) The suspension must not allow the various forces coming from the road
irregularities and cornering to deflect the car from its course of movement decided
by the driver.
(ii) It should not permit the wheels to wobble, move any significant distance
backwards or forwards or sideways.
(iii) It should not allow the system to alter the tilt of the wheels to any serious
degree. The above conditions are necessary for the control and handling of the
vehicle.
 Types of Independent Front Suspension
Systems
Although over the years many arrangements have been developed and successfully
fitted on the front wheels, two representative types of independent suspension
systems of the front wheel are next discussed:
1. Double wish bone suspension system
2. Single wish bone, i.e. MacPherson strut assembly.
1. Double Wish Bone Suspension System As the name suggests, the assembly in
the double wish bone suspension system primarily uses two wish bone shaped links
(Fig. 18.7). A wish bone is a vee shaped link which is so named because of its
shape. The two ends of the vee are hinged onto the body or the sub frame while the
narrow ends carry between them (i.e. narrow ends of upper and lower wish bone
links) the swivel member which carries the stub axle on which the wheel is
mounted. Thus the two wish bones are placed one over the other while the swivel
member is vertically positioned. Between the two wish bone links are placed the
spring and the shock absorber (damper) system which take the shocks and reduce
vibrations.
The two wish bones may either be equal or unequal. Depending upon their relative
lengths and also whether they are placed parallel to each other or at an angle, the
response of the wheel to the up and down movement is predicted. The geometry of
the wish bone layout—the lengths, positions and angles of the links-governs the
path of the wheels when the car rides over bumps. This path in turn affects steering,
road holding and tyre wear.
2. MacPherson Strut Assembly (Single Wish System): Earle S. MacPherson, an
engineer with Ford USA, developed a single wish bone with a telescopic strut type
system (Fig. 18.8) in the forties. In this system, there is a telescopic strut, a single
arm and a diagonal stay. The whole system is known as the MacPherson system.
The strut is fixed to the body structure at the upper end through a flexible mounting
and the lower part of the strut is connected at the bottom by a joint to the lower arm.
The lower part of the strut also carries the stub axle, which in turn carries the wheel.
The steering motion is supplied to the lower part of the strut and it turns the whole
strut. A coil spring and a hydraulic damper surround the upper part of the strut
which takes care of the road irregularity shocks and vibrations.
The MacPherson strut has some distinct advantages:
(i) It is mechanically simple.
(ii) Its light moving parts help the wheels to follow the road irregularities.
(iii) The wheel camber does not vary much.
(iv) It has distinct advantages in case of transverse engines, since in that case there is
either no space or very little space for upper links to fit.
(v) Its maintenance is very easy.

However this system does have a couple of disadvantages:

(i) Radial loading comes on the piston due to the lateral forces during cornering
and brake torque.
(ii) The body structure has to be really strong above the wheel arches, where the
struts are attached, to absorb the full suspension loads.
 Rear Wheel Suspension System
Unlike the front axle which is in most of the cars, a dead axle, except in case of front
wheel drive cars, the rear axle is a live axle. Even in case of four wheel drive vehicles like
jeeps, the rear axle mostly transmits the power. The front axle is designed to transmit
power in situations when the four wheel drive is used. In case of heavy passenger vehicles
or load carrying vehicles, the power is transmitted through the rear axle.
A live axle is one that either rotates or houses shafts that rotate, while a dead axle is one
that does neither, but simply carries at its ends the stub axles on which the wheels rotate.
Live axle performs two functions:
(i) It acts as a beam that carries through the medium of springs and the other suspension
system, the weight of the passenger compartment and its contents, and transmits these
loads under dynamic conditions through the road wheels—rotating on its ends—to the
ground. The dynamic loading is principally a result of the motions of the wheel and axle
assembly over the ground and the reactions due to its mass, the flexibilities of the tyres
and road springs and the mass of the carriage unit and its contents.
(ii) To house and support the final drive, differential and shafts to the road wheels
and to react the torques in both the input and output shafts.
The rear axle suspension poses problems to designers since the weight on the front
axle remains more or less constant, and the front axle or front suspension as it
should be correctly called, is under the engine and its movements are not coming on
the passengers as directly as the rear axle.
Rear suspension has to be designed not only for an empty car when the car is
moving with driver, but also when the car carries occupants and also when the car
boot at the rear is loaded.
This variation of load on the rear axle is further complicated when it is realised that
the weight of the car is shifted to a larger extent, at the time of acceleration, to the
rear axle.
The springs and dampers, on the rear suspension, should therefore be soft enough to
give a comfortable drive in an empty car but also hard enough to carry extra weight
when running with full capacity.
The suspension system for the rear axle must be capable of dealing with:
(i) The weight of the carriage unit including contents.
(ii) Torque reaction—for both drive line and brakes.
(iii) Driving thrust.
(iv) Brake drag.
(v) Lateral forces.
The rear axle suspension system therefore has to be designed to overcome the above
forces. Both rigid suspension and independent rear wheel suspension have been
designed in many ways and some are specifically known by the names of the car
models in which they were used. However in the present chapter, a representative of
each of both rigid suspension and independent suspension is described.
 Hotchkiss Drive
The Hotchkiss drive is a rigid suspension which employs two leaf springs located as
far as possible on the axle (Fig. 18.9). These springs apart from absorbing shocks,
also position the axle and the axle moves up and down with it. Two telescopic
hydraulic dampers, i.e. shock absorbers are attached one each to the two sides of the
real axle near the leaf springs.
The axle is usually fixed exactly at the mid point of the spring. However in some
cases, it is fixed a bit ahead of the mid point to give a downward tilt as the axle rises
when riding over bumps.
This reduces the amount by which the propeller shaft lifts on a bump and in turn
minimises the height of the propeller shaft tunnel and the amount it intrudes into the
car body.
The leaf springs are fitted to the body with a rubber bush in the front while the rear
end of the spring is fitted to the body through a shackle with rubber brushes. This
helps in accommodating the increase or decrease in length of the spring as it flexes
up and down.
One of the disadvantages of leaf spring is that it tends to distort when the axle tries
to turn during acceleration or braking.
Some modifications to the simple Hotchkiss drive have been made to overcome
some of the shortcomings. For example, fore and aft distortion of the springs can be
limited by linking the axle to the main car structure. Radius rods trailing from
mountings on the structure help to position the axle. Another design uses a
transverse rod known as Panhard rod which pivots on the body structure at one end
and on the axle at the other. This assists in holding the axle in position (Fig. 18.10).
 Independent Rear Suspension

Many arrangements have been tried for independent rear suspension. However since the
rear axle is in general a live axle, arrangements have to be made to have independent
movements of the two wheels which in turn require the movements of two halves of the
axle. The usual arrangement in such a case is to have a double universal coupling on
each half of the rear axle, i.e. one at the point of power take off from the differential,
while the other at the stub axle of the wheel. This allows the angular movement of the
half rear axle while freeing the wheel from angular tilt with it.
1. Swinging Half Axle The oldest arrangement in independent rear wheel suspension
was the swinging half axle type. This system has two tubes pivoted to a central drive
casing carried by the car structure. A universal joint is centred on each pivot. Suspension
is usually by a leaf spring lying across the car bolted to the frame or axle casing in the
middle and shackled at its ends to the axle tube. A later version carried a coil spring, and
a double universal joint to reduce camber changes when cornering (Fig. 18.11).
2. MacPherson Strut Similar to what was described in front suspension, the
MacPherson strut is used in rear suspension with half axles as described in the
previous section.
3. Trailing Arm Design In the trailing arm design, two trailing arms are used one
on each side of the rear axle (Fig. 18.12). The trailing arm is a partial “Y” structure
as shown and usually of forged construction. This trailing arm is hinged ahead of the
rear axle to the body structure and the hinge pin is at right angles to the car axis. In
such a case, the wheels move up and down without any change in camber. The coil
springs are housed in between the trailing arm and the body while the hydraulic
dampers are fixed to the body and the trailing arm. The trailing end of the trailing
arm is hinged on the rear axle.
 TORSION BAR
Torsion bar is located between vehicle frame and lower control arm. It is made of
alloy spring steel which is heat treated. As the wheel moves up the lower end of the
control arm moves up and causes twisting of torsion bar and absorption of shock.
The natural resistance to twisting restores the bar to original state returning the
wheel to road. The torsion bars are pre-stressed to give them desired fatigue
strength. The pre-stressing is directional and therefore these are identified as ‘left’ or
‘right’ so that these can be used on left or right side of suspension system. A damper
is placed between the lower control arm and frame to dampen the twisting motion of
the torsion bar.
The automobiles are provided with suspension systems on both front and rear side.
According to requirements, the design of front suspension system differs from
design of rear suspension system.
 Clutch
A clutch is a mechanism which connects or disconnects the transmission of power
from one working part to another, i.e. the crankshaft and the gear box primary shaft.
The components concerned with the transmitting of engine power to the road wheels
of a motor vehicle are the clutch, a gear box or automatic transmission, universal
joints, propeller shaft, differential and the axles as well as bearings for the driving
wheels.
 FUNCTIONS OF A CLUTCH
Since it is not possible to permit direct drive of the vehicle under all conditions of speed, it
is essential to have some device which can help in changing gears in order to obtain
different vehicle speeds. To avoid damage to the transmission and jolting of the vehicle, the
rotating engine is not connected directly to a stationary transmission shaft. A device known
as clutch is used to disengage the drive from the engine to the gear box and subsequent re-
engagement so that the engine takes the load gradually and smoothly. This is possible only
if the clutch slips, i.e. it rotates and slides on the input shaft of the gear box instead of
making a firm connection between the engine and the gear box.
Thus the different functions of a clutch are:
1. To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary and the
engine is running.
2. To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without jolt/shock to the
transmission system while setting the vehicle in motion.
3. To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gear
wheels.
The clutch may be manual or automatic, whatever the form, it must possess the
following qualities.
1. It should consume minimum physical effort at the time of engagement and
disengagement, i.e. should be easily operated.
2. It should be free from slip when engaged.
3. The wearing surfaces should have long life.
4. The clutch should be easily accessible and have simple means of adjustment.
5. Within the clutch, a suitable mechanism should be provided for damping of
vibration and elimination of noise produced during transmission. Further, the clutch
must also be designed to absorb the shock of engaging two shafts running at
different speeds and to absorb small torque irregularities.
 MAIN PARTS OF A CLUTCH
The principal parts in a typical clutch are the driving members, the driven member
(clutch plate) and the operating members. One driving member consists of a cover
which carries a cast iron pressure plate or driving disc, the pressure springs and the
releasing levers.
The entire assembly is bolted to the flywheel and rotates with it at all times. The
flywheel acts as a second driving member; the flywheel and the pressure plate grip
the driven member between them under the action of the pressure springs. The
driven member consists of a disc or plate which is free to slide lengthwise on the
splines of the clutch shaft but which drives the shaft through those splines. The
clutch disc carries friction material on both bearing surfaces.
The operating mechanism consists of the foot pedal, the linkage, the release or
throw-out bearing, the release lever and the springs necessary to ensure proper
operation of the clutch. In Premier Padmini, the clutch is of the single plate spring-
cushioned hub type, working dry with damper rings.
The clutch consists of the following parts as shown in Fig. 12.1.
1. Pressure Plate It is accurately machined and presses the driven plate against the flywheel.
2. Driven Plate It is provided with annular facings and a spring-cushioned hub, i.e. with
springs and with two vibration damper rings. Its outer diameter is 184 mm.
3. Release Levers Release levers are provided with every lever mounted on an eye bolt locked
on the cover by a nut and held in place by a retainment spring.
4. Engagement springs Six powerful springs force the pressure plate on driven plate.
5. Sliding sleeve with thrust bearing The sleeve controlled by a fork lever may slide until it
presses with the thrust bearing on the release lever inner ends.
6. Cover The cover which is of pressed sheet steel, is fixed to the flywheel by six screws.
When the driver presses down on the clutch pedal to release the clutch, a suitable linkage
moves the sleeve with the thrust bearing towards the engine. The thrust bearing presses on the
release lever inner ends; the lever rocks and overcoming the spring load with its outer ends,
pushes back the pressure plate thus disengaging the clutch. This action allows the flywheel and
pressure plate to turn without transmitting power to the driven disc and the clutch shaft.
Whenever the driver’s foot is off the clutch pedal, the pressure plate springs push on the
pressure plate and squeeze the disc against the flywheel and the engine is coupled to the
 CLUTCH TYPES
The most widely used form of clutch is the friction type. This may be:
1. The cone clutch which is now only used in the synchromesh units of gear boxes, and in
overdrives and some epicyclic gear boxes.
2. The single plate clutch (multi spring or diaphragm spring) which is used in most cars and
small commercial vehicles.
3. The multiplate clutch which is used in motor-cycles, in some racing cars, tractors and also in
special types of very heavy commercial vehicles.
The single and multi-plate friction clutches are usually dry types. The word “dry type” is used
to distinguish these clutches from those that operate in a bath of oil known as the ‘wet plate’
type.
In these clutches a cork-insert or phosphor-bronze plates are fitted between steel plates, all the
plates being immersed in oil. Oil immersed clutches are however used in conjunction with, or
as part of automatic transmission.
Other forms of clutch are also coming into use and generally form a part of the pre-selector,
two-pedal or fully automatic transmission systems. These are the centrifugal and magnetic
clutches, the fluid flywheel and the hydraulic torque converter.
 Single Plate Clutch
The single plate clutch is used in most automobiles for producing a quick
disengagement and permitting change of gears with minimum effort. The clutch is
of conventional design, having coiled pressure springs and three adjustable release
levers. There are many designs of coil spring pressure plates, some using three large
coil springs; others using nine or twelve smaller springs.
Another type of pressure plate uses a one-piece conical or diaphragm spring steel
which is punched to give it greater flexibility. It claims following advantages over
the coil spring type:
1. As the diaphragm itself acts as a series of levers, release levers are not needed.
2. Less effort is needed on the pedal to keep the clutch disengaged .
3. Operating load is practically uniform and constant on the driven plate.
4. Squeaks, rattles and vibrations are mostly eliminated.
 Multiplate Clutch
Multiplate clutches are used for large trucks and racing cars where high torque
transmission is necessary but the diameter is limited. These are also used in
automatic transmission and motor cycles. In this type of clutch a number of parallel
discs of metal and friction material are arranged to transmit the drive. In comparison
to the single plate type these are smoother and easier to operate. The increased
number of plates/friction discs provide the increased torque carrying ability thus
making it suitable for use in heavy commercial vehicles and special purpose military
and agricultural vehicles. These clutches may be dry or wet.
Multiple Wet Clutch : A multiple wet clutch consists of a number of thin plates
made of steel fitted to the engine shaft and those on the gear shaft are made of
phosphor bronze. These plates are immersed in a bath of oil and also have grooved
surfaces for permitting the oil to flow through them. These grooves help to dissipate
the heat generated during the engagement and release operations. The wet clutches
are generally used in conjunction with or as a part of the automatic transmission.
Multiple Dry Clutch : The multiple dry clutch has its different plates lined with a
frictional material similar to that used in case of a single plate clutch. Cork inserted
multiplate clutches are used in motor cycles while those with metal plates are used
in tractors or other light powered engine vehicles. To avoid scorching or changing of
cork-inserts due to frictional heat, it is necessary to have the clutch oil-cooled.
 Centrifugal Clutch
The centrifugal clutch automatically disengages itself when the speed falls below
and engages when the speed rises above a pre-set value. Centrifugal bob-weights are
positioned in such a way (see Fig. 12.3) that the centrifugal forces exerted by them
with the clutch rotation result in the release levers to be pivoted on their bearings.
The clearance between the release levers and the bearing is reduced due to the outer
end of the release lever moving towards the flywheel. This results in the
proportionate increase of centrifugally generated pressure with the increase of
engine speed. Therefore at low engine speeds only the spring pressure acts, while at
high engine speeds the force generated by the weights supplements the spring
pressure. Thus smooth and acceptable gear changes are obtained under varying
conditions of load and speed.
 Semi-Centrifugal Clutch
The semi-centrifugal clutches are similar to the centrifugal clutches, only difference
being that relatively lighter clutch pressure springs exerting low pressure at idling
speeds can be used. From Fig. 12.4 it can be seen that the release levers are provided
with weights on its outer ends. These weights are forced outwards because of the
centrifugal force when the clutch speed increases.
This way the release levers apply more pressure on the pressure plate, thus
increasing the contact of the friction disc with the flywheel. This type of
construction permits the use of light coil pressure springs and the clutch can operate
without too much pressure.
 Free Wheel or One-way Clutch
The free wheel or one-way clutch is a device which transmits power in one direction
only. This is fitted in transmission components just behind the gearbox so that
transmission components beyond it can be overrun by components before it. With
this arrangement, the engine can idle without having to disengage the gears and also
helps in gear changing. While going downhill on a long steep road also the engine
can overrun the transmission components so that no power is transmitted from the
engine.
 Diaphragm Clutch
Figure 12.5 shows the cross-sectional view of the diaphragam clutch used in Maruti
800 manufactured in India by M/s Maruti Udyog Ltd. It is a dry single disc type
clutch and the diaphragm spring is of a tapering finger type, which is a solid ring in
the outer diameter part. The disc carrying six torsional coil springs is slidably
mounted on the transmission input shaft with a serration fit. The clutch cover is
secured to the flywheel and carries the diaphragm spring in such a way that the
peripheral edge of the spring pushes on the pressure plate against the flywheel (with
the disc in between), when the clutch release bearing is held back. This is the
engaged position of the clutch. Depressing the clutch pedal causes the release
bearing to advance and push in the tips of the tapering fingers of the diaphragm
spring. When this happens, it acts like the release levers of a conventional clutch
putting the pressure plate away from the flywheel. This interrupts the flow of drive
from the flywheel through the clutch disc to the transmission input shaft. Figure
12.6 shows the components of this type of clutch.
 Automatic Clutches
Several automatic clutch designs have recently become available. Ferlec of French
origin and the Smiths electroshift design have been used on certain Renault models
and continental cars. It has a conventional type of friction disc. When battery current
is supplied, an electromagnet in the flywheel operates the pressure plate which
engages the disc thus transmitting engine torque. Figure 12.7 shows the electroshift
magnetic particle clutch which consists of two rotating members. One is attached to
the engine and the other is attached to the gear box. A gap is provided between the
two members. The torque is transmitted through this gap by means of magnetic
particles. It may be mentioned that when the particles are magnetised by an external
magnetic field, they tend to solidify, thus forming a solid connection between the
engine and the gearbox. By the adjustment of this magnetic field, the slip to any
degree can be conveniently obtained.
 CLUTCH ACTUATING MECHANISM
The clutch linkage allows the driver to engage and disengage the clutch with a
pedal. Two types of linkages are used, mechanical and hydraulic. The mechanical
clutch linkage has a system of levers that provides a force of approx. 40 lbs (180 N)
at the clutch pedal to release the clutch. Clutch linkage transmits the force applied to
the clutch pedal to the throw out or release bearing and provides the necessary
leverage to make the clutch operation possible with a reasonable amount of foot
pressure. In Fig. 12.8 the clutch pedal rotates about a pedal shaft, so that when it is
depressed, it pushes a pedal rod backward causing in turn the torque shaft to
transmit the backward motion through a fork rod to the end of a release bearing
fork. Since the fork is pivoted, the motion imparted to it by the fork rod causes the
release bearing to move towards the flywheel to disengage the clutch.
When the clutch pedal is released, the pull back spring returns the release bearing
linkage and the pedal to the engaged position. Many compact automobiles use a
cable instead of rods to pull on the clutch fork. The cable which may be routed
through a small area is used where space is a problem.
 Hydraulic Clutch Linkage
Another way of getting motion from the clutch pedal to the pressure plate is through
the use of hydraulic pressure. Figure 12.9 shows a master cylinder at the clutch
pedal connected to a slave cylinder at the pressure plate release lever. Standard-10
cars in our country are equipped with this type of clutch operation. The foot pedal,
operating the piston in the cylinder produces hydraulic pressure, which is then
transmitted through a tube to a slave cylinder containing the piston. This pressure
moves the slave piston thereby releasing the clutch. This system has a distinct
advantage in that complicated linkages, vibration and wear of linkages are
eliminated.
 CLUTCH CONSTRUCTION
Single plate clutch of conventional design having coiled pressure springs and adjustable
release levers (3 nos.) has been used in many automobiles equipped with synchromesh
transmissions. The clutch cover plate is bolted to the flywheel; three lugs on the pressure
plate engage slots in the cover plate to transmit torque to the plate.
Pressure springs (only one shown in Fig. 12.10) are located between the cover plate and
the pressure plate. The release lever is located so that its inner end is in position to be
engaged by the clutch release bearing. The release lever is pivoted on a fulcrum which is
bolted to the cover plateand is mounted in the pressure plate lug. The outer end weight,
an integral part of the release lever, is included so that at higher engine speeds where
slippage may occur, the centrifugal force developed by the weight causes more pressure
to be applied on the pressure plate. The faster the rotation of the clutch by the engine the
greater the pressure exerted against the clutch plate and the greater the torque
transmitting ability of the clutch.
When the clutch is engaged the release lever is clear of the release bearing and the
pressure spring causes the pressure plate to clamp the driven plate against the flywheel
with sufficient force to transmit power from the engine without slippage. The power
drive is from the flywheel to the cover plate, then to the pressure plate and finally to the
driven member.
 DRIVEN MEMBER (FRICTION OR CLUTCH DISC)
The driven member assembly is mounted with a free sliding fit on the transmission
drive gear and is keyed to the gear by ten splines. The front end of the drive gear is
piloted by a bushing pressed into a recess in the rear end of the engine crankshaft.
The outer area is divided into segments which are formed in low waves. These
waves form a rippled-spring effect between the plate facings to cushion the
engagement of the clutch. A moulded facing is riveted to each side of every plate
segment. When the clutch is fully released the segments cause the facings to spread
approximately .054 in. or 1.35 mm to assure full release of the driven member.
Rattle-causing torsional vibrations of the engine are prevented by the use of coiled
damper spring and the frictional dampening effect of moulded friction washers. The
most commonly used facings are made of cotton and asbestos fibres woven or
moulded together and mixed with resins. Copper wires are often woven or pressed
into the material to give it additional strength.
The clutch disc usually has a flexible centre to absorb the torsional vibrations of the
crankshaft. The flexible centre is made from steel compression springs placed
between the hub and the steel plate. The springs allow the disc to rotate slightly in
relation to its hub until the springs are fully compressed and relative motion stops.
Then the disc can rotate slightly backward as the springs decompress. This slight
backward and forward rotation allows the clutch shaft to rotate at a more uniform
rate than the crankshaft and eliminate some of the torsional vibrations from the
crankshaft. As described earlier, the pressure plate assembly may contain a
diaphragm spring or a number of coil springs. The springs are connected at one end
to a steel cover and at the other end they are connected to a heavy flat ring with one
ground contact surface, the pressure plate (see Fig. 12.11). The pressure plate and
flywheel surfaces are usually machined and ground from nodular iron which
contains enough graphite to provide some lubrication when the clutch is slipping
during engagement.
 AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION DEVICES
Automatic transmission helps to change the engine’s rotational speed to the speed
required at the driving wheels. It changes the gear ratios between the engine and the
drive wheels to keep the engine operating in its most efficient range. It automatically
shifts under the load demands.
1. Fluid Flywheel/Fluid Coupling
Fluid coupling is a hydraulic unit that replaces a clutch in a semi or fully automatic
system, and transmits engine torque to a transmission system. Since the coupling is
a major part of the engine flywheel assembly, it is also called a fluid flywheel or
fluid-drive acting as an automatic clutch. In this drive the power flows through a
fluid instead of through a mechanical device. The fluid drive consists of a driving
and a driven member both bowl or half-doughnut shaped, immersed in a fluid
contained in a casing. These units are mounted very closely with their open ends
facing each other, so that they can be tuned independently without touching.
Operation: The driving unit (impeller) is linked to the engine crankshaft and sets
the oil into motion when the throttle is opened. The force of the rotating, trapped oil
impinges on the fins of the driven unit (the runner or turbine) and cause it to move.
Thus the fluid transmits the engine power to the clutch-driving plate without any
metal to metal contact. Figure 12.12 shows the simplified diagram of a fluid
flywheel. It consists of a split housing driven by the engine. The turbine is attached
to the gear box clutch shaft and it is inside the housing. It acts as a driven member.
Both the driving (pump or impeller) and the driven member have radial vanes.
When the driving member rotates with the engine, the fluid is thrown outwards
under the action of centrifugal force. It circulates from the flywheel to the turbine
vanes. Since the driving member carries around the fluid, it tends to rotate the
turbine. As the speed of the driving member increases, the circulating fluid gains
energy and the same is imparted to the turbine and causes it to turn. Thus power is
transmitted from the impeller or pump to the turbine.
A fluid coupling always slips by about 2 to 4% when transmitting full load. It means
that the turbine is always running slightly slower than the impeller and as such
complete disconnection of the drive is not possible. Thus the fluid coupling is not
suitable for ordinary gear box and is generally used with epicyclic gears to provide a
semi or fully automatic gear box.
Advantages
The main advantages of a fluid coupling are:
1. Smooth transmission of power from engine to gears.
2. Elimination of clutch pedal.
3. Damping of the torsional vibrations of the crankshaft.
4. Less maintenance due to absence of friction surface.
5. During braking or coming down a hill, the transmission shocks are absorbed by
the fluid.
The main disadvantage of fluid coupling is the presence of idling drag and that
overloading of the fluid coupling not only slows down the turbine but also overloads
the engine. Also the slip is greater at lower speeds (it is about 2% at max.
efficiency).
 Torque Converter
The torque converter is a special type of fluid wheel in which the vanes are
curved. Its major parts are the pump, stator and the turbine. Figure 12.13
shows a simplified sectional view of a three ember torque converter with the
stator mounted on a free wheeling device. This allows the stator to run free
when the torque members are turning at about the same speed. The pump and
turbine are placed very close together and covered by a housing. The small
space between these two wheels is filled with automatic transmission fluid.
Operation When the engine is running, the pump rotates with the flywheel,
the fluid thrown off the blades of the fast moving pump hits the blades on the
turbine with sufficient force to make it rotate. As seen in Fig. 12.14, the input
shaft of the transmission which runs through a hole in the centre of the
turbine, is also forced to run. The faster the engine runs, the stronger the flow
of oil from the pump to the turbine and the faster the shaft will run. When the
engine slows down to idle speed, the fluid thrown off is unable to make the
turbine rotate and the engine is automatically uncoupled from the power train.
The stator, located between the pump and turbine allows the torque converter to
increase torque in addition to acting as a clutch. The stator has a series of curved
blades or vanes. As oil thrown off the turbine hits the stator blades, they guide it
back towards the pump which in turn redirects the oil back towards the turbine. This
repeated process increases the engine’s turning effort or torque. In many designs of
torque converter, the torque is almost doubled. It is to be noted that the stator is
needed only when the pump and turbine are turning at different speeds.
When they are turning at nearly the same speed, there is very little fluid flow to be
redirected and thus no need for the stator. Actually for this reason, the stator is
mounted on a reaction shaft that does not rotate, but is mounted on a shaft on the
front of the transmission that goes into the torque converter. The stator is attached to
the reaction shaft through a one-way roller clutch consisting of a number of spring
loaded rollers which allow the stator to turn in one direction only. The stator is
locked or unlocked to the reaction shaft by fluid flow conditions.
When the vehicle is accelerating from a stop, the fluid leaves the turbine at an angle
to strike the stator squarely on the back of its blades. Pushing the stator in this
direction locks up the oneway clutch and redirects oil back into the pump (Fig.
12.15).
As the vehicle nears cruising speed, the fluid leaves the turbine at a different angle
so that it strikes the front of the stator blades. In this direction the stator clutch
permits rotation, so that the stator rotates in the same direction as the pump and
turbine. Thus as the turbine speed approaches the pump speed, the stator free wheels
and is carried along with the rotating fluid mass. Thus the torque converter increases
engine torque a great deal when the difference in speed between the pump and
turbine is great. When the difference is slight there is very little torque increase. As
the speed of the turbine approaches the speed of the pump, the increase in torque
falls off gradually till it becomes 1:1. At this stage, the fluid starts striking the back
faces of the vanes in the stator thus making the stator turn and get out of the way of
the fluid. Under these conditions, the converter simply acts as a fluid flywheel.
 Gear Box
It is common experience that a high torque is required at the driving wheels when a
vehicle is starting from rest, climbing a hill or accelerating. Due to the variable
nature of resistance because of load and gradient changes, it is imperative that the
engine power should be available over a wide range of road speeds. For this
purpose, a device called a transmission or gear set is provided to permit the engine
crankshaft to revolve at a relatively high speed while the wheels turn at slower
speeds. The gear set is enclosed in a metal box called a gear box. The gear box is
fitted between the clutch and the rear axle and helps the road wheels to get the
power of the engine in varying ratios. The driving force or tractive effort used must
be equal to the total resistance of the forces opposing the motion of a vehicle and
keeping it moving along a road at uniform speed. The moving vehicle has to
overcome the following resistances:
1. Air or wind resistance,
2. Gradient resistance, and
3. Rolling resistance.
Air Resistance is the aerodynamic drag experienced by the vehicle while moving
and depends upon the frontal area of the vehicle speed and the speed of the vehicle.
The expression Air resistance,
1
P𝐶𝑑 𝐴𝑉 2
2
gives the air resistance where Cd is the coefficient of drag. A is the frontal area, P is
the density of air and V is the vehicle speed and is of great significance in high
speed vehicles.
Gradient Resistance depends upon the weight of the vehicle and the steepness or
the grade of the road. It is independent of the speed of the vehicle.
Rolling Resistance is the resistance to rolling motion offered by the road over
which the vehicle is moving. It is mainly the sum of the losses occurring due to the
deformation of road and tyre and the losses occurring due to the dissipation of
energy in the tyre. The factors which affect rolling resistance are mainly the inflation
pressure of the tyre and tyre design. The effect of speed is rather negligible.
The total resistance to the motion of the vehicle is given by Rt = Ra + Rg + Rr, using suitable
coefficients, this can be expressed as Rt = W/100 (G + x) + CAV2 where W is the weight of
the vehicle, V is speed of the vehicle, C is a constant and G and x represent the coefficients of
gradient and rolling resistance. The power required to overcome this resistance is given by
P = WV/100 (G + x) + CAV3
Thus it can be seen that for a given vehicle:
(i) Total resistance increases as the gradient of the road increases, and
(ii) Power requirement becoms very high for high speeds (air resistance increasing as the cube
of the speed) or at steep gradients.
It should be noted that the power available from the engine is directly related to the engine
torque T and the gear box ratio g. Assuming no loss in transmission, torque available at the
wheel, Tw = Txg and produces the driving force along the road. This driving force is known as
tractive effort and the maximum amount which can be applied is limited by the coefficient of
adhesion between the tyre and the road. The tractive effort also varies with vehicle speed as
the engine torque varies with engine speed. Usually the speed of the engine is kept constant.
To vary the speed of the road wheels relative to the engine, the gear box provides a number of
varying ratios-usually three to four gear ratios are sufficient for passenger cars.
Gear wheels of different sizes are provided for engaging or disengaging them for
transmission of motion and power. A large gear meshed with a small gear will drive
the small wheel at increased speed or vice-versa. The gear ratio is obtained by using
the general formula.
No. of teeth on driver gear
Gear ratio =
No. of teeth on driving gear
Speed of driving shaft
=
Speed of driven shaft
The typical gear box ratio in a small car with a four-speed gear box is 3.5:1 in first,
2:1 in second, 1.4:1 in third and 1:1 in top. All these are multiplied by the axle ratio,
which is taken as 4:1 to give the corresponding ratios between the engine speed and
the road wheel speed.
 TYPE OF GEAR BOXES
The following types of gear boxes are commonly used:
1. Sliding mesh type
2. Constant mesh type
3. Synchromesh type
1. Sliding Mesh Type Gear Box The sliding mesh type gear box is the oldest and
simplest type of gear box. As the meshing of gears takes place by sliding of gears on
each other, it is known as the sliding mesh type. The driving shaft of the gear box is
known as the primary shaft or clutch shaft. The clutch gear rigidly fixed to the
clutch shaft always remains connected to the driven gear of the countershaft or the
layshaft. Three other gears are also fixed on the layshaft. Two gears are mounted on
the splined mainshaft which can be slided or moved axially to mesh with the
corresponding gears on the layshaft. A reverse idler gear mounted on another shaft
always remains connected to the reverse gear of the layshaft.
A three-speed sliding mesh gear box along with the different positions of gears is
shown in Fig. 13.1 and 13.2. It is to be noted that the layshaft carries two gear
wheels for the three-speed and three gear wheels for the four speed gear box for
transmitting the drive to give different gear ratios.
When the mainshaft is driven from the layshaft the gear reduction is provided by the
first pair of gears which are always in mesh and known as the constant mesh gears.
For changing the gear, the clutch is depressed and the gear lever moved till the
selector pinion on the main shaft engages with its mating gear on the layshaft.
When the vehicle is in first gear the smallest gear on the layshaft meshes with the
largest gear on the splined mainshaft, thereby producing maximum speed reduction
and a corresponding increased torque for starting on gradients and hill climbing. In
the second gear, the second or smaller gear on the mainshaft is in mesh with the next
larger gear on the layshaft. This produces less speed reduction and smaller torque
increase. In the third or top gear, the primary and main shafts revolve at the same
speed without any change in torque. The main shaft is driven through a dog clutch in
this gear.
In reverse gear, the speed reduction is usually same as that in the first gear.
However, the direction of rotation of the main shaft is reversed by using an idler
gear. When in neutral, the primary shaft is in connection with the layshaft. As the
layshaft is not connected to the mainshaft, there is no power transmission to the
wheels.
2. Constant Mesh Gear Box
In the constant mesh gear box all the gears mesh with each other, all the time and
this gives a silent or quiet operation. Gear changing is made easier by employing
helical gears. The primary shaft which carries the clutch is splined and carries a gear
that meshes with the largest layshaft gear. The mainshaft has a number of gears that
mesh with the gears on the layshaft. However, these gears being on bushes or
ball/roller bearings are free to move on the mainshaft without transmitting any
torque. All the gears on the layshaft are rigidly fixed with it.
When the left-hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gearshift
lever, it meshes with the clutch gear and the top speed gear is obtained (Fig. 13.3).
When the dog clutch meshes with the second gear the second speed gear is obtained.
Similarly by sliding the right-hand dog clutch to the left and right, the first speed
gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively. However, skillful handling is
necessary on the part of the driver so that the speed of the locking dogs and
respective pinion remain the same to effect a clash-free gear change.
3. Synchromesh Gear Box
Synchromesh gear boxes use synchronomesh gear devices which work on the
principle that two gears to be engaged are first brought into frictional contact which
equalises their speed after which they are engaged readily and smoothly. Two types
of such devices are mostly used in vehicles, viz. pin type and synchronizer ring type.
This gear box is similar to the constant mesh gear box and its main features are:
1. The mainshaft or output gears are free to rotate on bushes on the output shaft. The
end of the mainshaft at the rear of the transmission is called the output shaft.
2. The output gears are locked to the shaft by the dog clutch of the synchronising
hub when their speeds have been equalised by their cones.
 THREE SPEED GEAR BOX
Figure 13.4 shows the layout of the box depicting the flow of power in the neutral position. The gears
inside the box simply rotate without affecting the mainshaft. The power transmitted by the clutch
rotates the main drive gear and countershaft drive gear as well as the second speed gears on the main
and the countershafts being in constant mesh. Since the second speed gear on the mainshaft is loosely
fitted, it does not drive the mainshaft. All the gears on the countershaft rotate without affecting the
mainshaft.
The first gear portion is obtained by sliding the first and reverse gear to the left unit
when its teeth mesh with that of the countershaft first gear. Drive is given to the
countershaft from the clutch and the mainshaft is driven by the first gear. (See Fig.
13.5.)
For obtaining the second gear position (Fig. 13.6), the first gear is slided out of the
mesh and then the dog clutch is moved to the right side making its internal teeth
mesh with the external teethof second speed gear. The dog clutch is splined with the
mainshaft.
The third or top gear position is obtained by shifting the dog clutch to the left till its
internal teeth mesh with the external teeth of the main drive gear. In this position the
main shaft is locked with the clutchshaft making a direct drive (see Fig. 13.7). Most
of the cars today are equipped with four-speed gear boxes. Cars manufactured in our
country have four forward and one reverse speed gear boxes. Commercial vehicles
are invariably fitted with five speed gear boxes. Both gear boxes are discussed in
Sections 13.9 and 13.10 respectively.
 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF GEAR BOXES
The sliding mesh type gear box is still considered to be the simplest in design.
Meshing of the gears takes place by the sliding of gears on each other, i.e. axially
along the splined mainshaft to mesh with the corresponding gears on the layshaft.
Considerable skill is needed to make a gear change without damaging the gear teeth
during meshing. The constant mesh type marked a notable advance in gear box
design by adopting a constant mesh of all the gears at all times. Further, the
mainshaft gear is provided with dog clutches providing a means of locking the
freely rotating mainshaft gears to the mainshaft for making an easier gear change.
There is considerable reduction of wear on the teeth of the reduction gears. Skillful
and timely hand and foot movements are required in order that the speed of the
locking dogs and respective pinion are equal for a clash-free gear change. The driver
has to match the speed of the gears to be engaged by double declutching.
The synchromesh gear box is considered the most advanced and has been adopted in
most cars. It enables rapid gear changes to be made without noisy engagement or
clashing of teeth. It also simplifies shifting action for the driver as the synchronizer
itself adjusts (i.e. either delays or accelerates) the members to be coupled so as to
provide perfect dog teeth engagement. Thus matching of the gears is automatically
done by the synchronizer resulting in smooth and silent coupling. It reduces the
wearing of gear. It has proved to be quite satisfactory for high speed cars.
 Propeller Shaft and Universal Joint
INTRODUCTION
The earliest cars were an improvement over horse-driven carriages. They also had a
feature derived from early bicycles and tricycles and that was the method of power
transmission. For a number of years the earlier cars had chain drive for power
transmission from the engine to the wheels.
Although heavy, cumbersome, noisy and in need of continuous maintenance, it was
used due to its reliability. Although the Lanchester Brothers of Britain patented the
propeller shaft transmission in 1887, Louis Renault of France perfected the use of
this pioneer system in power transmission from the engine to rear axle in 1899. He
not only used a shaft to transmit the drive from the engine to rear wheels, but also
incorporated universal joints in it to allow for the movement of the rear suspension.
He did this because he was using a live rear axle which he had already patented. It
was adopted by small cars fairly quickly. However, larger models of cars started
using it after sometime. The Lanchester-Renault system of propeller shaft, universal
joints and live rear axle is almost universally being used in cars and trucks albeit
with some modifications to this day.
 PROPELLER SHAFT (CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES)
Propeller shafts have to bear the driving and braking torques. When a front engine
rear drive car starts from rest or is suddenly braked to slow down, the shock to the
transmission is cushioned by the long propeller shaft which twists slightly and then
untwists.
Two types of construction have taken care of these forces:
1. Torque Tube Type Propeller Shaft
A torque tube is a large diameter tube fastened securely to the rear axle housing and
completely enclosing the propeller shaft. The torque tube is fitted into a spherical
ball and socket surrounding one universal joint at the transmission end. These two
units carry their respective loads while allowing suspension flexibility. Thus while
normal engine power transmission takes place through the propeller shaft, the
braking and acceleration causing sudden torque are borne by the torque tube (Fig.
14.3).
2. Hotchkiss Type Propeller Shaft
In the Hotchkiss type, the driving and braking torques are absorbed through the
front half of the rear leaf springs or through the links and arms when used with coil
type springs. Thus while normal power is transmitted through the propeller shaft,
acceleration and braking shocks are taken up by the leaf spring (by distortion) or by
special links/frames in case of leaf springs (Fig. 14.4).
 SHAFT
The propeller shaft is essentially a steel tube having forged steel universal joints at
each end. Its only function is to deliver the transmission output torque to the
differential input pinion. The shaft tube must be strong enough to transmit the
power. However, oversize design is avoided since it increases the chances of
imbalance, it is harder to straighten, tends to fan more air that may cause noise,
requires more room under the pan and is more expensive (Fig. 14.5).
The propeller shaft is so designed as to have its natural frequency or critical speed
quite high, more than the normal running speed range. Since the natural frequency is
proportional to its diameter and inversely proportional to the square of the length,
the design necessitates a shorter and larger diameter shaft.
Imbalance in propeller shaft usually results in whirl which in action is similar to that
of a rope being swung around in an arc while holding both ends. For this the shaft
tubing is usually rolled from flat sheet stock, straightened within 0.010 in., and
runout and balanced within 1/4 ounce inches. This keeps the centre of mass very
nearly on the longitudinal axis centre to minimise whirl.
 UNIVERSAL JOINTS
When power is being transmitted from one shaft to the other while the shaft axes are
not co-linear but are intersecting, the coupling used is the universal joint. It takes
care of the angularity of the two axes. However, while the power is transmitted the
shaft speed of the driven shaft continuously varies even when the driving shaft is
rotating at constant speed. This constructional feature requires a pair of universal
joints and an intermediate shaft (propeller shaft in this case), while the driver shaft
(gear box output shaft) and the finally driven shaft (differential pinion shaft) are
more or less parallel. In such a case, the angle between the gear box output shaft and
propeller shaft and that between the propeller shaft and differential input shaft are
equal to each other. Thus the speed variation between the gear box shaft and
propeller shaft is corrected at the other end and the speed of the differential input
shaft remains equal to the gear box shaft. The double universal joints thus do away
with the variations in the propeller shaft speed. Figure 14.6 shows the simple
universal joint.
Several types of universal joints are used in automobiles. Some of these joints are
described in the following sections.
1. Hooke Universal Joint
Also known as the cross and yoke type joint or the cardan universal joint, the Hooke
joint is the most commonly used with the Hotchkiss drive. It consists of two yokes
pivoted on a central cross piece or “spider”, formed by two pins intersecting at right
angles. The yokes, one on the input shaft and the other on the output shaft, are
connected to the spider so that they are at right angles to each other. This kind of
joint allows the shafts to rotate together, even when their axes do not form a straight
line. Friction between the yoke and the spider is reduced by bearing caps containing
needle roller bearings. These caps fit over the arms of the spider and are held in the
yokes by circlips sprung into grooves (Fig. 14.7).
In the latest versions of this type of universal joint, the bearing caps are packed with
grease by the manufacturer and do not need periodic lubrication.
2. Double Cardan Universal Joint
The double cardan universal joint consists of two closely spaced cross and yoke
joints with a special link yoke. The two joints work to reverse the non-uniform
action and thus provide constant velocity. Yoke centres are maintained by a ball and
socket centering device so that the joint working angle is the same in each joint half.
This then forms a constant velocity joint. The output velocity is uniform when the
input velocity is uniform even though the joint centre link has the typical velocity
increase and decrease action (Fig.14.8).
Such constant velocity joints are more expensive but they produce minimum noise
and vibration. These premium qualities are demanded by the buyers of luxury cars,
even at extra cost.
3. Bendix-Weiss Universal Joint
The Bendix-Weiss universal joint is a constant velocity joint which also acts as a slip joint. It
consist of two spiders, each having three or four arms. Each spider arm is located between
the adjacent arms of the second spider. The motion of one set of spider arms is transferred to
the other spider arms by steel balls wedged in grooves that are cut at an angle so that the
balls always operate in a plane that bisects the joint’s operating angle. Thus it operates as a
constant velocity joint. Bendix-Weiss joints are usually used on front wheel drive vehicles,
where steering is another universal joint requirement.
4. Ball and Trunion Joint
The ball and trunion joint acts both as a universal joint and a slip joint. It allows axial
movement within the joint, so no separate joint is necessary. The balls are mounted on a
spider through needle bearings. Each ball fits into a partly cylindrical housing bore that runs
in the axial direction. This provides a means to drive through the joint in a radial direction
and allows slip in the axial direction. Later developments in this type are a two ball and
trunion joint and three ball and trunion joint. In the latter, the use of three equally spaced
balls causes the joint to transfer constant velocity motion to the output shaft. This type of
joint is ideal for the inside joint on front wheel drive vehicles because it eliminates the slip
joint and transfers constant velocity motion.
 THE DIFFERENTIAL
An important function of the final drive is to allow the flexibility of relatively
different wheels on the same axle. When a vehicle negotiates a curve the path
travelled by the inner wheel is shorter as compared to the outer wheel (Fig. 15.6). If
now both the wheels are to move with the same speed, as for example in the case of
wheels fixed rigidly to one axle, the inner wheel will skid causing tyre wear and
affecting the control of the vehicle. In case of dead axles like front axle, the wheels
rotate freely on stub axles and they can rotate independent of each other but in case
of power wheels like the rear wheels, this is not possible until an arrangement is
specially made.
This arrangement is known as the differential. In this case the rear axle is split into
two halves each half carrying one wheel. The power from the propeller shaft passes
onto these two axles through a differential and the differential enables the rotation of
one at a lower speed as compared to the other.
Schematically the working of a differential with bevel gear is shown in Fig. 15.7.
The power from the propeller shaft pinion goes to the differential crown. Along with
the crown, rotates the assembly of four bevel pinions. Two bevel gears are carried
on individual half axles which are connected to the rear wheels.
When the shafts rotate in unison as on a straight road, the bevel pinions orbit with
the bevel gears but do not turn about their own axle. It is the special feature of this
system that when stationary, if one wheel is rotated in the clockwise direction the
other wheel through the bevel gear assembly rotates in the anti-clockwise direction.
Thus when power is being transmitted, and one shaft is stopped, the other can
continue to rotate because as it does so its bevel gear makes the bevel pinions turn
on their axles. This allows the pinions to orbit around the stationary gear. If on a
straight drive the wheels are rotating at N rpm, and now if moving on a curved path,
if the inner wheel turns at N-n rpm the outer wheel will rotate at N+n rpm. However
with the differential there is also a disadvantage.
This is encountered when one of the wheels comes on a slippery surface where it
can spin without grip. In such a case the other wheel on the firm ground will simply
stop and the free wheel will rotate at double the speed. This is because the
differential always applies equal torque (turning effort) to each road wheel. If one
wheel is spinning doing no work, the other wheel will not do any work either. Also
on rough surfaces, the wheel sometimes bounces free of the road and its speed
increases. When it lands on the road surface again, it will immediately have to
reduce its speed to the vehicle speed again. This gives the drive train a severe shock
that could damage parts.
To overcome this disadvantage, limited slip differentials have been designed. They
use either multiplate clutches or cone clutches and the outer wheel activated either
by a torque differential or spring load. This effort is not very pronounced in case of
turning but becomes effective when one wheel encounters a slippery surface.