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Natural dyes: Its Origin, Categories and Application on Textile Fabrics in brief

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Natural dyes: Its Origin, Categories and Application on Textile Fabrics in brief

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Natural dyes: Its Origin, Categories and Application on Textile

Fabrics in brief
Amlan Bishal1*, Kazi Asraf Ali2, Somnath Ghosh1, Pijus Parua1, Bratati Bandyopadhyay1, Souvon Mondal3,
Mayukh Jana1, Aveek Datta1, Karan Kumar Das1, Biplab Debnath1*
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharat Technology, Jadurberia, Uluberia, Howrah, West Bengal-711316, India
2
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology, Haringhata, Nadia,
West Bengal-741249, India
3
Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bengal College of Pharmaceutical Science & Research, Bidhannagar,
Durgapur, Purba Bardhhaman, West Bengal-713212, India

*Corresponding author
Dr. Biplab Debnath
Bharat Technology, Jadurberia, Uluberia, Howrah, West Bengal-711316, India
Email address: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: -
Natural dyes and their application play an important role in different purposes like in textiles,
cosmetics, food products etc. Initially natural dyes were the only option to the people for
coloring of different fabrics, but after the discovery of first synthetic dye in1856, it has altered
the dependency on natural dye. Synthetic dyes have gently reduced the production cost &
certain applications but have raised a question mark on environmental issues and health safety.
On the other hand, natural dyes can be derived from natural sources like roots, leaves and bark
of trees, secretion of animal, insects, invertebrates, fungi, minerals etc. They are environment
friendly, have less side effect and more effective. Natural dyes encounter some inherent
difficulties of uniform use and the uniformity of the dye itself. But they have gained the
industry's attention since they have greater environmental compatibility and improved
biodegradability. So, instead of having some drawbacks, the textile industries have started a
huge amount of use of natural dyes on coloring of different fabrics. People have started to
utilize the natural dyes for their beneficiarypurposes. This study attempts to review on different
sources, classification, and various applications of natural dye on textile fabrics.
KEYWORDS: - Synthetic and Natural dyes, Biodegradable dye, Synthetic fibers, Eco- friendly
textiles, Textile fabrics
I. INTRODUCTION: -
Dye is basically a color which is usually used to stain different materials. The first natural dye
was found in and around 2600BC. Originally, dyes were made with natural pigments mixed
with water or oil as a base. The art of dying fabrics has been an integral part of human
civilization. Over 4000 years, since ancient Egypt to the present, people have been using
various dyes to brighten clothes. As civilization continue to flowish and the development of
research and studies in synthetic chemistry discovered the synthetic dyes. And these synthetic
dyes bring a plethora of color choice. It made the dying of fabrics easier and more cost effective.
People became attracted to synthetic dyes because of different varieties, color options and long-
lasting use. But the main problem come when they understand different environmental
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problems and health issues caused by different synthetic dyes. Because of nonbiodegradability
and carcinogenicity, synthetic substances used to dye textiles, pollute water and create disposal
issues. Today, as the world embraces eco- consciousness and seeks sustainable alternatives, the
use of natural dyes for coloring of different fabrics has become a relevant subject. Our country's
abundant biodiversity has given us access to several different types of basic ingredients, but
there must be a sustainable connection established between their cultivation, gathering, and
utilization. Natural dyes have unique aesthetic properties. The ethical importance of an
environmentally sustainable product, when combined with its craftmanship, adds value to
textile manufacture. The natural dyes are non- toxic, non-allergic, and eco-friendly (1). So, the
textile industry has recently been under pressure to utilize natural colorants due to the growing
consumer demand. Consequently, the usage of these dyes in order to reduce the use of harmful
synthetic materials in textiles have become a serious issue. Natural colorants are not only used
for the coloring of different fabrics but also coloring of food substrates, medicines, paper,
leather, cosmetics, paint, ink etc.

Natural dyes are derived without the use of chemicals from a variety of substances found in
nature, including plants (such as indigo and saffron), insects (such as cochineal beetles and lac
scale insects), animals (such as some species of mollusks or shellfish), microbes (such as
pseudomonas, bacillus, rhodococcus) and minerals (such as ferrous sulfate, ochre, and clay)
(1). A lot of the plants which are used to extract dyes are considered as medicinal plants, and
recent research has shown that some of these plants have an antibacterial effect (2). The
antibacterial characteristics of these plant dyes help the textile materials last longer when they
are applied to textiles. However, the issue of sustainability is raised when different plant/tree
components are used to make dyes, especially when the dyestuff source must be regenerated
and rendered viable for repeated use. And the Plant material cultivation for the extraction of
natural colorants can bot compete with crop farming for the production of food. Additionally,
at the moment, the direct farming method used to produce natural dyes results in significantly
higher specific costs per kg of plant components and, consequently, per kg of dyed material
(3). So, to reduce the cost use of the by-products from the food and agriculture industries as
well as forestry waste. Peels, shells, seeds, and other agricultural waste are abundant sources
of pigments and can be used to make natural colors (4). Thus, an encouraging idea of
identification, classification of different natural dyes and their applications on textile fabrics
have been arrived.
To know about different types of dyes in textile industries and to fulfil our aim of giving an apt
appropriate and succinct review on natural dyes derived from different sources and their
application in different textile fabrics, we have to know about different textile fabrics. Fabrics
are generally categorized as natural fabrics and synthetic fabrics. Natural fabrics are originated
from natural origin. Synthetic fabrics are made up of artificial or man-made. There are mainly
five kinds of natural fibers, that can be originated from plant, such as i) Bast fibers or Skin
fibers (e.g., kenaf, flax, ramie, jute and cannabis) ii) Leaf fibers (e.g., agave, pineapple and
sisal) iii) Seed fibers (e.g., kapok and cotton) iv) Stalk fibers (e.g., rice, bamboo and grass) v)
Fruit fibers (e.g., coir fiber) and all additional varieties, including wood and roots (5,6). Some
plants can produce multiple types of fiber. Agave, coconut, and oil palm consist of both fruit
and stem fibers. Similarly, both bast and core fibers contain jute, flax, hemp, and kenaf.
Additionally, cereal grains include distinct stem and hull fibers (7). Natural fibers are also
originated from animal source like silk, wool, hair etc. and there are also some mineral fiber
like asbestos, ceramic etc.
Table- Different natural fibers, their biological sources and their uses.
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Sl. Name of Type of Biological Uses References

no fibres natural source
source
1 Silk Animal Bombyx mori Making of composites, livestock, (8–10)
agriculture, silk cloth, silk yarn etc.
2 Wool Animal Ovis aries Making of Cotillion, wool yarn blankets, (10)
carpets, upholstery, winter cloths and
different types ofinsulations.

3 Jute Plant Corchorus Tarpaulins, wrapping, furniture materials, (5,11,12)

capsularis fabric, carpets, carpet upholstery,
geotextiles for transportation, electrical
insulation,
and ropes.

4 Flax Plant Linum These fibers are utilized in bed linens, (13–15)
usitatissimum clothing, furniture materials, textiles, home
design accents, etc.
5 Hemp Plant Cannabis In Industry sectors, include boxes, carpets, (16)
sativa yarn, furnitures, fabric, textiles garden
mulch, fleeces, and needle felts, as well as
light weight composites and
geotextile/geotextile insulation.

6 Remine Plant Boehmeria Textile, paper, pulp, yarn, biofuel, fabric, (10,17,18)
nivea seed food, composites, livestock, gas
mantle, fishing net,
marine packaging.

7 Kenaf Plant Hibiscus Pulp, paper product and rope (10,19)

cannabinus production.
8 Sisal Plant Agave Used in the automotive & shipping (20–22)
sisalana industry, civil engineering, utilized as the
fiber core for baler twine, agricultural
twine, and steel wire cables for elevators,
among otherthings.

9 Date palm Plant Phoenix As prospective sources of cellulosic fiber. (23,24)

dactylifera The reinforcing for

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thermoplastic and thermosetting

polymers comes from rachis and leaf
fibers. Some researchers have the
automotive application.
10 Cotton Plant Gossypium Furniture, clothing, and (25,26)
yarnindustries.
composites are utilized.
11 Kapok Plant Ceiba Utilized to create biofuel, reinforcing (27,28)
pentandra materials, buoyancy materials, oil-
absorbing materials, and other materials.

12 Banana Plant Musa Used to make Rope, placemats, (29,30)

acuminata cardboard, thread yarn, tea bags,
premium fabric and textiles, currency
note paper, mushrooms, crafts, and art.

13 Rice Plant Oryza sativa Making of cellulose (14)

fiber,adsorbent, paper
product, rope etc.
14 Bamboo Plant Bambusoideae To get ready bioenergy sources, shoes, (31)
food, clothing, pulp and paper
manufacturing, andreinforcement.

15 Pineapple Plant Ananas Making handbags, tablecloths, mats, (32)

comosus ropes, cutting material, lightweight duck
cloth, composites, and conveyor belt
cord.
16 Coir Plant Cocos To make lightweight composites, (29)
nucifera fillers, and reinforcement for
composite materials.

17 Abaca Musa textulis Used to make Clothing, textiles, (25)

valuable papers like check, journal,and
money. Used as composites.
18 Nettle Plant Urtica dioica Used for animal housing, biofuels (33,34)
production, textile industry, etc. In the
modern era, efforts have been
undertaken to utilise nettle fibers on a
large scale.

19 Asbestos Mineral Hydrated Manufacturing paper goods, heat- (10)

silicate resistant textiles, gaskets, and other
building components (such as
roofing shingles, ceiling and floor tiles).

20 Glass Mineral silica Provides superior thermal insulation and (10)

exceptional acoustic performance, is
lightweight andsimple to install.

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The three main categories of synthetic fibers—organic, inorganic, and others, are further
divided into subcategories on the basis of origin of the fibers. They are sub classified into
different sub classes. They are synthesized in the laboratory from polymers, which is a by-
product of petroleum. Synthetic fibers can be processed via spinning, polymerization, and
filament processing. To produce filaments from synthetic polymers, a further spinning process
is divided into three subcategories: melt spinning method, wet spinning method, and dry
spinning method (35).

II. CLASSIFICATION OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES.

Thoughts about the usage of renewable resources began to arise as a result of the rise in
environmental awareness, community interest, new environmental restrictions, and the
unsustainable use of synthetic fiber. Due to its superior characteristics over synthetic fiber,
natural fiber is regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly materials (36). The many
forms of Composites made of natural fiber-reinforced polymers have received a lot of interest
by many automotive companies including Cambridge industry, Proton company, and German
automotives (Volkswagen, Opel, Ford, Mercedes, BMW, Audi Group, and Daimler Chrysler).
Composites made of natural fibers have various uses besides the automotive business,
including the civil sector, athletics, aerospace, and more (37). Given the rate at which natural
fiber is being used, it can be predicted that in the near future, natural fiber composites will
experience greater growth than synthetic fiber composites (38).

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III.CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL DYES

Different natural sources can be used to produce natural dyes. Different plant parts, such as the
roots, bark, leaves, flowers, and fruit, can produce a broad variety of hues (39). They can also be
originated from insect source, mineral sources, and different waste sources. Multidisciplinary
research using spectroscopic techniques, micro-analytical chemistry, history, archaeology,
botany, and other fields is utilized to study the colorants employed by ancient peoples. The
development of different natural dyes and colourants developed through microchemical testing.
UV-Visible spectroscopy, FT-IR spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence and EDX (energy dispersive
X-ray) spectroscopic techniques are a few examples (40–42). Different categories exist for
natural dyes. The primary factors used to categorize natural dyes are the places where they are
produced, how they are applied to fabrics, and their chemical structure.

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 Based on chemical structure: -

The most common classification scheme for natural dyes is based on their chemical structure.
It is simple to determine the specific chemical group the color belongs to.

Indigoids (43–45); Indigo is the most significant class of natural dye, which has been utilized
by human civilizations for the longest time. The king of all-natural dyestuffs, as the name
implies. It gives off a blue tint. Perisicaria tinctoria, Isatis tinctoria, and Indigofera tinctoria
(a leguminous plant) are the sources of indigo (46). It works well for dying wool and cotton.
Pyridine based dye; Berberine is one and only natural dye that belongs to this class (47). It
has a vivid yellow color and is an isoquinoline alkaloid. It is derived from plants like Berberis
aristata, Rhizoma coptidis, Phellodendron amurense and Berberis vulgaris (48–50). They are
used for dying of synthetic fibers, blended polyesters and wool fibers.
Carotenoids; Carotenoids, a tetraterpene pigments which exhibit yellow, red, orange and
purole color (51). In photosynthetic bacteria, a few species of archaea, fungi, algae, mammals,
and plants, they can be present within the chloroplast and chromoplast. Source of some
carotenoids plants are Crocus sativus, Curcuma longa, Cedrela toona, Nyctanthesarbor-tristis,
and Bixa orellana (52).
Quinonoids; Quinonoids are naturally occurring substances. They exhibit yellow to red colour
(53). They are further divided into three groups like anthraquinones, benzoquinones, and a-
naphthoquinones. The natural sources for quinonoids include Juglans regia (Walnut),
Plumbago capensis (Chitraka/Chita), Tabebuia avellanedae (Taigu/Lapachol), Choloraphora
tinctoria (Gaudich), Alkanna tinctoria (Ratanjot/Alkanet), Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower),
Lithospermum erythrorhizon (Tokyo Violet/Shikone), Dactylopius coccus (Cochineal),
Laccifer lacca/Kerria lacca/Coccus lacca, Rubia tinctorum, Drosera whittakeri (Sundew),
Rheum emodi (Himalayan rhubarb), Rubia cordifolia (Indian Madder), Oldenlandia umbellat
(54,55).
Flavonoids; Flavonoids are originated from different plant sources. It provides orange, red,
yellow to blue colors (56). There are many plant sources of flavonoid dyes, including Allium
cepa (Onion), Myrica esculenta (Kaiphal), Datisca cannabina (Hemp), Delphinium zalil
(Yellow Larksur), Gossypium herbaceum, Artocarpus heterophyllus/Artocarpus integrifolia
(Jackfruit), Sophora japonica/Styphnolobium japonicum, Reseda luteola (Weld), Butea
monosperma/Butea frondosa (Flame of the forest/Palas), Mallotus philippinensis (Kamala) etc
(57,58).
Dihydropyran Based Dyes; These pigments are made up of haematoxylin (C.I. 75290) from
logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum) and brazilin (C.I. 75280) from brazilwood
(Caesalpinia sappan).
Betalains; Betailains are a group of plant pigments that include water-soluble nitrogen. The
violet betacyanins and yellow betaxanthins are main component of this dye. Common natural
resources for the betalains class of dyeds include Opuntia lasiacantha and Beta vulgaris
(59,60).
Tannins; It comes from a variety of plant parts, including fruit, leaves, plant galls, bark,
roots, wood etc. They are astringent in nature and water-soluble phenolic compound. By
increasing the affinity of fibers for various dyes, tannins play a significant role in natural
dyeing. It can be mixed with various natural dyes to produce hues like brown, grey, yellow and
black. Sources of plants for tannins include Punica granatum and Quercus infectoria (61,62).

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 Based on origin or Production Sources: -

Based on origin or occurring, natural dyes are classified into plant dye or vegetable, animal
dye, insect dye, minerals dye (63), waste dye.

Plant/vegetable dyes: -

The process of dying of fabrics with plant dyes/vegetable dyes is ancient. It was unintentionally
discovered by staining clothing with plant or fruit extracts. Various plant parts, including
flowers, fruits, seeds, leaves, bark, trunks, and roots, among others, can be used to extract it.
There are already more than 450 dye-producing plants or vegetables in India.

Turmeric; Turmeric is basically the root of turmeric plant (Curcuma longa). It produces yellow
colour on clothing. It is useful for dying cotton, wool, silk etc. It is having medicinal value so
it does not produce any health hazards (54).
Henna; We can extract the dye from leaves of the Henna plant (Lawsonia inermis). It is also
called as the Egyptian privet, mignonette tree. It imparts orange-red color. It works well for
dying silk and wool fibers (64).
Indigo; The king of all-natural dyestuffs is referred to as indigo. It gives off a blue tint. Indigo
is extracted from Indigofera tinctoria (leguminous plant), Isatis tinctoria (woad), Polygonam
tinctorium (dyer’s knotweed) and Perisicaria tinctoria (46). The substance that gives indigo
plant leaves their distinctive hue is known as indican (1H-indol-3yl b-D-glucoside). It works
well for dying wool and cotton.
Indian Madder; It imparts red colour from its roots on textile fabrics. It is isolated from the
roots of Rubia cordifolia. It is also called manjistha. In addition to the roots, the plant also has
dye in the stems and other sections. It is a type of flowering plant belonging to the coffee family.
It is employed to color cotton and wool textiles (2).
Marigold; The dye can be isolated from yellow or orange colored marigold flower. Its
biological sources are Tagetus erecta and Calendula officinalis, from Asteraceae family. The
main coloring agent in marigold flowers is lutein, a fat-soluble carotenoid that gives the
pigment its yellow to orange hue (65). It gives optimum result in dyeing both wool and silk
fibers.
Pomegranate; It is extracted from Punica granatum plant. It belongs to the family Punicacea.
It imparts orange to yellow colour. With pelletierine, pomegranates contain around 19% of their
total tannin content. Granatonine, which is present as the alkaloid N-methyl granatonine, is the
primary coloring ingredient in the pomegranate peel and grains (66). It can be additionally
added in conjunction with turmeric to increase the dyed fabrics' light resistance. It is suitable
for dying cotton/synthetic fabrics.
Tea; The dye is extracted from tea plant (Camellia sinensis), leaves or tea powder. It generates
various brown hues. Used for dying of natural fibers like silk, wool, wool and linan. It won’t
work on synthetic fabric, such as polyester (67,68).
Onion; The onion's (Allium cepa) outermost skin or peel is used to extract the colour. It imparts
golden/yellow and redish-brown tones on fabrics. Its simple and easy process of dying. Useful
for dying of natural fabrics. In Anatolia, this dye resource is frequently employed (69).
Brazil Wood or Sappan Wood; The source of the dye is the sappan wood (Caesalpina sappan)
and Brazil wood (Caesalpinia echinate). Basically, we can get a red dye from this due to the
vivid red color of the wood. Textile fabrics can be dyed with or without the use of an alum
mordant to get the red hue. When combined with turmeric, this dye yields orange hues, and
when combined with catechu, it yields a deep maroon color (70).
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Senegalia catechu; It comes under family Fabaceae. The resin, a gooey material found in
acacia tree plants, is where the dye is produced. It generates various brown shades. Useful for
dying cotton, silk and wool (71).
Morinda; Dye can be got from the bark and root of the Morinda tree (Morinda citrifolia). It
grows in India and Sri Lanka. It usually gives red colors. The tree, which is between three and
four years old, provides the most coloring matter. A first wash to get rid of free acids is done
before extracting the dye with water from the chipped material. Mordants are substances that
can be used to create a variety of colors, such as chocolate and purple. Used for coloring of
cotton, silk and wool in shades of red, chocolate or purple color (72).
Fustic; Old fustic is made from the heartwood of the huge, tropical American tree dyer's
mulberry (Chlorophora tinctoria, or Maclura tinctoria). It comes under Moraceae family.
On wool that has been mordanted (fixed) with chromium salts, the dye causes yellowing
. And the young fustic (zante fustic, or Venetian sumac) can be get from the wood of smoke
tree (Cotinus coggygria, or Rhus cotinus), a southern European and Asian shrub fall under
cashew family, Anacardiaceae (73).
Safflower; Safflower florets were formerly used to make a dye that was prized for its vivid
cherry-red hue. It had two coloring components: a water-soluble yellow that was present in
large amounts (26-36%), but wasn't used as a dye, and a crimson red colorant called carthamin
that was only present in little amounts (0.3-0.6%). Safflower has been used to give silk and
cotton cherry-red direct dyeings (74).
Logwood: It comes under genus Xylosma and a part of the willow family. The dye is obtained
from the core heart of the logwood trees (Haematoxylum or Haematoxylon campechianum). It
comes from central America. It creates blues and purple on wool, black color on cotton and
wool and black and violet on silk (75).
Saffron; The dye is produced from dry stigmas of the Crocus sativus plant. It is commonly
known as the "saffron crocus" and belongs to the family Iridaceae. It gives the materials a vivid
yellow color. It may color cotton, silk, and wool directly (64)
Annatto; The Bixaceae family includes the little tree known as annatto (Bixa Orellana), from
which the dye is obtained. Its seeds can be used to make a yellow-orange dye. The pulp is rich
in tannin. It results in colors of reddish orange on wool, cotton, and silk (76).
Barberry; The bark, roots and stems of Berberis aristate can be used to make dye. Berberine,
an alkaloid, is the dye's primary ingredient. The dye yields a vivid yellow hue with average
lightfastness and good washing fastness. After regulating, it can be used to dye cotton, silk, and
wool directly (77).
Myrobolan; The dye is obtained from dried myrobolan (Terminalia chebula) fruits. Myrobolan
is a component in the well-known Ayurvedic remedy triphala. It is having a high tannin content.
It produces bright yellow colors for all textile fabrics (78)
Flame of the forest; A bright orange colour dye can be extracted from the flower of flame of
the forest (Butea monosperma) tree. In India, it is referred to as tesu locally. Any natural textile
can be dyed with the dye. With the proper mordant, bright yellow to brown and orange hues
can be developed (75).
Himalayan rhubarb; The rhizomes and roots from Himalayan rhubarb (Rheum emodi) can
be used to make an orange-golden dye. A little bit of rhubarb will dye a lot of fabric. The are
basically used for dying of wool. Also used on cotton, hemp, linen etc plant fibers (78).
Weld; A yellow dye is extracted from the weld plant (Reseda luteola). Ancient tapestry wavers
in central Asia, Turkey and Europe used the dye. The coloring matter is a flavonoid. Widely
used in natural fiber textile, leather and paper (75).

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Grape; Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are a member of the Vitaceae family. It is mostly grown in the
Mediterranean region, south-western Asia, central Europe, north and south Germany, and
eastern and northern Iran. Procyanidin, prodelphinidin, glucosylated procyanidin, and gallated
procyanidin are the tannins that give it its color (79). It produces red-purple color. It's employed
to color fibers made of cationized cotton, wool, silk, acrylic and polyamid (80).
Kamala; kamala is a powdery substance obtained from dried kamala fruit (Mallotus
phillipensis). It is also called as the monkey face tree. It yields a red-orange colour. It can be
used to create vibrant orange-yellow and golden-yellow dyes for wool and silk. Colors on
cotton don't have great fastness qualities (75).
Red sandalwood; A typical red color is obtained from the mature tree (wood) of Pterocarpus
santalinus, a species of pterocarpus. They are basically found in Southern Eastern Ghats
Mountain range of South India. It has a good affinity for all protein fibers, and gives light
strawberry shades on cotton (81)
Siam weeds; the dye can be extracted from the whole body of Eupatorium odoratum. Yellow
to brown colour is obtained. The leaves, twigs and roots are reach in tannin. Used as textile dye
(75).
Amla; The dried fruits of Emblica officinalis is used to make the dye. It is the reach source of
tannin. Utilized alone or in combination with other mordants. It imparts grey color. Useful for
dying cotton and silk fabrics.
Gulmohar; The dye can be obtained from the flowers of gulmohar plant (Delonix regia). In
the presence of alum, it gives off an olive-green tint. It gives a dark tan in the presence of
turmeric.
Drumstick; Dye is extracted from the leaf and seeds of Moringa pterygosperma. Basically,
yellow colored dye is extracted and used for colorin g of fabrics (75).
Sausage tree; Kigelia Africana, belonging to family Bignoniaceae. The is extracted from
flower. Used for dying silk and wool fabrics. Addition of different mordants during dying
impart very fastness properties on the fabrics.

Animal/insect dyes: -
Natural dyes can come from a variety of sources, but those derived from animals are special.
The majority of animal dyes came from insects, which were the primary source of red hues.
There are so much different animal dyes, which are discussed below.

Tyrian purple; Tyrian purple was the oldest animal dye. Levantine Sea snails of the Muricidae
family are used to make this dye (82). Other names for tyramine purple include royal purple,
imperial purple, and imperial dye. Since a gram of the color required thousands of mollusks, it
is highly expensive. It produces deep violet color on fabrics. It was used to dye the royal
family's clothing and was regarded as an emblem of royalty. It is basically used in wool cotton
and silk.
Cochineal; The Aztecs and then the Spaniards employed the ancient natural color cochineal.
It is taken out of the dried-out bodies of female Dactylopius coccus red bugs. It occurs mainly
in Central and South America, primarily in Mexico and Brazil, and is also referred to as nopal,
opuntia, or the Indian fig (83). Cochineal (cochineal wax) is used as a coloring agent and
includes 9–10% carminic acid in the form of fat called glyceryl myristate. Using the mordants
aluminum and tin oxide, it creates the colors crimson red and scarlet (84). Carminic acid is
widely used in natural animal fibre due to its strong firming properties and exhibit excellent
fastness properties (85). The majority of the time, this dye was used to color wool and silk.

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Polish cochineal; In the Palearctic, Eurasia, and Central Europe, Polish cochineal (Phor
phyrophorapolonica) is widespread. It is sometimes referred to as Saint John's blood or polish
vermilion scales. kermesic acid and flavocermesic acid are found in higher quantity in Polish
cochineal and imparts red colour to the substratum (86). Their applications are, however,
rejected at the turn of the century because it was listed as endangered species (87).
Armenian Cochineal; Because of its beginnings in the plain and the valley of the same name
in Armenia, it is also called to be the Armenian River. it is also called Ara or Ararat cochineal
(88). kermesic acid and flavocermesic acid is found in them in small quantity. One of the first
sources of red coloring, it dates to 714 BC. It has been utilized in silk and wool fabrics in the
Middle East of Europe (89).
Lac Dye; The liquid released by the lac bug (Lauifer lacca), which inhabits the twigs of various
types of plants including banyan trees, is used to make this color. They impart a red pigment
because of laccaic acid, the main chemical component (90,91). In recent studies it has shown
that it has affinity for cotton fabric (92). Additionally, a number of research have demonstrated
the functional and antioxidant qualities of lacquer (93).
Kermes; Kermes is a red dye from an animal source that comes from the bug Kermes licis. In
South France, Spain, England, Turkey, and Scotland, this dye has been used for centuries, to
dye animal fibers (94). The coloring component, which is soluble in hot water, uses kermesic
acid, an aglycon of carmine acid and flavocermesic acid, to create a red and yellowish dye
(95,96). Compared to purple, it is a cheaper color.
Octopus/Cuttlefish; A dark black to sepia brown is produced from octopus. They are basically
used to produce inks like octopus ink(black), cuttlefish ink(brown), squid ink(blue-black).
They are no toxic in nature. They are also used in fabric industry.
Hexaplex trunculus; Between 3.6 and 0.012 million years ago, this snail species were
identified on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. The snail is historically important because
of its hypobronchial gland secrets a mucus used to create a distinctive purple-blue indigo dye.
Hexaplex trunculus is also known as Murex trunculus, Dye Murex banded and Phyllonotus
trunculus (97).
Bolinas Brandaris; Originally known as the Murex brandaries, the Bolinas Brandaris is also
referred to as the branders or purple dye murex. 3.6–2.6 million years ago, it was classified as
a medium-sized meal. It was used by the Phoenicians in ancient times to extract imperial Tyrian
purple (98)

Mineral dyes: -

Mineral dyes are dyes that have a mineral origin. These natural dyes include several colours
derived from inorganic metal salts and metal oxides. The classification of mineral dye can be
done based on color obtained. The most important mineral dyes are as follows (99,100)-

Red pigment- The name of some red pigments and their sources are listed below-
Cinnabar; It is also known as vermillion, a heavy reddish mineral, with a metallic adamantine
luster. It is obtained from mercury sulphide (HgS). Used for red nuances.
Red Ochre; It is a naturally occuring earth pigment, also called limonite containing anhydrous
and hydrated iron oxide (Fe2O3.nH2O). Light, acids, and alkalies have little effect on the
stability of ochre. Red ocher, which the monks used to dye their robes, was mostly employed
in paintings and murals coupled with gum as a binding agent.
Red lead; It is called sindur. Red lead (Pb3O4 or 2[PbO].[PbO2]). Indian art frequently
employs this vivid red or orange crystalline or amorphous color, using this pigment. It is
composed primarily of lead tetroxide (85-98%) and litharge (2-15%). Used for red nuances.
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Yellow Pigments- The name of some yellow pigments and their sources are listed below-

Yellow Ochre; Different hydrated varieties of iron oxide being present, particularly the
mineral limonite (Fe2O3.H2O), is what gives yellow ochre its color. They are used in painting
in fabrics like sails, natural fibers and even in synthetic polyacrylonitrile.
Raw Sienna; Raw sienna is an earth pigment that is a member of the Siena earth class and
contains iron oxide and manganese oxide. It was the first pigment utilized in human cave
drawings, along with ochre. Due to its high degree of transparency, it is employed as a glaze
in paintings.
Orpiment; It is an arsenic sulfide mineral with a rich, vivid color that is deep orange-yellow.
It is yellow sulphide of arsenic (As2S3) chemically. Along with being a pigment in the paper
industry.
Litharge; White leads are besically roasted to create litharge (Massicot), a natural secondary
mineral form of lead oxide (galena). White lead, which is actually lead carbonate
(2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2) chemically, is transformed into pale yellow lead monoxide (PbO) powder
during decarboxylation and dehydration at a temperature of roughly 300°C.

Green Pigments- The name of some green pigments and their sources are listed below-
Malachite; Malachite (Cu2(OH)2CO3) is a material occurs naturally along with azurite, an
intense green mineral, copper carbonate mixed with copper hydroxide. The pigment produced
is a vivid, deep green. Used for green nuances (101).
Terre-Verte; Since ancient times, terre-verte has proven to be the most often utilized. It goes
by the name "green earth." Other minerals are probably present as well. It is a combination of
hydrosilicates of iron, magnesium, aluminum, and Potassium (gluconite and celadenite).
Depending on the source, the hue of the earth is different everywhere.
Vedgiris; During the Mugal era and afterwards in miniature paintings, vedgiris was a
frequently employed color in paintings. It is the typical copper acetate [Cu(CH3COO)2], and
it is made by rubbing copper foils with vinegar. The pigment produced is a vivid, deep green.
However, if not used cautiously, it has the drawback of charring paper or textiles (102).

Blue Pigments- The name of some blue pigments and their sources are listed below-
Ultramarine Blue; Ultramarine blue is a rich blue dye obtained from the mineral lapis lazuli.
The stone is semi-precious. In India, it has been employed in textiles and miniature art.
Lapis lazuli; Also known as lapis, a blue rock consisting a mixture of azurite and calcite,
pyroxenite, and other silicate minerals besides pyrite. Used for blue nuances.
Azurite; Azurite [Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2] is a soft, blue/dark blue copper mineral. It is produced
by weathering of copper ore deposits and often found together with the green mineral
malachite. Used for blue nuances in Chinese paintings and Indian paintings.

White Pigments- The name of some white pigments and their sources are listed below-
Chalk; One of the varieties of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is chalk. It is frequently utilized in
paintings. Chalk has been widely used as a pigment since very ancient times and is typically
found with quantities of limestone. Conch shell white is favored by artists in India and is
thought to have unique qualities.
White lead; The complex salt known as white lead (PbCO3) contains both carbonate and
hydroxide. It occurs in nature as the mineral Cerussite. It was previously a component of lead
paint. White lead is typically made artificially.
Aragonite; It is Usually colorless or white mineral. Used for white nuances.
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Zinc White; Zinc white (ZnO) is another important color used in painting. Talc, Barium White,
and Titanium White are other white pigments. Titanium White, also known as titanium dioxide
(TiO2), is a delustrant used in textiles.

Black Pigments- The name of some black pigments and their sources are listed below-
Manganese; Manganese is a metallic element. Used for black nuances.
Charcoal Black; charcoal is used as black pigment. It is produced from woods after burning
in a closed container.
Ivory Black; A closed earthen pot is used to roast ivory shavings, which are subsequently
ground, washed, and dried to produce ivory black. The black is very intensely prepared. Due
to environmental and animal rights concerns, it is currently unpopular.
Bone Black; Animal bones are charred in covered earthen pots to create bone black. It serves
as a replacement for ivory black despite not being as vivid.
Graphite; Writing implements have historically been made of powdered graphite, a mineral
that may be found across India. The pigment is a dull grey. However, drawing has been the
primary use rather than painting.
Black Chalk; Black clay used in pottery and paintings is referred to as "black chalk."
Terre-noire; Terre-noire is the same as black clay. It contains clay along with calcium, iron,
and manganese carbonates.

Microbial dyes: -

With the increasing demand of natural dye and the scarcity of natural sources like plant and
animal, various microbial sources are used to extract dyes. Specially fungi and bacteria (103)
have received particular attention for their ability to produce natural hues because of their color,
stability and sustainable supply (104). Some of the sources are listed below.
Pseudomonas; It is a pigment-producing bacteria. They are responsible for producing soluble
pigments like pyocyanin, pyoverdine, pyorubin and pyomelanin.
Achromobacter; They are gram negative bacteria. When the organism is cultivated in a
medium that contains yeast extract and tryptophan, a red pigment is produced.
Bacillus; It is a pigment-producing gram-positive bacteria. The most commonly found
pigments are yellow, brown, orange and pink.
Rhodococcus; This species has application in bioprocess technology, bioremediation, pigment
synthesis and probiotics in aquaculture. Carotenoids are the pigments ranging yellow to orange
color, obtained from this species.
Flavobacterium; they are the rod-shaped bacteria. Flexirubin is the main pigment found in
them.
Amygdalaria panaeola; It is a Fungal/lichen species. It produces pigments Panaefluorolines
A,B,C, which are a Isoquinoline class of compounds. Yellowish green color is obtained (105).
Aspergillus sulphureus; It is a Fungal/lichen species. It produces pigments Viopurpurin and
Rubrosulfin, napthaquinone class of compounds. The imparts purple and red color.
Aspergillus glaucus; Catenarin, Erythroglaucin and Rubrocristin are the
Hydroxyanthraquinone class of compounds and main component pigment in these fungi. They
impart red color.
Aspergillus variecolor; the main pigment Variecolorquinone A, a quinone class of compound
is found in this species. Imparts yellow color.
Aspergillus niger; Azanigerones B and Azanigerones C are the dying pigments. Comes under
Azaphilones category of compounds. Pigments color is yellow (106).

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Trichoderma harzianum; It is a Fungal/lichen species. Emodin and Pachybasin are the

pigments found in them which are the yellow pigments (107).
Fusarium fujikuroi; Norbikaverin, Bikaverin, 8-O-methylfusarubin and b-carotene are the
pigments found in thin fungi. They impart red color.
Monascus purpureus; Monapilol A, B, C, D are the pigments, Azaphilone class of
compound.The color of the pigment is orange (108).
Trypethelium eluteriae; Trypethelonamide A, 5′-hydroxytrypethelone, (–)-trypethelone, (+)-
trypethelone and (+)-8-hydroxy-7-Methoxytrypethelone pigments are found in this species.
The pigments are Naphthoquinone class of compound. Produce violet red color (109)

 Based on methods of application: -

The following classes of natural dyes have been identified based on their method of application

Mordant Dyes; In an effort to boost the interaction between the dye and the fiber, mordant
dyes can be bonded to materials for which they have little to no affinity. Alizarin is an important
example of such a dye. Most of these types of dyes produce a variety of hues or colors
depending on the mordant used.
Vat Dyes; Based on the techniques used to apply them, they are categorized. This procedure
is carried out in a bucket or vat. In their colorful form, they cannot be dissolved. The category
of vat dyes only includes three natural dyes, including indigo, tyrian purple and wood.
Direct Dyes; Direct dyes are organic compounds that are soluble in water that are simple to
use and produce bright colors. Cellulosic, Fibres, cotton etc. Turmeric, annatto, pomegranate,
safflower is example of direct dyes.
Acid Dyes; Another category of direct dyes used in an acidic media is acid dyes. Mainly
carboxylic acid groups are present in them. Saffron is an example of acid dye. They ate used
for polyamide fibres like silk, wool and cotton.
Basic Dyes; The salts of organic bases are basic dyes. They go by the name "cationic Dyes" as
well. These colors are applied in conditions that range from mild acidic to neutral. One example
of a simple dye is berberine. They are used on fabrics such as wool, silk, cotton, and modified
acrylic.
Disperse Dyes; Water is not soluble in disperse dyes. Lawson, Juglone, Lapachol, and
Shikonin, among other natural colors, can be categorized as disperse dyes. They are employed
to color fibers made of acetate and polyester.

 Natural dyes from waste sources: -

With the increasing demand of natural dye and the scarcity of natural sources like plant, animal,
insects, mineral and microbes various wastes materials are used to extract dyes. Different waste
sources like agricultural sources, forestry sources and industrial sources are used. The
environment is seriously threatened by the disposal of garbage produced as byproducts of
forestry, agriculture, and industry. They are also reused by this dye yielding process.

Waste from agriculture-

Harvest-wastes such as barks, fruits, leaves, flowers, roots, woods, and seeds that provide dyes
are examples of agro-wastes.
Pumpkin skin; The yellow pumpkin vegetable was collected and peel the skin of Pumpkin is
isolated. The skin was then divided into small pieces, allowed to dry in the shade for 7 to 10
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days, and then ground into a fine powder using a mixer grinder. This sample, which is
powdered, was used in the dyeing process before being placed in an airtight container. Cotton
fabric was coloured using a fixed volume of a chosen aqueous extract in each set of experiments
(110).
Mango leaves; Mango leaves were gathered for the extraction process. Mangiferin (1,3,6,7-
tetrahydroxyxanthone-C-2-D-glucoside) is the substance that gives mango leaves their color
(111).
Almond shell; Almond (Prunus dulcis), a shrub belongs to the family Rosaceae. The main
flavonoids in almond shells, which are also high in lignin and other phenolic compounds,
include (+)-catechin, ()-epicatechin, kaempferol, and isohamnetin (112). With the metallic
mordants, rose, cinnamon, brown and burgundy/reddish colors were produced in the wool
fiber, whereas the bio-mordants produced entirely distinct hues (113). Silk has been dyed using
an almond shell aqueous extract (114).
Groundnut/Peanut skin; Groundnut/ Peanut skin (Arachis hypogaea), comes under Fabaceae
family. Vanillin, catechin, and epicatechin (polyphenolic chemicals) are the three primary
coloring agents found in peanut skin (115). Aqueous extract of peanut skin has been used to
dye silk, cotton and wool (116).
Banana; The plant Musa acuminata is evergreen. Tetrahydroxyflavone (flavonoids), also
referred to as luteolin, and certain tannins are present as coloring agents (117). Used for dying
natural fibers.

Waste from forestry-

Forestry operations can produce enormous amounts of waste that can be used for textile
coloring, including bark, fallen branches, fruits, and leaves.
Tamarind seeds; The leaves and seeds of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) are used to extract
dye. They yield Yellow, brown color. This water soluble dye can be used to dye the cotton and
silk fabrics.
Walnut shells; Walnut (Juglans regia) comes under family Juglandaceae. Juglone (CI
75500), a napthoquinone (5hydroxy-1, 4-napthoquinone) that gives textile substrates a brown
tint, is the coloring agent found in walnut shell (118).
Jack fruit tree; Jack fruit tree (Atrocarpus heterophyllus) bark is used to get yellow color.
Eucalyptus; Bark of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus Camaldulensis) tree is used to get Yellow and
brown color and has been used for the coloring purposes of cotton (119).

Waste from industry-

It is necessary to look into fresh sources of natural dyes because of the rising demand for natural
colorants. The food business generates significant amounts of solid and liquid waste that could
be contaminants and have disposal issues, but could also be a source of natural color. A source
for natural coloring wool fibers could be found in a few studies on how to make the utilization
of plant waste from the food and beverage sector (120).

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CONCLUSION: -

Natural dyes or colorants are one of the best options to the textile industries. This review tries
to give a brief detail on natural dyes, their classifications, their resources and their applications.
Though there are so many difficulties with natural dyes like poor fastness, less durability etc
but intended to be a cheap, biodegradable, renewable, non-toxic and sustainable resource.
Moreover, the unique and organic qualities of natural dyes add value and aesthetic appeal to
products, fostering a connection to nature and cultural heritage. To improve the quality of
natural dye, we need higher research and industrial involvements. The textile industry has
witnessed a renewed focus on natural dyes as a means to achieve eco-friendly and socially
responsible production processes. Due to the limited industry of natural dyes and their
purification process, previously only about 1% of textiles were dyed with them, largely in the
cottage industry by traditional artisans, enthusiasts, and small business owners. But now
different manufacturer from India, China, United States are cooperating and trying to build this
industry. Utilization of natural dyes are steadily earning acceptance on the international market,
and the creation of textiles that are eco-friendly and organically dyed is a great method to
protect the environment from harmful synthetic dyes. Not only in the textile industry, the
applications of natural colorants have strong potential and a promising future in a few applied
sectors like leather, food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics and paint industries etc. Dyes from
different waste sources have become a source of potential natural dyes. Natural dyes can
compete with synthetic dyes as an eco-friendly approach for the environmentally concerned
users at the current stage of scientific development. But in future it will cover the small-scale
as well as large scale applications.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST: -No conflict of interest

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Authors acknowledge the institute for giving opportunity to write

the review article
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