EM 459:

Manufacturing Processes

Metal Forming
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Introduce and identify the different forming processes.
Classify the metal forming based on the temperature.
Calculate the required force for different metal forming
process.
Explain each process in free-hand sketch and demonstrate
its importance.
Identify the components of each stamp used in metal
forming processes

Lecture prepared by: 1

Dr. Tamer Ali Sebaey
Associate Professor of Manufacturing and Design
Department of Engineering Management
 Forming
involve
Forming processes are particular manufacturing processes which make use of suitable
stresses (like compression, tension, shear or combined stresses) to cause plastic deformation

Forming Processes
of the materials to produce required shapes. During forming processes no material is removed
or added.
Metal Forming processes include:
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire drawing
Sheet metal forming
Blanking
Piercing
Cup drawing 2

Bending
m
 Rolling Processes
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a
workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls and able to do

Forming Processes
plastic deformation.
theprofess of changing the
is
thickness of a workpiece by appling
compressivened

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 Rolling Processes
Hot Rolling Work Tr Cold Rolling work Tr

Forming Processes
Work environment above recrystallization Work environment below recrystallization

temperature, temperature (sometimes at room

temperature),
Higher reduction in the thickness
Lower reduction in the thickness achieved,
achieved,
closer dimensional tolerances and a wider
Less control on the size and shape of the
range of surface finishes,
finished product,
The products are more costly as it need
Parts are lower costs,
more energy to be done (Rolling forces) ,
Used mainly to increase the strength and
Result in a product with anisotropic
hardness of the final parts,
properties

Recrystallization temperature is a particular temperature point below the melting point of a 4

metal at which it is easy to change the microstructure of the metal.
 Flat Rolling

Forming Processes
A metal strip of thickness enters the roll gap and is reduced to thickness lay by a pair of
rotating rolls.

The velocity of the metal is higher at exit than at entry (same as fluid flow in narrow section).
Because the surface speed of the rigid roll is constant, there is relative sliding.

At the no slip point or the neutral point, the speeds of the workpiece and the roll are equal.

The rolls pull the material into the roll gap through a net frictional force on the material. Thus, the net 5
frictional force must be to the right
 Flat Rolling
The maximum amount of draft (thickness reduction) is a function of the coefficient of
friction and the radius of the rolling mill.

Forming Processes
In case that the amount of required reduction is more than the maximum draft
( ), the process is being done using multi-stage rolling

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 Flat Rolling
The force required in rolling is:

Forming Processes
: is the contact length between the Roll ad the workpiece, mm.

: is the workpiece width, mm.

: is the average flow stress MPa. It can be calculated as:

and are constants to be defined based on the material.

is the true strain developed during the rolling process. It can be calculated as:

The power required to accomplish any rolling process is defined as:

: is the number of revolutions per unit time of the roll. To get the power in (Watt) the F should be (N), L 7
(m) and N (revolution per second). To change Watt to hp you can divide by 745.7
 Flat Rolling
Several methods are applied to reduce the required rolling force: Tension force
Apply tension to the rolling (a)

Forming Processes
Perform rolling at high temperature,

Use smaller diameter rolls to reduce the contact area (b) and (c),
a)
Using Column milling (d),

Reduce the friction at the roll/workpiece interface.

c) Cluster milling at which d) Column milling at which the work can be

b) Four milling rolling at
the once in contact with passed through from either side by raising or
which the ones in contact
with the work are doing the work is doing the lowering the strip after each pass. 8
rolling and the others are In this process the intermediate mill plays two
the rolling and the others
just supports functions in the same time
are just supports
 Forging
process at
pit's whichthey
a
Forging is a deformation process in which the work is compressed between
two dies, using either impact or gradual pressure to form the part. It is the

Forming Processes
oldest of the metal forming operations.

Forging is usually being made at high temperature and called hot forging.
Comparison between the hot and the cold forging is similar to the one
already introduced for rolling.

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 Forging
Forging can be Open-die or impression and closed die forging.
Open-die forging is the simplest forging operation. Open-die forging can be depicted by a solid
workpiece placed between two flat dies and reduced in height by compressing it (a).

Forming Processes
In case that there is no friction between the die and the work, the final product will have the
same final diameter.
ÉÉÉÉrnce in Tempretur
I
If there is friction, the diameter of the final product will be greater at the middle compared to
the ends due to friction causing the barreling. Lubricant can partially solve tis problem.
Barreling can also result from the difference in the temperature between the workpiece an the
die in hot forging. At which the metal in contact with the die will cool down quickly and being 10
hard to be formed. This can be solved by using the heated dies.
 Forging Force Estimation
Forging Force. Considering the friction between the die and the workpiece, the force required to
do forging can be calculated as:

Forming Processes
: is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die,

and : are the instantaneous radius and height of the workpiece (mm),

: is the flow stress (MPa) calculated as:

And

and : are constants to be defined based on the material.

and : are the initial and final heights, respectively. 11

 Forging
In impression-die forging, the workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity while being forged
between two shaped dies.

Forming Processes
O O

As the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity
and into the small gap between the die plates. This flash must be cut away from the part in a
subsequent trimming operation

As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists continued flow of metal into the gap,
thus constraining the bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity
Ix
Force required in impression-die forging can be calculated as: ; as is a constant 12
depends on the shape and A is the project area of the forging part including the flash area.
 Forging
Flashless forging. Is a closed die forging process at which there is no flash in the final product.

Forming Processes
Forces in flashless forging reach values comparable to those in impression-die forging. Estimates
of these forces can be computed using the same methods as for impression-die forging.

Compared to the impression die forging, the product obtained from flashless forging can be
considered as final product (no other operations needed). However, the die itself is very
complicated compared to the normal impression die forging. 13
 Forging Processes
Coining is a special application of flashless forging in which fine details in the die are impressed
into the top and bottom surfaces of the product. There is little flow of metal in coining, yet the
pressures required to reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are high.

Forming Processes
3g
BE

The process is also used to provide good surface finish and dimensional accuracy on work parts
made by other operations. 14
 Extrusion

Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is forced to flow

Forming Processes
through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.

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 Extrusion
Direct Extrusion

The ram and the final product are moving in the same direction

Forming Processes
Small portion of the billet remains and cannot be forced through the die opening at
the end. This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product by cutting.

One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant friction that exists between
the work surface and the walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide toward
the die opening.

Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by adding a mandrel to
the ram head at which the metal can flow around.
Force
high
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 Extrusion
Indirect Extrusion also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion, at which the die is
mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container.

wwF

Forming Processes
oppgite

Less but it
The ram is moving in the opposite direction of the final product.

Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no friction at the
container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower than in direct extrusion.

Indirect extrusion can produce hollow(tubular) cross sections as shown in figure (b) 17
 Extrusion
Extrusion Die Characteristics:

Forming Processes
Extrusion ratio ( ) is one of the parameters to be considered when designing a die.

Square dies (shear dies) are used in extruding nonferrous metals, especially aluminum. However,
ferrous metals require larger die angle . Relief angle is needed for both cases.

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 Extrusion
Hydrostatic Extrusion: One of the problems in direct extrusion is friction
along the billet container interface. This problem can be solved by

Forming Processes
surrounding the billet with fluid inside the container and pressurizing the
fluid by the forward motion of the ram. This way, there is no friction inside
the container, and friction at the die opening is reduced.
3

billet

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 Wire Drawing
In drawing, the cross section of a long rod or wire is reduced or changed by pulling (hence the term
drawing) it through a die called a draw die.

Thus, the difference between drawing and extrusion is that in extrusion the material is pushed through

Forming Processes
a die, whereas in drawing it is pulled through it.

The term wire is used to distinguish the drawing process discussed here from the sheet metal process
of the same name.

The purpose of the bearing surface (land) is to set the final diameter of the product (sizing) and to 20
maintain this diameter even with wear on the die-workpiece interface.
 Wire Drawing
For any wire drawing processes, the reduction in area is defined as:

Forming Processes
The draft is the difference in the diameters as:

The required force is:

: is the die angle (rad)

: is the coefficient of friction,

However, there has to be a limit to the magnitude of the force, because when the tensile stress reaches
the yield stress of the metal being drawn, the workpiece will simply yield and, eventually, break.

It can be shown that, ideally and without friction, the maximum reduction in cross-sectional area per
pass is 63%. Thus, a 10-mm-diameter rod can be reduced (at most) to a diameter of 6.1 mm in one pass
without failure. 21

L
 Sheet Metal Stamping
metal
raise
Working or Can be defined as a chipless
manufacturing processes by which various components are made from sheet metal.

From the economical point of view, these processes are suitable in mass production due to the die

Forming Processes
cost.

These processes are usually performed at room temperature.

Sheet metal is generally considered to be a plate with thickness less than 5 mm.

Presses and die sets are generally used with the die set to perform cold stamping.

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 Sheet Metal Stamping
Sheet Metal forming can be:

Shearing

Forming Processes
Bending

Drawing

Shearing. The cutting of metal between a die and a punch is a pure shearing action. The metal is
stressed between the cutting edge to the fracture point. It is subjected to compressive as well as
tensile stresses.

88

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 Sheet Metal Stamping
Shearing occurs in three steps:
formation
1. Plastic deformation, the metal
opting
2. Penetration: More of onset of cracks PD
is

Forming Processes
3. Fracture: Propagation of cracks to the final cutting.

As clearance increases, sheared edge becomes rougher and zone of

deformation becomes larger clearances are smaller for softer metals,
thinner sheets, or larger holes.

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 Sheet Metal Stamping die
to the
Die block: angle provided di
an the slug tear the
to enable
gis
Angular clearance: is provided to the die block in order to enable the slug to

Forming Processes
clear the die.

The cutting land is provided to give strength to the cutting surface and also to
allow sharpening of the die block without loosing the blank dimensions.
Usually it is taken as 3 mm for all materials

Typical values of angular clearance range between 0.5 and 2 º,

Cutting Land or
Shaving allowance

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Angular clearance
 Sheet Metal Stamping
Shearing Processes:

1. Blanking: It is a process of cutting a portion of

Forming Processes
material from a given stock with the necessary
dimensions. The removed part is called a blank. The
objective of this process is the blank with the
required dimensions.

2. Piercing or Punching: It is the process of making

holes in a sheet. The objective in this process is to
produce the sheet with holes.

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 we
shape effmtation
Sheet Metal Stamping
gangand by
Bending: It is a manufacturing process by which metal can be deformed by plastically deforming the
material and changing its shape. The material is stressed beyond its yield strength but below its
ultimate strength. There is little change to the materials surface area. Bending generally refers to

Forming Processes
deformation about one axis only.

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 Sheet Metal Stamping
Spring back in bending. When the metal is strained, it is first elastically deformed and then plastically.
After removing the applied load, the plastic component of the deformation remains permanently, but
the elastic part springs back to its original shape. So, the amount of spring back must be calculated

Forming Processes
before the design process and taken into accounts.

Effect of grain direction

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 Sheet Metal Stamping
Drawing: It is the process of making cups, and similar articles from metal blanks.
The blank is placed on a die and held by a blank holder then it is pressed into the
die by a punch. The die setup is similar to that used in blanking except that the

Forming Processes
punch and die are provided with the necessary rounding at the corners to allow
for the smooth flow of the metal during drawing.

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 Sheet Metal Stamping
Friday

Drawing Ratio: is the ratio between blank diameter D and cup internal diameter d,

The greater the ratio, the more severe is the operation. An upper limit on the drawing ratio is a value of

Forming Processes
2.0. For drawing ratio more than 2.0, more than one drawing step is required.
Drawing Reduction:

For drawing reduction more than 40 %, more than one drawing step is required.
For multi-step drawing, the reduction in the first step is 40 %. Its maximum value is 25 %, for the
second drawing step, 15 % for the third drawing step, and 10 % for the fourth drawing step.
Blank size (D):

: is the cup diameter

: is the cup height

It is necessary to add the trimming allowance to the theoretical blank diameter D to provide trimming
of deep drawing cup. The trim allowance TA could be 3 mm for each 25 mm cup diameter.

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