Ex.

No : 1 CHARACTERIZATION OF GLASS AND PLASTIC OPTICAL

FIBERS- COEFFICIENT OTDR PRINCIPLE
Date :

AIM

To measure the coefficient of optical fibre using OTDR.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. OTDR
2. PC with pulse generator
3. Coupler Module
4. APD Module
5. Fibre spools
6. CRO

THEORY

Optical test set used to measure fiber attenuation, loss, length, splice loss,
reflectance, and distance to an event. It is a unique fiber test set in that it measures fiber with
access to only one end of the fiber. It also measures the distance to a point along the fiber.
OTDRs use a phenomenon called backscatter as the basis for their operation. An OTDR
sends a pulse out into the fiber and impurities in the fiber cause a small amount of power
from the pulse to be returned to the OTDR in a process called backscatter. By timing the
returned energy to the OTDR, the distance into the fiber can be determined. The result is a
power versus distance plat provided as output by the OTDR.

A pulse is generated periodically such that the ON time will be very low compared to
the OFF time. It will be of the order of 100ns. The smaller the ON time shorter will be the
distance between the events detectable. The longer the OFF time, larger the length of the
complete fiber distance (all events put together). This pulse is converted to optical energy by
LD This optical pulse is then coupled to the directional coupler and the pulse travels through
the entire length of the fiber Wherever there are mismatches or change in alignment of the
coupling mechanism like connectors, a small energy of the light pulse gets reflected back in
the same fiber When this reflected light energy reaches back the

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 1 Setup of optical fibre Events

directional coupler, a portion of it is diverted to the arm where the APD is connected. This is
graphically shown on the directional coupler unit This pulse is detected by the APD and
shown on the oscilloscope. This is repeated for all the reflections that takes place at various
stages of the entire fiber event setup. For each reflection one pulse will be generated and
will be detected by the APD Depending on the strength of the pulse the amplitude varies.

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PROCEDURE

1. Switch ON the source (modulator) and APD receiver. Generate the pulse
from the pulse generator. Choose the smallest pulse width so that smaller
length events can be well within the detectable region. Adjust the collimating
lens
ofthelasersourcesuchthataveryfinespotmaybefocusedontothefibertip.Thisisto
ensurethatmaximumpowercouplesintothefiber.
2. Adjust the X-Y positioned such that the fiber is in line with the spot and the
light couples into the fiber. Adjust the collimating lens further to ensure that
the maximum power couples into the fiber.
3. Observe the pulse in one channel of the oscilloscope and the APD output on
the other channel of the oscilloscope.
4. Slightly remove one connector in the middle of the event and observe the
effect of received pulses on the oscilloscope.
5. Completely disconnect the last event and see the number of pulses
disappearing from the oscilloscope.
6. Restore all the events intact and note down the total time between each
pulse seen in the oscilloscope.(APD output).

FORMULA USED

Distance between the events

The definition of Refractive index of fiber is given by
Speed of light in vacuum
Refractive index of fiber (core) =
Speed of light in Fiber (core)
Distance between events = Time taken to reach the distance × speed of light in Fiber
Time noted in oscilloscope
( 2 ) × speed of light in vacuum
=
Refractive Index

Assuming Refractive Index of the given fiber = 1 47, speed of light in fiber comes to
5ns/meter.

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TABULATION

Peak No. Distance in meter

1stPeak

2ndPeak

3rdPeak

MODEL GRAPH

RESULTS

Thus the optical fibre characteristics and coefficient of fibre cable is analyzed using
OTDR.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 Ex. No : 2
OPTICAL FIBER CHARACTERISTICS- MEASUREMENT OF
NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ATTENUATION
Date :

AIM

To measure numerical aperture of the fiber and attenuation of optical fiber.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Link-B Kit with power supply.

2. Patch chords.
3. 20MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope.
4. Function Generator.
5. Fiber Cable

THEORY

Fiber Optic Link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an Optical Fiber and a
receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms
it into Optical (light) energy containing the same information. The Optical Fiber is the
medium which carriers the energy to the receiver. At the receiver, light is converted back into
electrical from with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.

Numerical Aperture
Numerical aperture refers to the maximum angle at the light incident on the fiber end
is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the Fiber. The cone formed by
the rotations of this angle along the axis of the Fiber is the cone of acceptance of the Fiber.
The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone of acceptance; else it is refracted out
of the fiber core.

Losses in Fiber
Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one
end of Fiber to another end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss.
Also part of the light is reflected back or in some other directions from the impurity particles
present in the material contributing to the loss of the signal at the other end of the Fiber. In
general terms it is know as propagation loss. Plastic Fibers have higher loss of the order of
180 dB/Km. whenever the conditions for angel of incidence

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BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 2 Setup of Fiber optic Link

TABULATION

Horizontal 𝐍𝐀 = 𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝛉𝐦𝐚𝐱

S. No Distance d BC (cm) DE (cm) 𝐫 = (𝐁𝐂 + 𝐃𝐄)/𝟒 𝐫
=
(cm) √(𝐝𝟐 + 𝐫 𝟐 )

Average

of the incident lights is violated the losses are introduced due to refraction of light. This
occurs when fiber is subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss.
Other losses are due to the coupling of Fiber at LED and photo detector ends.

FORMULA USED

(𝑩𝑪 + 𝑫𝑬)
𝒓=
𝟒
𝒓
𝑵𝑨 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
(𝒅𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )

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 PROCEDURE

1. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to optical transmitter and receiver kit
2. While connecting ensures that power supply is off and switch on the power supply, feed
about 2vpp sinusoidal signal of 1 kHz from function generator to analog in of optical
transmitter kit.
3. Insert other end of fibre into NA measurement stand
4. Adjust fibre such that is cut face is to axis of the fibre
5. Keep distance of about 5 mm between fibre and screen
6. Now measure illuminated circular patch of light on the screen
7. Measure exactly distance d and vertical & horizontal diameter BC and DE.
8. Mean radius is calculated using the formula𝑟 = (𝐵𝐶 + 𝐷𝐸)/4
𝑟
9. Find NA of the fibre using𝑁𝐴 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√(𝑑 2 +𝑟 2 )

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted through
fibre(acceptance angle)

RESULT:

Thus the propagation and bending loss of the given fiber and also numerical aperture
were obtained.

Numerical aperture= ________________.

Inference from the Result:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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 Ex. No : 3 V-I OF LED CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER DIODE SOURCES –
THRESHOLD CURRENT DETERMINATION AND STUDY OF
Date : TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

AIM

To measure the V-I characteristics of LED diode source.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Link-B Kit With Power Supply

2. Patch Chords
3. Jumper to Crocodile Connector
4. Multimeter

THEORY

In optical fibre communication system, electrical signal is first converted into optical
signal with help of E/D conversion device such as LED. After this optical signal is transmitted
through optical fibre, it is received in its original electrical form with the help of O/E
conversion device.
Different technologies employed in chip fabrication least to significant variation in
parameters for various emitter diodes. All the emitters distinguish themselves in offering high
output power coupled into important peak wavelength of emission, conversion efficiency.
Optical rise and fall time which put the limitations on operating frequency, maximum forward
current through LED and typical forward voltage across LED.

PROCEDURE

Make connections as shown in diagram. Connect the power supply

cables with proper polarity to link-B kit. While connecting this, ensure that
power supply is off.

1. Keep switch SW8 towards v1 position.

2. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
3. Keep jumper JP8 towards sine position.
4. Keep bias control pot P1 towards maximum position and P2 towards minimum
position.
5. Insert the jumper to crocodile connecting wires in jumper JP5 and JP6.
6. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter with proper polarities to above-mentioned

Page | 8
 jumper.
7. Switch on the power supply.
8. Vary intensity control pot P2 to control current flowing through LED.
9. To get VI characteristics of LED, rotate P2 slowly and measure
forward current and corresponding forward voltage.
10. For each readings, power is given as Power=forward current X
forward voltage. This is the electrical power supplied to LED.
11. LED which specifies optical power coupled to plastic fiber when
forward current is 10mA is 200µw This brings ή of 1.15%

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 3 Setup of Link-B Kit

TABULATION

Electrical
Forward Forward power Optical power Responsivity
S. Voltage of Current of 𝑷𝒊 𝑷𝒐 𝒓
No LED LED = 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑷𝒊 = (𝟎. 𝟖𝒎𝑨 × 𝑷𝒐 )
VF (V) IF (mA) × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓%(𝝁𝒘) /𝟏𝟎𝛍𝒘
× 𝑰𝒇 (𝒎𝒘)

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MODEL GRAPH:

IF
(mA)

V-I Characterstics of Fiber optic LED

Optical Power vs Current Characterstics of Fiber optic LED

Responstivity Characterstics of Fiber optic LED

Page | 10
RESULT:
Thus the V-I characteristics of LED diode source is measured

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 Ex. No : 4 ANALOG TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF A FIBER
OPTIC LINK – DETERMINATION OF OPERATING RANGE OF
LED AND SYSTEM BANDWIDTH FOR GLASS AND PLASTIC
Date : FIBER LINKS AND DETERMINATION OF DEVICE CAPACITY OF
PHOTO DETECTION

AIM

To study the analog transmission characteristics of fiber optical and to determine the
capacity of photo detector.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Link-B Kit with power supply.

2. Patch chords.
3. 20MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope.
4. Function Generator.
5. Fiber Cable.

THEORY

Fiber Optic Link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an Optical Fiber and a
receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms
it into Optical (light) energy containing the same information. The Optical Fiber is the
medium which carriers the energy to the receiver. At the receiver, light is converted back into
electrical from with the same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.
TRANSMITTER
Fiber Optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver and optical Source.
The driver electronics provides electrical power to the optical source in a fashion that
duplicates the pattern of data being fed to the transmitter. The optical source (LED) converts
the electrical current to light energy with the same pattern. The LED SFH450V (950nm)
supplied with this kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. Its optical output is
centered at near infrared wavelength of 950nm. The LED SFH756V (660nm) supplied with
this kit operates at the visible light spectrum. Its optical output is centered at wavelength of
660nm.
RECEIVER
The function of the receiver is to convert the optical energy into electrical form, which
is then conditioned to reproduce the transmitted electrical signal to original form. The
detector SFH350V (Photo Transistor Detector) used in the kit has a transistor type output.
The parameters usually considered in the case of detector are it's responsivity at peak

Page | 12
wavelength and response time. SFH350V (Photo Transistor Detector) has responsivity of
about 0.8mA/10uW at 660nm. But its response time is quite large and thus has lower
bandwidth of about 300 KHz. When optical signal falls on the base of the transistor detector,
proportional current flows through its emitter generating the voltage across the resistance
connected between emitter and ground. This voltage is the duplication of the transmitted
electrical signal, which can be amplified
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 4 Setup to calculate bit error rate measurement

TABULATION

Input Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage

(Hz) (V) (V)

MODEL GRAPH:

Page | 13
PROCEDURE

1. Refer to the block diagram & carry out the following connections and settings.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit link-B and switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.
5. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
6. Keep Jumper JP5 towards +12V position.
7. Keep Jumpers JP6, JP9, JP10 shorted.
8. Keep Jumper JP8 towards sine position.
9. Keep Intensity control pot P2 towards minimum position.
10. Feed about 2Vpp sinusoidal signal of 1 KHz from the function
generator to the IN post of Analog Buffer.
11. Connect the output post OUT of Analog Buffer to the post TX IN of Transmitter.
12. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the one meter fiber
into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
13. Connect the other end of the Fiber to detector SFH350V (Photo
Transistor Detector) verycarefully.

14. Observe the detected signal at post ANALOG OUT on oscilloscope.

Adjust Intensity control pot P2 Optical Power control potentiometer so that
you receive signal of 2Vpp amplitude.

RESULT:
Thus the analog transmission characteristic of fiber optical was studied.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 Ex. No : 5 DETERMINATION OF CAPACITY OF A DIGITAL FIBER OPTIC
LINK – MAXIMUM BIT RATE ESTIMATION FOR GLASS AND
Date : PLASTIC FIBER LINKS

AIM

a) To establish a digital fiber optic link and obtain its frequency response.
b) To obtain BER of the digital fiber optic link.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Link-B Kit with power supply.

2. Patch chords.
3. 20MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope.
4. Function Generator.
5. Fiber Cable.

THEORY

Transmitter
LED, digital DC coupled transmitters are one of the most popular varieties due to
their ease of fabrication. We have used a standard TTL gate to drive a NPN transistor, which
modulates the LED SFH450V or SFH 756V source. (Turns it on and off).
Receiver
SFH-551V is a digital optodetector. It delivers a digital output, which can be
processed directly with little additional external circuitry. The integrated circuit inside the
SFH551V optodetector comprises the photodiode device, a transimpedance amplifier, a
comparator and a level shifter. The photodiode converts the detected light into a
photocurrent. With the aid of an integrated lens the light emanating from the plastic Fiber
is almost entirely focused on the surface of the diode. At the next stage the trans-
impedance amplifier converts the photocurrent into a voltage. In the comparator, the voltage
is compared to a reference voltage.
In over to ensure good synchronism between the reference and the trans-impedance
output voltage, the former is derived from a second circuit of a similar kind, which
incorporates a “blind” photodiode. The comparator derives a level shifter with an open
collector output stages. Here a catch diode (similar to Schottky-TTL) prevents the saturation
of the output transistor, thus limiting the output voltage to the supply voltage.

Page | 15
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 5 Setup to Measure BER

TABULATION

Input Output
Frequency
TON TOFF TON TOFF

MODEL GRAPH:

Bit Error Rate

In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is a Ratio of bits that
have errors relative to the total number of bits received in a transmission. The BER is an
indication of how often a packet or other data unit has to be retransmitted because of an

Page | 16
error. Too high a BER may indicate that a slower data rate would actually improve overall
transmission time for a given amount of transmitted data since the BER might be reduced ,
lowering the number of packets that had to be resent

Measuring Bit Error Rate

A BERT (bit error rate tester) Is a procedure or device that measures the BER for a
given transmission. The BER, or quality of the digital link, is calculated from the number of
bits received in error divided by the number of bits transmitted.
BER= (Bits in Error) / (Total bits transmitted)
Using a bench test setup, this is easily measured by means of a comparator in which
the transmitted bits are matched in an XOR gate with the received bits. If the bits are alike at
the XOR gate input when clocked in from the D flip flop, the output is low. If they are
different, the XOR output goes high, causing an event count. The event counter can be set
for various time periods. In general, the longer the time period, the more accurate the count.
A random character generator and white noise source should be used for these
measurements

The number of bit errors is dependent upon the amount of noise entering the system.
White noise, or background noise, has an average or RMS value that is exceeded
periodically by peaks that rise many times that level. These peaks exist only for a very short
period of time. When the peak equals or exceeds the signal level, that is noise energy = bit
energy, there is a 50/50 chance of error. The peak time periods can be calculated
statistically from the error function. In Link-B, PRBS sequence is generated by using a 4-bit
right shift register whose feedback is completed by the EX-OR gate.

PROCEDURE

1. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position.
2. Set PRBS signal pattern using SW7.
3. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS Generator to IN post Digital buffer.
Thus the sequence repeats constantly with a period corresponding to
16 clock states. Length of sequence = 24 = 16
Now the pseudo random sequence pattern is C=1010111100010011.

4. Connect the OUT post of the Digital buffer to the TX IN post.

5. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660 nm). Do not remove the cap from the

Page | 17
 connector.
6. Once the cap is loosened, insert the one meter fiber into the cap. Now
tighten the cap byscrewing it back.
7. Connect the other end of the Fiber to detector SFH551V (Photo
Transistor Detector) verycarefully.
8. Connect detected signal TTL OUT to Bit Error Rate event counter DATA IN
post & to post INof Noise source
9. Connect post OUT of Noise Source to post RXDATA IN of Bit Error Rate event
counter.
10. Connect post CLK OUT of PRBS Generator to post CLK IN of Bit Error Rate event
counter.
11. Press Switch SW11 to start counter.
12. Vary pot P3 for Noise Level to observe effect of noise level on the error count.
13. Observe the Error Count LED for the error count in received signal in time 10
seconds.

SIGNAL PATTERN

Let initially 1001 be the 4 bit switch setting on the SW7.

Clock Pseudorandom
D1 D2 D3 D4
state sequence
s
A B C
1 1 0 0 1 1
2 1 1 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 0 1
4 1 0 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 1 1
6 1 0 1 0 1
7 1 1 0 1 1
8 1 1 1 0 1
9 1 1 1 1 0
10 0 1 1 1 0
11 0 0 1 1 0
12 0 0 0 1 1

Page | 18
 13 1 0 0 0 0
14 0 1 0 0 0
15 0 0 1 0 1
16 1 0 0 1 1

MODEL GRAPH FOR PRBS CLOCK, DATA AND NOISE

RESULT:

Thus the fiber optic link can be used for digital data transfer was studied and bit
error ratemeasurement was observed.
Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 19
 Ex. No : 6
STUDY OF WDM LINK COMPONENTS – WDM MUX / DEMUX,
ISOLATOR, CIRCULATOR, FIBER BRAGG GRATING, EDFA
Date :

AIM
To study the various components of WDM link.
COMPONENTS
1. WDM Mux/ Demux
2. Isolator
3. Circulator
4. Fiber bragg grating
5. EDFA

WDM MUX/ DEMUX

WDM MUX:
The main function of MUX is to combine multiple signal wavelengths into one optical
fiber for transmission. At the transmitter end, N optical transmitters operate at N different
wavelengths, which are separated by appropriate intervals. These N light waves are
respectively modulated by the signal as carriers and carry the signal. A wave synthesizer
combines these different wavelengths of optical carrier signals and couples them into a
single-mode fiber. Because the optical carrier signals of different wavelengths can be
regarded as independent of each other (without considering the non-linearity of the fiber),
the multiplexing transmission of multiple optical signals can be realized in one fiber. Through
multiplexing, communication operators can avoid maintaining multiple lines and effectively
save operating costs.

Figure 6.1 WDM Mux and Demux

Page | 20
WDM DEMUX
The main function of DEMUX is to separate multiple wavelength signals transmitted
in one fiber. At the receiving end, the optical carrier signals of different wavelengths are
separated by a demultiplexer, which is further processed by the optical receiver to recover
the original signal. A demultiplexer (Demux) is a device that performs reverse processing on
a multiplexer.

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF MUX/DEMUX

1. Operating Wavelength
Multiplexer/demultiplexer operating waveband. For example, 1550 wavelength has
three bands: S band (short wavelength band 1460~1528nm), C band (conventional band
1530~1565nm), L band (long wavelength band 1565~1625nm).
2. Number of channels & channel spacing
Channel number refers to the number of channels that a multiplexer/demultiplexer
can combine or separate. This number can range from 4 to 160 to enhance the design by
adding more channels. Common channels are 4, 8, 16, 32, 40, 48, etc. Channel spacing is
the difference between the nominal carrier frequencies of two adjacent channels and is used
to prevent inter-channel interference. According to ITU-T G.692, the channel intervals less
than 200GHz (1.6nm) include 100GHz (0.8nm), 50GHz (0.4nm) and 25GHz. Currently,
100GHz and 50GHz channel intervals are preferred.
3. Insertion Loss
Insertion loss is the attenuation caused by the insertion of WDM in optical
transmission system. The attenuation effect of WDM on optical signal directly affects the
transmission distance of the system. Generally, the lower the insertion loss, the less signal
attenuation.
4. Isolation
Isolation refers to the isolation degree between signals of each channel. High
isolation values can effectively prevent the distortion of transmitted signals caused by
crosstalk between signals.
5. PDL (Polarization Dependent Loss)
PDL refers to the distance between the maximum and minimum loss caused by
different polarization states at fixed temperature, wavelength and the same band, namely,
the maximum deviation of insertion Loss in all input polarization states.

Page | 21
ISOLATOR

An optical isolator is also known as an optical diode, photocoupler, an optocoupler. It

is a passive magneto-optic device, and the main function of this optical component is to
permit light transmission in one direction only. So it plays a main role while preventing
unnecessary feedback to an optical oscillator namely laser cavity. The working of this
component mainly depends on the Faraday’s effect which is used in the main component
like Faraday rotor.

Figure 6.2 Working model of Optical Isolator

An optical isolator includes three main components namely a Faraday rotator, i/p
polarizer, & an o/p polarizer. The block diagram representation is shown below. The working
of this is like when light passes through the i/p polarizer in the forward direction & turn into
polarized within the vertical plane. The operation modes of this isolator are classified into two
types based on the different directions of light such as forward mode & backward mode.

In forward mode, the light enters into the input polarizer then becomes linearly
polarized. Once the light beam arrives at the Faraday rotator, then the rod of the Faraday
rotator will turn with 45°. Therefore, finally, the light leaves from the o/p polarizer at 45°.
Similarly in backward mode, initially the light enters into the o/p polarizer with a 45°. When it
transmits throughout the Faraday rotator, rotates continuously for another 45° in a similar
path. After that, the 90° polarization light turns into vertical toward the i/p polarizer & cannot
depart the isolator. Thus, the light beam will be either absorbed or reflected.

Page | 22
CIRCULATOR

It is a multi-port device with nonreciprocal transmission characteristics. A three port

optical circulator is shown. When light enters port 1 of the circulator, it exits through port 2. If
light enters port 2 of the circulator, instead of emerging from port 1, it now emerges from port
3. Such a device finds wide applications in many areas such as dispersion compensation
using FBGs, add/drop multiplexers etc. For example if an FBG with a central wavelength of
λ1 is placed at port 2 and if light at wavelengths λ1, λ2 and λ3, are incident on port 1 of the
circulator, then out of three wavelengths exiting from port 2, FBG reflects back wavelength
λ1.

Figure 6.3 Optical Circulator

This wavelength propagates back towards port 2 of the circulator and exits from port
3 while the wavelengths λ2, and λ3 continue to propagate along port 2. Thus this act as a
drop filter for wavelength λ1. The most important characteristics of a circulator are insertion
loss and cross talk. If the power entering port 1 is P1 and, if the output at port 2 is P2 and at
port 3 is P3 then the insertion loss (IL) and cross talk (CT) are defined as
𝑷𝟐
𝑰𝑳 (𝒅𝑩) = −𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑷𝟏
𝑷𝟑
𝑪𝑻(𝒅𝑩) = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑷𝟐
Apart from these characteristics other important characteristics of a circulator include
its polarization dependence in terms of polarization dependent loss (PDL) and polarization
mode dispersion (PMD), the wavelength of the operation and the power handling capacity.
With additional equipment, these characteristics can also be measured using the kit.

Page | 23
FIBER BRAGG GRATING
It is an optical fiber component having a periodic variation in the refractive index of its
core along the fiber length. An FBG act as a highly wavelength selector, with a high
reflectivity at a given central wavelength and the reflectivity dropping to very small values
close to the central wavelength. The central wavelength, the peak value of reflectivity and
the bandwidth of the reflection spectrum depends on the period of the reflective index
modulation on the strength of index modulation of the grating and the length of the grating.

Figure 6.4 Fiber brag grating

If Λ is the period of index modulation (also known as the pitch of the grating), L is the
length of the grating, ne is the effective index of the fundamental mode and ∆n is the index
modulation, then the central wavelength λc, peak reflectivity R and the bandwidth ∆λ (the
spectral width over which the reflectivity is high) are approximately given as,

FBGs find wide applications in optical fiber communication systems. They are used in
laser transmitters for single frequency oscillation, in optical add drop multiplexers, fiber
lasers and fiber optic sensors. In the experiment described here, the primary measurement
is the peak reflectivity of grating. In order to measure other quantities, additional equipment
is required. For example for measuring the central wavelength and spectral band width an
optical spectrum analyzer or a tuneable optical filter would be required. Using additional

Page | 24
instruments it is also possible to show effects of strain and temperature on the grating
performance and thus demonstrate its application to sensing.

EDFA
In general, EDFA works on the principle of stimulating the emission of photons. With
EDFA, an erbium-doped optical fiber at the core is pumped with light from laser diodes. This
type of setup in telecom systems can help with fiber communications, for example, boosting
the power of a data transmitter. An EDFA may also be used to maintain long spans of a
passive fiber network and may also be used for some types of equipment testing.
Pump lasers, known as pumping bands, insert dopants into the silica fiber, resulting
in a gain, or amplification. EDFA amplification occurs as the pump laser excites the erbium
ions, which then reach a higher energy level. Photons are emitted as erbium ion levels
decrease, or decay. This decaying process creates an interaction between the phonons and
the glass matrix, which are vibrating atomic elastic structures.

Figure 6.5 Working model of EDFA

The EDFA rate, or amplification window, is based on the optical wavelength range of
amplification and is determined by the dopant ions' spectroscopic properties, the optical fiber
glass structure and the pump laser wavelength and power. As ions are sent into the optical
fiber glass, energy levels broaden, which results in amplification window broadening and a
light spectrum with a broad gain bandwidth of fiber optic amplifiers used for wavelength
division multiplex communications. This single amplifier may be used with all optic fiber
channel signals when signal wavelengths are in the amplification window. Optical isolator
devices are placed on either side of the EDFA and serve as diodes, which prevent signals
from traveling in more than one direction.
EDFAs are usually limited to no more than 10 spans covering a maximum distance of
approximately 800 kilometers (km). Longer distances require an intermediate line repeater to
retime and reshape the signal and filter accumulated noise from various light dispersion

Page | 25
forms from bends in the optical fiber. In addition, EDFAs cannot amplify wavelengths shorter
than 1525 nanometers (nm).
The basic structure of an EDFA consists of a length of Erbium-doped fiber (EDF), a
pump laser, and a WDM combiner. The WDM combiner is for combining the signal and
pump wavelength so that they can propagate simultaneously through the EDF. The lower
picture shows a more detailed schematic diagram of EDFA.

RESULTS
Thus the WDM Link Components such as WDM Mux / Demux, Isolator, Circulator,
Fiber Bragg Grating, EDFA are studied

Inferences -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 26
 Ex. No : 7
STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
Date :

AIM

To study the purpose and uses of various microwave equipments and components.

THEORY
A waveguide is an electromagnetic feed line used in microwave communications,
broadcasting, and radar installations. A waveguide consists of a rectangular or cylindrical
hollow metal tube or pipe. The electromagnetic field propagates lengthwise. The waveguide
acts as a high pass filter. The cutoff frequency depends on the shape and size of the cross
section of the waveguide. The larger the waveguide is, the lower the cutoff frequency. The
formula for the cutoff frequency of a rectangular cross sectioned waveguide is,
𝐶
𝑓𝑐 = [𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
2𝑎

The cutoff frequency for a waveguide with a circular cross section of radius a is given by,

1.841𝐶
𝑓𝑐 = [𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]
2𝜋𝑎

Figure 7.1 Electric Field & Magnetic Field

When an electromagnetic wave propagates down a hollow tube, only one of the
fields either electric or magnetic will actually be transverse to the wave’s direction of travel.
The other field will “loop” longitudinally to the direction of travel, but still be perpendicular to
the other field. Whichever field remains transverse to the direction of travel determines

Page | 27
whether the wave propagates in TE mode (Transverse Electric) or TM (Transverse
Magnetic) mode.

Klystron Power Supply SKPS

A typical regulated klystron power supply has a conventional bridge full wave rectifier
followed by a low-pass filter, which serves as the supply for an electronic voltage regulator.
Variable autotransformer in the primary of the high potential supply transformer adjusts the
output voltage of the unregulated supply. Electronic regulation is achieved by vacuum triode
812 screwing, as regulator and tube 2C53 is a specially developed high voltage regulator
tube and current. Two OD3 voltage regulator tubes in seriesunder proper operating
conditions it draws 1m provide focus and repeller potentials. Diode 6 x 4 in the reflector
circuit prevents the reflector from becoming positive with respect to cathode. Since reflector
and focus voltages are highly negative with respect to ground, high degree of insulation is
provided there in. The modulation is provided through input capacitor to reflector having an
insulation rating of 5000v. Filament transformer supplying the klystron and tubes 2C 53 and
6 x 4 has an insulation rating 7000v which is must.

Figure 7.2 Klystron Power Supply

Klystron Tube 2k25
The klystron tube 2k25 is a single cavity variable frequency microwave generator of low
power and low efficiency. It consists of an electron gun, a filament surrounded by cathode
and a focusing electrode at cathode potential.
The electrons emitted by the cathode travel towards the reflector through an anode kept
at higher potential compared to the cathode. When they approach the anode, the electrons
form bunches and the bunches ultimately return towards the anode cavity after traveling a
small distance towards the reflector. The power is taken from the anode reentrant cavity.

Page | 28
 Figure 7.3 Klystron Tube
Klystron Mount
It is a waveguide of suitable length having octal base on the broad wall of the
waveguide for mounting the klystron tube. It consists of movable short at one end of the
waveguide to direct the microwave energy generated by the klystron tube. A small hole
located exactly at the center of the broad wall of the waveguide is used to put the coupling
pin of the tube as the electric field vector of EM energy is maximum at the center only. The
maximum power transfer can be achieved by tuning of the movable plunger.

Figure 7.4 Klystron Mount

Gunn Power Supply (GS610)

The type GS-610 Gunn Power supply comprises of an electronically regulated power
supply and a square wave generator designed to operate a Gunn Oscillator type XG-11 and
PIN Modulator XM-55. The DC Voltage is variable from 0 to -12 volts. However, the output
voltage will not exceed +11 Volts because of over voltage Zener protection (Max. operating
voltage for Gunn Oscillator is +12 Volts). The frequency of the square wave modulation can

Page | 29
be continuously varied from 800 to 1100 Hz. The front panel meter indicates the Gunn
voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn diode. The power supply has been designed to
protect the Gunn diode in following conditions:-
1. Reverse Voltage application
2. Over voltage transients
3. Low frequency oscillations generated by the negative resistance of the Gunn Diode.

Figure 7.5 Gunn Power Supply

Gunn Oscillator
Gunn Oscillators are solid state microwave energy generators. These consist of
waveguide cavity flanged on one end and micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other end.
A Gunn-diode is mounted inside the Wave guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Each
Gunn oscillator is supplied with calibration certificate giving frequency vs micrometer
reading.

Figure 7.6 Gunn Oscillator

PIN Modulator

PIN Diode modulators offer an ideal way for amplitude and the pulse modulation of
microwave signal through wide range of frequencies. These modulators utilize PIN Diode
which are mounted across the waveguide line a R.F. isolated DC bias lead passing to an
external TNC (F) Connectors.

Page | 30
 Figure 7.7 PIN Modulator

Direct Reading Frequency Meter (DRF)

It is constructed from cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short circuit termination.
The shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of the cavity by changing
the cavity length. DRF measures the frequency directly. It is particularly useful when
measuring frequency differences of small changes.

Figure 7.8 Frequency Meter

VSWR Meter

Figure 7.9 VSWR Meter

A VSWR meter basically consists of a high gain; high Q low noise voltage amplifier
normally tuned at a fixed frequency at which the microwave signal is modulated. The VSWR
meter uses the detector signal out of the microwave detector as its input, amplifies the same

Page | 31
and provides the output on the calibrated volt meter. The meter itself can be calibrated in
terms of VSWR
Rectangular Waveguide
Rectangular waveguides are the one of the earliest type of the transmission lines. It is
hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. A rectangular waveguide supports TM
and TE modes but not TEM waves because we cannot define a unique voltage since there is
only one conductor in a rectangular waveguide. The shape of a rectangular waveguide is as
shown below. A material with permittivity e and permeability m fills the inside of the
conductor. A lot of components such as isolators, detectors, attenuators, couplers and
slotted lines are available for various standard waveguide bands between 1 GHz to above
220 GHz.

Figure 7.10 Rectangular Waveguide

Circular Waveguide
A circular waveguide consists of a hollow metallic cylinder with an inner radius R. In the
inner air-filled volume of the cylinder electromagnetic waves can propagate above mode-
specific cut-off frequencies fc, mn.

Figure 7.11 Circular Waveguide

Twists
Twists are made from a section of the standard waveguide, which has been precisely
twisted, maintaining the internal dimension of the waveguide. These are used to rotate the
plane of polarization of waveguide transmission line. Twist waveguides are used to change
the polarity of the fields,

Figure 7.12 Twists

Page | 32
Waveguide Bend
Bends are used to change the direction in a waveguide run. They are classified as E & H
bends. A bend whose plane is parallel to the plane of the magnetic vector is called H bend
while whose plane is parallel to the plane of the electric vector is called E bend. We have the
facility of bending the waveguide at 300, 450, 600, 900 as per customer requirement.

(a ) (b)
Figure 7.13 (a) H-Bend (b) E-Bend

Waveguide Tee
When it is required to combine two or more signals (or split a signal into two or more
parts) in waveguide system, some part of multiple junction may be used. For simpler inter
connection, T shaped junctions are used whereas more complex junctions may be hybrid-
T or hybrid rings.

H-Plane TEE
A Waveguide Tee is a 3-port device that can be used to either divide or combine power in
a waveguide system. When the axis of the side arm of the waveguide tee is parallel to the
flow of the Magnetic Field (H) from port 1 and is perpendicular to the flow of the Electric Field
(E), then the tee is called a H-Plane Waveguide Tee. An H-Plane Waveguide Tees can be
thought of as a two way in-phase power divider/combiner i.e it is additive in nature. When
two input signals are fed to port 1 & 2, the output at port 3 is in phase and additive and when
the input signal is fed to port 3, the signal is split in to two equal parts that are in-phase at
port 1 & 2.

Figure 7.14 H-Plane Tee

Page | 33
E-Plane TEE
A waveguide tee is a 3 port device that is similar to a power divider. When the axis of the
side arm is parallel to the Electric Field (E) of the collinear, then the tee is called a E-Plane
Tee Junction. The outputs we get in this type of tee are 180° out of phase with each other,
irrespective of from which port the input is fed. If the input signal is fed to port 3, then the
output will be split across port 1 and 2 and will be 180 degrees out of phase with each other.

Figure 7.15 E-Plane Tee

Magic TEE
A Magic Tee or Hybrid Tee is a 4 port waveguide tee that is a combination of an E-
Plane and H-Plane Waveguide Tee.
A magic tee has four ports:

 Port 1 - Co-linear
 Port 2 - Co-linear
 Port 3 - Difference Port
 Port 4 - Sum Port

Operation of a Magic Tee:

Case 1: When two signals of equal magnitude are fed from port 1 and 2, we get a zero at
port 3 and the sum of the two signals at port 4.

Case 2: When a signal is fed through port 4, it gets divided equally between port 1 & 2 and
both the outputs are in phase. No output comes from port 3.

Page | 34
Case 3: When a signal is fed through port 3, we get an output of equal magnitude but
opposite phase at port 1 & 2 (the signals are 180 degrees out of phase). Output at port 4 is
zero.

A magic tee is ideally lossless. But the biggest disadvantage of magic tee is that reflections
arise within it due to impedance mismatches, which causes some level of power loss. These
reflections can be minimized by optimizing matching.

Figure 7.16 Magic Tee

Multi-Hole Direction Coupler

A directional coupler is a 4-port device that is used to sample a small amount of input signal
power for measurement purposes. As seen in the diagram below, Port 1 is the input port,
port 2 is the output port, port 3 is the coupled port and port 4 is the isolated/terminated port.
When an input signal travels from port 1 to port 2, a part of this signal is coupled to port 3.
The portion of the power coupled to port 3 depends on the coupling value of the coupler
being used. For example if we use a 3 dB coupler, the power split between port 2 and port 3
would be 50%, however, if we use a 10 dB coupler, then this power split would be 9:1. The
coupling is one of the key parameters on the basis of which a directional coupler is selected.
Typical coupling values vary from 6 dB to over 30 dB. Another important specification of a
directional coupler is directivity

Page | 35
 Figure 7.17 Multi-Hole Directional Coupler

Attenuators
RF Attenuators are components that reduce the amplitude level of an incoming signal. They
are used to protect systems from receiving a signal with a power level that is too high to
process. everything RF has listed RF attenuators from over 100 manufacturers – You can
filter the results based on your requirements.

Types of Attenuators

Fixed Attenuators: These attenuators are usually connectorized or available in a surface

mount package. They are passive attenuators that provide a fixed attenuation level. Most of
these products are available in a series, which have a number of attenuation levels
available.

Variable Attenuators: These attenuators provide an attenuation range i.e they can be
regulated to provide a particular attenuation level. Typically, the attenuation level can be
modified by changing the voltage applied to an input control line.

Step Attenuators: These are attenuators where the attenuation level can be modified in fixed
steps.

Fixed attenuators
The attenuators provide fixed attenuation of 3,6,10,20 dB

Page | 36
 Figure 7.18 Fixed Attenuator
Variable attenuators
These attenuators provide continuous attenuation power up to 20 dB.

Figure 7.19 Variable Attenuator

Circulator
An RF Circulator is a 3 Port ferromagnetic device used to regulate the signal flow within a
circuit. It transmits an input signal in one direction – A signal that enters port 1 is transmitted
to port 2 and isolated from port 3, a signal incident at port 2 is transmitted to port 3 and
isolated from port 1, a signal incident at port 3 is transmitted to port 1 and isolated from port
2. Circulators are typically designed to have minimal loss when transmitting an input signal
from one port to the next.

Figure 7.20 Circulator

Isolator
An RF Isolator is a two port device that protects RF components in a system from excessive
signal reflection. It is a non-reciprocal device that ensures that all the power is transmitted
from port 1 to port 2, while isolating absorbing/isolating any power incident at port 2. An
isolator is often placed at the in front of sensitive component sin the Rx/Tx chain to avoid
unwanted signals from damaging sensitive components.

Page | 37
 Figure 7.21 Isolator
Matched Termination
Waveguide Terminations are passive devices placed at the open-end of waveguide junction
to match the impedance and reduce excessive signal reflections.

Figure 7.22 Matched Termination

Detector Mount
Detector Mount are used detect the low frequency signals with the help of the IN23
detector diode. The Detector Diode is mounted on the broad wall of the waveguide. A
shorting plunger is used to tune the max power near the detector diode. The DMXE Detector
Mounts are broadband devices designed for operation in millimeter wave range. The
Detectors are optimized for broadband performance and are used in mm-wave test setups to
detect, monitor and measure modulated signals.

Figure 7.23 Detector Mount

Slotted Section with Probe Carriage
This system consists of a transmission line (Waveguide), a travelling probe carriage and
facility for attaching/detecting instruments. The slot made in the center of broad face do not
radiate from any power of dominant mode. Slotted section is basically used to measure
standing wave ratio (VSWR). The precession built probe carriage having centimeters scale
with a vernier reading of 0.1mm least count is used to measure the position of the probe.

Page | 38
Additionally slotted section can be used to measure impedance, reflection coefficient and the
return loss.

Figure 7.24 Slotted Section with Probe Carriage

Movable Short
These are used to obtain a phase reference in the calibration of various experimental
setup and are also used to vary the effective plane of reflection and therefore the phase of
reflected wave. These are also useful in impedance measurement.

Figure 7.25 Movable Short

Horn Antenna
Horns are open ended Waveguide in which open end is flared so that it looks like horn.
Commonly used horn antennas are pyramidal horn, E Sectorial, H Sectorial Horn and the
pick up horns. These horns are used to determine the gain of the antenna under test by
convectional substitution method and are also used as general purpose radiators. They are
also used as reference sources in dual channel antenna test receivers and can be used as
pick up horns for radiation monitoring.

Figure 7.26 (a) E-Horn (b) H-Horn (c) Pyramidal Horn

Page | 39
PRECAUTIONS
1. Handle all components with care and do not allow any damage to take place.
2. Do not rub/scratch the inner polished surfaces of the components with any sharp edged
body.
3. If demonstrating any assembly of components, ensure that there is no cross threading
and proper tightening.

RESULT
Thus the usage of various microwave equipments and components was studied.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 40
 Ex. No : 8 GAIN AND RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENT OF AN
ANTENNA –HORN ANTENNA, DIPOLE ANTENNA, ARRAY
Date : ANTENNA, LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA, LOOP ANTENNA
AIM

To measure the radiation pattern of horn antenna and to draw its field pattern.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Gunn Power Supply

2. Gunn Oscillator
3. Isolator
4. PIN Modulator
5. Variable Attenuator
6. Frequency Meter
7. Two Horn antenna
8. Detector Mount
9. VSWR/CRO.

THEORY

Antenna Gain:

Antenna gain is defined as the ratio between maximum radiation intensity of a

subject antenna in a given direction to the maximal radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna
when the same amount of power is applied to both antennas. Antenna gain can be
measured by using two identical antennas, one as transmitter and the other as receiver
separated at the minimum distance R. Units for Gain is dB (decibels), dBi (decibels relative
to an isotropic antenna), and dBd (decibels relative to dipole antenna).

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎

𝐺=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎

𝑉0
𝐺𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛

Where

V0 – Output Voltage (Volts)

Vin – Input Voltage (Volts)

Page | 41
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 8.1 Workbench Setup for Radiation Pattern

Measurement
Radiation Pattern:

A radiation pattern defines the variation of the power radiated by an antenna as a

function of the direction away from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the
arrival angle is observed in the antenna's far field. An antenna radiation pattern is of course
three dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as two dimensional
pattern in one or several lobes, the main lobe, side lobe and back lobe. The major power in
connected in the main lobe and it is required to keep the low power in the side lobes and
back lobe as possible.

Page | 42
FORMULA USED

4𝜋𝑑𝑉𝑅
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) 𝑑𝐵
𝜆0 𝑉𝑇

Where
G - gain of an antenna
d - distance between the two antennas VR - Received voltage
VT - Transmitted voltage
- Free space wavelength

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.(except horn antennas)

2. Obtain the frequency of oscillation using general procedure.
3. Measure the input voltage and record it.
4. Now connect the horn antennas as shown in block diagram, keeping the
axis of both antennas in same axis line.
5. Turn the receiving horn to the left in 5° steps up to 40°- 50° and record the
corresponding output shown in CRO.
6. Repeat the above step by turning the receiving horn to the right and record the
readings.
7. Draw a relative power pattern, i.e., output vs. angle.
TABULATION

Transmitted Voltage (Vi) = V

Output
Deviation
Angle Anti-Clockwise Direction Clockwise Direction
Received Receive
Gain Gain
Voltage d
Voltag
e
(degrees) (volts) (dB) (volts) (dB)

Page | 43
MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:

Thus, the radiation pattern of horn antenna was obtained and the field pattern was
drawn using the values of angle and output voltage.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 44
 Ex. No : 9
DETERMINATION OF MODE CHARACTERISTICS
Date : OF A REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR

AIM

To study the mode characteristics of the reflex klystron tube and to determine its
Electronic tuning range.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Klystron Power Supply

2. Klystron Tube with klystron mount
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Variable Attenuator
6. Detector mount
7. Wave guide stands
8. VSWR / Oscilloscope
9. BNC Cables

THEORY

The reflex Klystron makes use of the velocity modulation to transform a continuous
electron beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated &
passed through the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and finally,
reflects the electrons and the electrons turn back through resonator. If the RF field exists
between the resonators, the electrons travelling forward will be accelerated or retarded, as
the voltage at the resonator changes in amplitude.
The accelerated electrons leave the resonators at an increased velocity and the retarded
electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons leaving the resonator will need
different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result, returning electrons together
in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through resonator, they interact with voltage at
resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are slowed
down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator, and Klystron will
oscillate.
The frequency is primarily determined by the dimensions of resonant cavity. Hence, by
changing the volume of resonator, mechanical tuning of Klystron is possible. Also, a small
frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called Electronic
Tuning.

Page | 45
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 9 Work Bench Setup

FORMULA USED

3
1. Mode of Oscillation 𝑁 = 𝑛 + 4
3 1
2. Transit time (t)= (𝑛 + ) (𝑠𝑒𝑐) where n- integer (n=1, 2, 3…….)
4 𝑓0

3. 3 𝑑𝐵 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝐻𝑧)

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛
4. 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐸𝑇𝑆) = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
(𝐺𝐻𝑧)

5. 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝐸𝑇𝑅) = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝐺𝐻𝑧)

Where, n is the =integer (n=1, 2, 3… )

t1 - Transit time
fo – frequency of microwave operation
𝑓𝑚𝑎 , 𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛- Half power frequencies
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 –Repeller voltages

Page | 46
PROCEDURE

1. Set up the components and equipment’s as shown in block diagram.

2. Keep position of variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position.
3. Set mode selector switch to FM-MOD position FM amplitude and FM
frequency knob at mid position, keep beam voltage knob to fully anti clock
wise and reflector voltage knob to fully clockwise position and beam switch
to ‘OFF’ position.
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 HZ frequency
measurement and volt/div. to lower scale.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
6. Switch ‘ON’ Beam voltage switch and set beam voltage to 300 V by beam
voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to maximum position and rotate the
reflector voltage anti clock wise to get the modes as shown in figure on the
oscilloscope. The horizontal axis represents reflector voltage axis and
vertical represents output power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation, any
mode of Klystron tube can be seen on oscilloscope.
TABULATION

Beam Voltage: __________V (Constant)

Beam Current: _________________ mA

REPELLER OUTPUT
FREQUENCY
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
MODE
(V) (mV) (GHz)

Page | 47
 MODEL GRAPH

RESULT
Thus, the mode characteristic of the reflex klystron tube and its Electronic tuning range
was determined.
1. Mode of oscillation,(N) = _____________
2. Transit time (t1) = _____________
3. a) 3 dB electronic bandwidth = ______________(GHz)
b) Electronic Tuning Range = _____________ (MHz/volt)
c) Electronic Tuning Sensitivity = _____________ (𝐺𝐻𝑧)

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 48
Ex. No : 10 VSWR AND IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT AND IMPEDANCE
Date : MATCHING

AIM

 To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient

 To measure an unknown impedance using smith chart.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Gunn power supply

2. Gunn oscillator
3. Pin modulator
4. Isolator
5. Variable attenuator
6. Frequency meter
7. SWR meter and CRO
8. Slotted section with probe carriage
9. Load
10. Wave-guide stands

THEORY

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio:

The reflex klystron makes use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous

electron beam into microwave power. The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission
line may be considered as the sum of two traveling waves the instant wave propagates from
generator and the reflected wave propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is
set up by the reflection of instant wave from a discontinuity on the line or from the load
impedance. The magnitude and face of the reflector wave depends up on amplitude and
face of the reflecting impedance. The maximum field strength is found were two waves are in
face and minimum were the two waves adds in opposite face. The distance between two
successive minimum (or maximum) is half the guide wave length on the line.

Page | 49
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 10 Work Bench Setup

a) VSWR Measurement

The electromagnetic field at any point of termination line may be considered as the sum
of two traveling wave, the ‘incident wave’ propagates from generator and reflected wave
propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is setup by reflection of incident wave
from a discontinuity on the line or from load impedance. The presence of two traveling
waves, gives rise to standing wave along the line. The maximum field strength is found

Page | 50
where two waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves add in opposite phase.
The distance between two successive minimum (or maximum) is half the guide wavelength
on the line. The ratio of electric field strength of reflected and incident wave is called
reflection coefficient. The voltage standing wave ratio is defined as ratio between maximum
or minimum field strength along the line.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 (𝑆) =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑆 − 1 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = |𝜌| = =
𝑆 + 1 𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍𝑜

b) Impedance Measurement
The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jX. For
comparison SWR can be calculated using the formula,
1 + |𝐾|
𝑆=
1 − |𝐾|

Where K is the reflection co-efficient and is given by,

𝑍 − 𝑍𝑜
𝐾=
𝑍 − 𝑍𝑜

Where,
Zo�Characteristics Impedance of Wave guide at operating frequency.
Z�Load Impedance

FORMULA USED

i) Guide wavelength = λg = 2(d1-d2) (cm)

𝜆𝑔
𝑖𝑖) 𝑆𝑊𝑅 (𝑆) =
𝜋(𝑑1 − 𝑑2)

Using Reflection Co-efficient, VSWR can be calculated as,

Page | 51
TABULATION

VSWR or SWR Reflection Phase Shift

VERNIER READINGS
S. S = λg/[2(d1- d2)] Coefficient R = Φ = π (1-
(VSWR - 1) /( 4d/λg) deg.
No COMPONENT d1 d2 d = d1 -d2 VSWR+1)

𝑆−1 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜
𝑖𝑖)|𝐾| = =
𝑆+1 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍𝑜

4𝑑
∠𝜃 = 𝜋 [1 − ( )] 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
𝜆𝑔

Where,
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 – Maximum and minimum SWR reading
|𝐾| – Magnitude of Reflection Co-efficient
𝑍𝐿 – Load Impedance (In general ZL is complex Value)
𝑍𝑜 – Characteristics Impedance (Usually𝑍𝑜 = 50 𝛺)
λg - Guide Wavelength
PROCEDURE

a) Measurement of VSWR (Double Minimum Method)

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.
2. Obtain the frequency of oscillation using general procedure.
3. Set the depth of S-S tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
4. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
5. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain
n a reading of 3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10 dB) of VSWR meter.
6. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10
db scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line. Let it be d1.
7. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale
deflection is obtained on 0-10db normal db scale. Let it be d2.

Page | 52
 8. Replace S-S tuner and termination by movable short.
9. Measure distance between 2 successive minima positions of probe. Twice this
distance is guide wave length λg.
10. Compute SWR (S).
b) Measurement of Impedance
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.
2. Obtain oscillations using general procedure and note down the frequency of oscillation.
3. Adjust the probe depth of the slide screw tuner to an approximate level.
4. Move the probe position of the Slotted line, to a minimum and note down the Verne
reading (dL).
5. Also note down the corresponding SWR value (S) on the SWR meter.
6. Remove the load and connect only the unload load or movable short.
7. Move the probe position of Slotted line section carefully in any one direction and note
down the Vernier reading for two successive minima d1 and d2.
8. Calculate the guide wavelength, λg as
𝑑
𝜆𝑔 = 2 (𝑑1 − 𝑑2) and calculate 𝑃 = 𝜆 = (𝑑𝐿 − 𝑑1)/ 𝜆𝑔
𝑔

9. In a smith chart, draw a circle of radius ‘S’ with ‘1’ as center.

10. Mark a point ‘P’ on the smith chart at a distance equal to d/λg on the circumference
of the S circle. Join the center (1+j0) with this point ‘P’.
NOTE: (a) dL-d1>0 (corresponding to wavelength towards load)
(b) dL-d1<0 (corresponding to wavelength towards generator).
11. Locate the point where it cuts the drawn circle and record the co-ordinates of this
point as the normalized impedance of load as zL.
12. Thus, the impedance of the unknown load can be found as,
ZL = (Impedance obtained from Smith chart) × (Characteristics impedance in ohms).
ZL = (Impedance × 50) ohms = ________________ohms.

RESULT
Thus the VSWR and Impedance were measured.
1. VSWR (S) = _______________
2. Reflection Co-efficient (R) = _______________
3. Impedance of the given load (ZL) = _______________ ohms
Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 53
Ex. No : 11

CHARACTERIZATION OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

Date :

AIM

To study the characteristics of directional coupler. Also to find the directivity and the
coupling factor of the directional coupler.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Gunn Power Supply

2. Gunn Oscillator
3. Isolator
4. Pin Modulator
5. Variable attenuator
6. Frequency Meter
7. Slotted line section
8. Directional Coupler
9. Matched terminator
10. Detector mount
11. VSWR/CRO
12. BNC Cables and Waveguide Stands.

THEORY

A directional coupler is an electronic component having four-port circuits with one

port being isolated from the input port and another being considered as a through port. The
device is normally used to split the input signal and distributed power. The device couples
part of the transmission power by a specific factor through one port. Directional couplers are
used in a wide range of applications which involve measurement, power monitoring and
other utilities. Directional couplers are categorized as passive reciprocal networks. A
directional coupler is used for isolating, eliminating or combining signals in microwave signal
routing and radio frequency. The ports in the directional coupler are coupled, input,
transmitted and isolated.

Page | 54
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Figure 11.1 Work bench set up (insert Directional Coupler between slotted
section and detector Mount)

As seen in the diagram below, Port 1 is the input port, port 2 is the output port, port 3 is the
coupled port and port 4 is the isolated/terminated port. When an input signal travels from
port 1 to port 2, a part of this signal is coupled to port 3. The portion of the power coupled to
port 3 depends on the coupling value of the coupler being used. For example if we use a 3
dB coupler, the power split between port 2 and port 3 would be 50%, however, if we use a
10 dB coupler, then this power split would be 9:1. The coupling is one of the key parameters
on the basis of which a directional coupler is selected. Typical coupling values vary from 6
dB to over 30 dB. Another important specification of a directional coupler is directivity. Port 4
of the directional coupler is known as the isolated port. In an ideal directional coupler, no

Page | 55
 signal should appear at the isolated port, however practically, a small amount of power
called back power is obtained at Port 4.

Figure 11.2 Four Port Directional Coupler

The important parameters are:

● Coupling Factor (C) - The Coupling factor of a directional coupler is the ratio of incident
power to the forward power, measured in dB.
● Directivity (D) - The Directivity of a directional coupler is the ratio of forward power to the
back power, measured in dB.
● Isolation - It defines the directive properties of a directional coupler. It is the ratio of received
power to the forward coupled power, measured in dB.
● Isolation in dB = Coupling factor + Directivity
FORMULA USED

𝑉1
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐶 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑉3

𝑉2
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐷 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑉1

TABULATION: Input Voltage (Vi) = (mV)

Output Voltage

Amplitude Time
Ports O/P
Period
(mV) (ms)

Input Port, P1

Output Port,P2

Coupled
Port,P3

Page | 56
 𝑉2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐼 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
𝑉3

Where,
V1 - Incident power at Port 1
V2 - Received power at Port 2
V3 - Forward coupled power at Port 3
V4 - Back power at Port 3

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.

2. Obtain the oscillation using general procedure and determine the frequency of
oscillation.
3. Set the reference voltage in the CRO with the help of variable attenuator and power
supply.
4. Record the input voltage as obtained in CRO.
5. Carefully remove the detector mount and connect the directional coupler
between slotted line section and detector mount, by connecting port 1 to
slotted line section and port 2 to detector mount and terminate port 3 with
matched load.
6. Record the output voltage from the output port say P2 as shown in CRO.
7. Now carefully interchange the connections of detector mount and the matched
termination.
8. Record the output voltage from the output port say P3 as shown in CRO.

RESULTS
Thus, the characteristic of directional coupler was studied and the parameters were
calculated.
Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 57
Ex. No : 12 CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTIPORT JUNCTION- E-PLANE & H-
PLANE TEE
Date :

AIM

To study the characteristics of E-Plane and H-Plane Tees.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Gunn Power supply

2. Gunn Oscillator
3. Pin Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Variable attenuator
6. Frequency meter
7. Slotted Line Section
8. Detector Mount
9. E-Plane and H-Plane Tee
10. VSWR meter/ CRO
11. Matched Termination
12. BNC Cables and Waveguide stands

THEORY:

In RF and microwave circuits, a waveguide or coaxial line junction with 3 ports is

known as tee junction. This devices are mainly used for combining power and splitting power
in a waveguide system. The waveguide tees are 3 port components and are mainly of two
types E-plane tee connected in series and H-plane tee connected in shunt with section or
branch of main waveguide transmission line.

E-Plane Tee (Series Tee)

Figure 12 E-Plane Tee

Page | 58
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 13 Work bench set up (insert E plane tee/H plane Tee between slotted
section and detector Mount)

The E plane Tee is also called as series Tee. An E-Plane Tee is a waveguide Tee in which
the axis of its arm is parallel to the E- field of the main guide.

Page | 59
H-Plane Tee (Shunt Tee)

In H-plane tee, axis of the side arm is parallel to the H field; the same is shown in the
figure below.

Figure 14 H-Plane Tee

In H plane tee, when two inputs are fed into port-1 and port-2 of the arms (collinear),
output at port-3 will be in phase and also additive in nature. On the other side, if input is fed
at port-3, the waves get split equally into port-1 and port-2 with in-phase and will have same
magnitude. So H-plane is also called ‘adder’. This property of H-plane tee is used in
waveguide power combiner and power divider.

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.

2. Obtain the frequency of oscillation using general procedure.
3. Set any reference value of power in CRO with the help of variable attenuator
and power supply.
4. Record the input voltage as obtained in CRO.
5. Connect one port of E-plane Tee, (say P1) to slotted line section and the
other port (say P2) to detector mount by connecting P3 to matched
termination.
6. Record the output voltage as obtained in CRO.
7. Now, interchange the detector mount and the matched termination to P3
and P2 respectively and record the output voltage as obtained in CRO.
8. Repeat the steps (5, 6, and 7) for the ports P2 and P3 of E-Plane Tee and
the output voltage obtained in CRO are tabulated.
9. From the tabulated readings, draw the waveform taking amplitude in y-axis
and time period in x-axis as obtained in CRO.

Page | 60
TABULATION:

E-PLANE TEE
Input Voltage (Vi) = (mV)

Output Voltage
Input Port Output
Amplitude Time
Port
(mV) (ms)

P2
P1
P3
P1
P2
P3
P1
P3
P2

H-PLANE TEE

Input Voltage (Vi) = (mV)

Output Voltage
Input Port Output
Amplitude Time
Port
(mV) (ms)

P2
P1
P3
P1
P2
P3
P1
P3
P2

Page | 61
MODEL GRAPH

E-PLANE TEE

RESULT:

Thus, the characteristics of E-plane tee, H-plane tee and Magic tee were studied.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 62
Ex. No : 13
CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTIPORT JUNCTION- MAGIC TEE
Date :
AIM

To study the characteristics of magic tee and to find the coupling co-efficient.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Gunn Power supply

2. Gunn Oscillator
3. Pin Modulator
4. Isolator
5. Variable attenuator
6. Frequency meter
7. Slotted Line Section
8. Detector Mount
9. Magic Tee
10. VSWR meter/ CRO
11. Matched Termination
12. BNC Cables and Waveguide stands

THEORY:

It is a four port device port one and port two are collinear arms port 3 is H-arm and
port 4 is E-arm in this magic tee if any two ports are perfectly match to the junction then the
remaining two ports are automatically match to the junction.

Figure 41 Magic Tee

The device magic tee is a combination of E and H-plane tee as shown in the figure. Arm 3 is
the H-arm and arm-4 is the E-arm. If the power is fed into arm 3 (H-arm), the electric field
divides equally between 1 and 2 arms with the same phase and no electric field exists in arm
4 (E-arm), it divides equally into arm-1 and arm-2 but out of phase with no power to arm-3,
further if the power is fed in arm-1 and arm-2 simultaneously it is added in arm-3 (H-arm)
and it is subtracted in E-arm i.e. arm-4.

Page | 63
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 13 Work bench set up (insert Magic Tee between slotted section and detector
Mount)

The basic parameters to be measured for magic tee are defined below:
i. Input VSWR: Value of SWR corresponding to each ort as a load to the line while other ports
are terminated in matched load.
ii. Isolation: The isolation between E & H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by
the generators connected to the E-arm (port 3) to the power detected at Harm (port 4) when
side arms-1 and 2 are terminated in matched load. Hence, isolation for port 3 and 4 can be
found as,

Page | 64
 𝑉
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑉3 )
4
−∝
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ𝑠)(𝑀𝐻𝑧) = 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = 10 20
α – attenuation/isolation (dB)
𝑃𝑖
α=10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑗

𝑃𝑖 =power delivered to input arm

𝑃𝑗 =power delivered at output arm
𝑀𝑖𝑗 = Normalized coupling coefficient (default)

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the block diagram.

2. Obtain the frequency of oscillation using general procedure.
3. Set any reference value of power in CRO with the help of variable attenuator
and power supply.
4. Record the input voltage as obtained in CRO.
5. Now connect the magic tee, connecting H-arm to slotted line and E-arm to
the detector and matched termination to port 1 and 2. Record the reading
obtained in CRO.
6. Determine the isolation between port 3 and port 4.
7. Determine the coupling coefficient.
8. Repeat the process for the other ports.
TABULATION:

MAGIC TEE

Input Voltage (Vi) = (mV)

Couplin
Input Port Outpu Output Attenuation g Co-
t voltage
efficient
Port (mV) (dB) (no Unit)
P2
P1 P3
P4
P1
P2 P3
P4

Page | 65
 P1
P3 P2
P4
P1
P4 P3
P2

MODEL GRAPH

RESULT:

Thus, the characteristics of magic tee was studied and observed.

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Page | 66
Ex. No: 14
GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
Date :

AIM

a) To study the V-I characteristics of GUNN diode.

b) Measurement of wavelength and operating frequency of Gunn diode using slotted

waveguide.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. GUNN power supply

2. GUNN oscillator
3. PIN modulator
4. Isolator
5. Variable attenuator
6. Frequency meter
7. Slotted line section
8. CRO or SWR meter
9. Wave guide stands

THEORY

A Gunn Diode is considered as a type of diode even though it does not contain any
typical PN diode junction like the other diodes, but it consists of two electrodes. This diode is
also called as a Transferred Electronic Device. This diode is a negative differential
resistance device, which is frequently used as a low-power oscillator to
generate microwaves. It consists of only N-type semiconductor in which electrons are the
majority charge carriers. To generate short radio waves such as microwaves, it utilizes the
Gunn Effect.

Gunn diodes are used to build oscillators for generating microwaves with frequencies
ranging from 10 GHz to THz. It is a Negative Differential Resistance device – also called as
transferred electron device oscillator – which is a tuned circuit consisting of Gunn diode with
DC bias voltage applied to it. And, this is termed as biasing the diode into negative
resistance region. Due to this, the total differential resistance of the circuit becomes zero as
the negative resistance of the diode cancels with the positive resistance of the circuit
resulting in the generation of oscillations.

If a voltage is applied to this device, then most of the applied voltage appears across
the active region. The electrons from the conduction band having negligible electrical
resistivity are transferred into

Page | 67
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Figure 14 Work Bench setup

the third band because these electrons are scattered by the applied voltage. The third band
of GaAs has mobility which is less than that of the conduction band.

Because of this, an increase in the forward voltage increases the field strength (for
field strengths where applied voltage is greater than the threshold voltage value), then the
number of electrons reaching the state at which the effective mass increases by decreasing
their velocity, and thus, the current will decrease. Thus, if the field strength is increased, then
the drift velocity will decrease; this creates a negative incremental resistance region in V-I

Page | 68
relationship. Thus, increase in the voltage will increase the resistance by creating a slice at
the cathode and reaches the anode.

PROCEDURE

(a) PROCEDURE FOR V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE

1. Set up the components as shown in the block diagram.

2. Obtain oscillations and the frequency using the general procedure.
3. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
4. Switch ON the Gunn Power Supply. Increase the GUNN bias voltage in steps of 0.5V
from 0V to 10V and note down the corresponding current values. The readings are
tabulated.
5. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph.
6. From the graph, note down the threshold voltage, V i.e., the minimum voltage at which
the diode exhibits negative resistance.

(b) PROCEDURE FOR MEASUREMENT OF WAVELENGTH

1. Set up the components as shown in the block diagram.

2. Initially set the variable attenuator for minimum attenuation.
3. Obtain oscillations and the frequency using the general procedure.
4. Move the probe carriage of the slotted line section in one direction and observe the
maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
5. Now, record the probe position corresponding to the maximum deflector.
6. Move the probe carriage again in the same direction and follow the same procedure
to obtain a number of minimum points
7. The difference between two successive minima gives the value of d and 2(d2-d1)=λg
8. Calculate λ0 and frequency f

Page | 69
TABULATIONS

a) V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE:

S.NO VOLTAGE (VOLTS) CURRENT (MA

b) MEASUREMENT OF WAVELENGTH:

DISTANCE
VERNIER FREE SPACE
BETWEEN TWO GUIDE FREQUENCY
READING FOR WAVELENGT
S.NO SUCCESSIVE WAVELENGTH f=c/λ0
MINIMA H (cm)
MINIMA (cm) 2(d2-d1)=λg (GHz)
(cm) λ0
(d)

Page | 70
FORMULA USED

i) Guide wavelength=𝜆𝑔 = 2(𝑑2 − 𝑑1) (cm)

𝑐
ii) Frequency, 𝑓 = 𝜆0 (GHz)

Where 𝜆𝑜 is,
2
1 1 1 2
√
= ( ) + ( ) ; 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝐸10 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒, 𝜆𝑐 = 2𝑎; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 22.86 𝑚𝑚
𝜆𝑜 𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑐

2
1 1 2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝐶 × √( ) +( )
𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑐

Where, d - Distance between two successive minima

c – Velocity of light (𝑐 = 3 × 108 )
𝜆𝑜 - Free space wavelength
𝜆𝑐 – Cut-off Wavelength
𝜆𝑔 - Guide Wavelength

MODEL GROUP

RESULT

The V-I characteristics of GUNN diode is studied.

The minimum voltage at which the diode Exhibits negative resistance is ______V.

Frequency of oscillation is _____GHz

Inferences------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Page | 71