8

EJECTORS AND MECHANICAL VACUUM SYSTEMS

8.1 EJECTORS rotary oil-sealed

- rotary piston type
Industry has grouped pressures below atmospheric level into [l]: - vane type
diffusion (not used for industrialkommercial application).

Range of Pressure 8.2 VACUUM SAFETY

Rough vacuum 760-1 torr Safety around mechanical vacuum pumps is possibly no different
Medium vacuum 1-0.001 torr than that for other process mechanical rotating machinery.
High vacuum 0.001-10-~torr However, there is a decided danger of an implosion (collapse)
Ultra-high vacuum torr and below of a tank, reactor, and other process equipments operating below
atmospheric pressure, i f

1. It is not designed to satisfy the ASME codes for total or “full”

Rough vacuum is used in about 90% of the chemical, petro- vacuum, regardless of‘ the expected actual operating vacuum on
chemical, and other processing industries. This range generally the equipment, vessel, and so on.
includes vacuum distillation, filtration, crystallization, drying, reac- 2. There are none or inadequate vacuum relief devices on the
tion, and others. Medium vacuum is most applicable to molten equipment or system being evacuated.
metals degassing, molecules distillation, freeze drying, and others. 3. Block valves are installed to allow the blocking off of equip-
High and ultra-high ranges are most useful for thin films, research, ment (vessels, tanks, etc.) thereby pulling a higher vacuum than
and space simulation. design, if not for “full” vacuum.
For reference, note that the unit of vacuum measurement
is torr. The implosion or collapse danger is real even for a tank, for
example, that is not designed for vacuum (such as an API large
storage tank), and liquid is pumped out of the tank thereby
1.oo torr = 1 mm mercury (mmHg), abs creating a negative pressure, or vacuum, which collapses the
25.4 torr = 1 in. mercury (in. Hg) roof and/or sidewalls, because no or inadequate vacuum relief
750.1 torr = 1 bar was installed to allow inflow of air as the liquid is removed (see
1.868torr = 1 in. water at 4” C (in. H,O) Chapter 9).
760 torr = 1 standard atmosphere (atm) (at sea level)
Absolute pressure = barometric pressure at location - vacuum 4. Air inleakage, depending on the quantity, can create an explosive
mixture in some process reaction systems; therefore, the system
Statements about vacuum can be misleading when a clarifica- should be tested for air leaks and kept as tight as practical.
tion is not included. Vacuum refers to the “degree of emptiness” of 5. Also see Wintner [2].
a process system. A perfect vacuum represents an absolute zero of
pressure, which is technically unmaintainable. A vacuum system 8.3 TYPICAL RANGE PERFORMANCE OF VACUUM
indicates a system that can be a matter of the degree to which the PRODUCERS
system approaches absolute zero pressure. To create a vacuum in a
fixed system, it is necessary to draw out or pump out the air in the A useful summary of the typical capacities and operating ranges for
volume. When part of the air is removed, the system has a partial vacuum equipment is presented in Table 8-1 (also see Birgenheier
vacuum. For example, when a 15-in. Hg vacuum is referenced to a [4]). The positive displacement type vacuum pumps can handle an
29-in. Hg barometer, then the absolute pressure is 29 - 15 = 14-in. overload in capacity and still maintain essentially the same pressure
Hg absolute. The 15-in. Hg vacuum can be considered a negative (vacuum), while the ejectors are much more limited in this perfor-
gauge reading. mance and cannot maintain the vacuum. The liquid ring unit is more
See Chapter 4 for a diagrammatic relationship of pressure. like the positive displacement pump, but it does develop increased
For quick reference, the listing below presents the most suction pressure (higher vacuum) when the inlet load is increased
commonly used types of vacuum pumping equipment: at the lower end of the pressure performance curve. The shapes of
these performance curves are important in evaluating the system
liquid pistodring flexibility. See later discussion.
centrifugal A simplified alternate to the previously cited procedures is
axial suggested by Gomez [5] for calculating air inleakage, but it is not
two-impeller straight lobe presented in detail here.
helical lobe The two most common ejectors are operated by water (or
reciprocating process liquid) or steam. The liquid ejectors are used for creating
sliding-vane rotary a modest vacuum or for mixing liquids. The steam ejector is
ejector important in creating and holding a vacuum in a system. Ejectors
526 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

TABLE 8-1 Typical Capacities and Operating Ranges for Vacuum Equipment

Lowest Recommended Capacity Range

Type Suction Pressure (ft3p i n )

Steam ejectors
One-stage 75 torr IO-1,000,000
Two-stage 12torr
Three-stage 1 torr
Four-stage 200 micron*
Five-stage 20 micron
Six-stage 3 micron
Liquid ring pumps
60" F water-sealed
One-stage 75torr 3-10,000
Two-stage 40 torr
Oil-sealed 10 torr
Air-ejector first stage 10torr
Rotary piston pumps
One-stage 20 micron 3-800
Two-stage 1 micron
Rotary vane pumps
Operated as a dry compressor 50 torr 20-6,000
Oil-sealed 1 torr 50-800
Oil-sealed, spring-loaded vanes
One-stage 20 micron 3-50
Two-stage 1 micron
Rotary blowers
One-stage 300 torr 30-30,000
Two-stage 60torr
Integrated pumping systems
Ejector-liquid-ring pump 150 micron 100-100,000
Rotary blower-liquid ring pump 1 micron 100-1 0,000
Rotary blower-rotary piston pump 0.001 micron 100-30,000
Rotary blower-rotary vane pump 100 micront 100-30,000

By permission from Ryans and Croll [31.

* 1 micron = 0.001 torr
Based on two-stage, oil-sealed rotary-vane design that relies on centrifugal force to
throw the vanes against the casing wall.

have no moving parts and operate by the action of one high 3. All sizes are available to match any small or large capacity
pressure stream entraining air and other vapors (or liquids) at a requirements.
lower pressure into the moving stream and thereby removing them 4. Their efficiencies vary from reasonable to good.
from the process system at an intermediate pressure. Figure 8-1 5. They have no moving parts; hence, maintenance is low and
illustrates the major components and the principle of operation. operation is fairly constant when corrosion is not a factor.
Since the steam jet ejector is the unit most commonly used for 6. Quiet operation.
many process applications, it will be discussed in the greatest detail. 7. Stable operation within design range.
Referring to Figure 8-1, the high pressure steam enters the 8. Installation costs are relatively low when compared to mechan-
steam chest and expands in passing through the steam nozzle, ical vacuum pumps. Space requirements are small.
leaving the nozzle at high velocity. Air, gas or vapor, or liquid 9. Simple operation.
mixture enters the ejector through the suction nozzle or vapor inlet,
passing into the suction chamber. Here the air or other mixture is Ejectors are rather versatile when applied to a wide variety of
entrained into the high velocity steam. This new mixture enters the processing movement, compression, mixing, operations, and so on.
upper (or inlet) portion of the diffuser, passes through the diffuser A brief listing of some useful functions are (by permission of [ 6 ] ) :
throat (center narrow portion), and exits through the outlet end of
the diffuser. In the diffuser, the velocity head of the mixture is
converted back to a pressure which is higher than the air-mixture 1. Pumping and Lifting Liquids
suction, but considerably less than the inlet steam pressure. Using steam as the motive fluid
- Steam jet syphons
- Steam jet exhausters
8.4 FEATURES - Single-stage vacuum pumps
Ejectors have the following features that make them good choices Using air as the motive fluid
for continuously producing economical vacuum conditions: - Air jet syphons
- Air jet exhausters
1. They handle wet, dry, or corrosive vapor mixtures. Using liquids as the motive fluid
2. They develop any reasonable vacuum needed for industrial - Water jet eductors
operations. - Water jet exhausters
 8.5 TYPES 527
Ejectors and Mechanical Vacuum Systems

STEAM SUCTION SUPERSONIC SUBSONIC

NOZZLE CHAMBER DIFFUSOR THROAT DIFFUSOR

Operating
k '.Steam Pressure
\ PRESSURE
\
.--
\
Steam h Air Disrharge

\
\
\
Entering Air Pressure

2. Heating Liquids (by Direct Contact) Using air as the motive fluid
Tank-type heaters - Air jet exhausters
- Steam jet heaters Using liquid as the motive fluid
Pipeline-type heaters - Water jet eductor,s
- Steam jet heaters
- Steam jet heaters (large capacity)
- Steam jet syphons
Open-type heaters 8.5 TYPES
- Steam jet heaters (large capacity)
3. Moving Air and Gases (and Pump Priming) Ejectors may be single or multi-stage and also multijet inside a
Using steam as the motive fluid single housing or stage. The extra stages, with or without interstage
- Steam jet blowers condensing of steam, allow the system to operate at lower absolute
- Steam jet exhausters pressures than a single-stage unit. Various combinations of series
- Steam jet thermocompressors of jets with no intercondensing can be connected to jets with inter-
- Single-stage vacuum pumps condensers or aftercondensers to obtain various types of operation
- Multi-stage vacuum pumps and steam economy. The condensers may be barometric or surface
Using air as the motive fluid type.
- Air jet blowers Figure 8-2 suggests a few of the many uses for which ejector-
- Air jet exhausters type units are used in industry.
- Single-stage vacuum pumps Figure 8-3 illustrates a single-stage non-condensing ejector. In
- Air jet compressors this type of installation, the steam outlet from the ejector is either
Using gas as the motive fluid exhausted to atmosphere or on top of water in a sump.
- Gas jet compressors Figure 8-4 shows two individual single-stage ejectors
Using liquid as the motive fluid discharging into a common surface aftercondenser. The steam
- Water jet exhausters condensate can be reused from this installation.
- Barometric condensers Figures 8-5 and 8-6 illustrate two-stage ejector installations
- Low level condensers with barometric and surface type intedafter condensers respec-
- Water jet eductors (small capacities) tively. The discharge of the steam non-condensables from the
4. Handling Slurries and Granular Solids second-stage jet of Figure 8-5 is exhausted to the atmosphere, while
Using steam as the motive fluid in Figure 8-6 the steam is condensed in the aftercondenser and,
- Steam jet syphons essentially, only non-condensables leave the vent of the aftercon-
- Steam jet slurry heater denser. Figure 8-7a indicates a diagram of a three-stage barometric
- Single-stage vacuum pumps type installation.
528 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

t ii
T

USCUARM DlSEHAROf DISCH’ARQE

STEAM JET JET COMPRESSOR J E T SYPHON S T E A M JET BLOWER

VACUUM PUMP AND BLAST N O Z Z L E

i
I

DISU?€Rli€AnD
IlfAM OUlLfl

DES U P ER H E AT ER LIQUID MIXING EDUCTOR F U M E SCRUBBER

Figure 8-2 Steam, air, gas, and liquid ejectors. (By permission from Ketema, Schutte & Koerting Division.)

Figure 8-7b illustrates a barometric refrigeration unit, gener-

ating chilled water in the range of 34-55” F for process cooling.
It uses steam ejectors to lower the chill tank’s vapor pressure
to establish boilinglevaporation of the water in the tanks and
condenses the vapors released by plant cooling water in the baro-
metric condensing unit, which is sealed through the vacuum leg
into a “hot” well.
Figure 8-8 illustrates various arrangements of ejectors with
inter- and aftercondensers. The condensers can be barometric or
non-barometric types.
Note that in Figure 8-8 and Table 8-2 the letter designations
Suction of the stages conform to the latest Standards of the Heat Exchange
Institute for Steam Jet Vacuum Systems [7]. The letter designates
the jet’s stage position in the system.
Precondensers are recommended for any ejector system when
the pressure conditions and coolant temperature will allow conden-
sation of vapors, thus reducing the required design and operating
load on the ejectors. This is usually the situation when oper-
ating a distillation column under vacuum. The overhead vapors
are condensed in a unit designed to operate at top column pres-
sure, with only the non-condensables and vapors remaining after
condensation passing to the ejector system.
Intercondensers are used to condense the steam from a
preceding ejector stage, thus reducing the inlet quantity of vapor
Figure 8-3 Single-stage non-condensing ejector. (BY Permission from mixture to the following stage. This is a means of increasing steam
C.H. Wheeler Mfg. Co.) economy.
 8.7 VACUUM RANGE GUIDE 529

Motive Steam Single Motive Steom

Inlet
Vent
I
Suction Suction

- Af tcrcondencer

Drdn

Figure 8-4 Twin single-stage ejectors with surface aftercondenser. (By permission from C.H. Wheeler Mfg. Co.)

Steam Nozzle Steam

Nozzle Steam

In/ ereondenser

Infercondenser

Figure 8-6 Two-stage ejector employing surface type inter- and aftercon-
denser. (By permission from Elliott Co.)

Figure 8-5 Two-stage ejector using barometric-type intercondenser. (By 8.6 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
permission from Elliott Co.)
Because the ejector is basically simple in construction, it is avail-
able in many materials suitable for handling corrosive vapors.
Aftercondensers operate at atmospheric pressure. They do not Standard materials include cast iron, Meehanite, cast steel, stain-
affect the steam economy or ejector performance, but they do avoid less steel, Monel@,Hastelloy@,titanium, Teflon@,Haveg', rubber-
the nuisance of exhausting steam to the atmosphere, thus allowing lined steel, graphite-lined, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), fiberglass
steam to be recovered. They also serve as silencers on the ejectors, reinforced plastic (FRP)., and bronze for the body and diffuser
and with barometric types they can absorb odors and corrosive depending on the pressure and temperature rating. The nozzle is
vapors. usually stainless steel or monel. Other materials of construction
Condenser tail pipes, used with any condenser, are sealed with include porcelain, carbon, graphite, impregnated graphite, synthetic
a 34-ft leg into a sump, or with a condensate pump operating under resins, glass, and special metals of all types. lntercondensers and
vacuum on suction. With surface-type condensers, the level may aftercondensers are sometimes made of these same materials and
be sealed in a receiver with a float or other type of level control. may include random-packed surface-type, graphite or glass tubes,
Thermocompressors are steam jet ejectors used to boost low and so on.
pressure or waste steam to a higher intermediate pressure. Single-
stage units are usually not used for compression ratios (ratio of 8.7 VACUUM RANGE GUIDE
absolute discharge to suction pressures) greater than three [8]. This
type of pressure increase for low pressure steam is usually uneco- It is necessary to consult manufacturers for final and specific selec-
nomical when the final discharge pressure exceeds one-third of the tions. However, the following guide data is reliable and should
high pressure motive steam [8]. These units are usually limited to serve to check recommendations or to specify a system. It is advis-
single-stage installations based on steam economy. able to try to accomplish the specific operation with as few ejectors
530 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

Operating COND. WATER INLET

Steam

AIR PUMP

A i r -.Vapor
Inlet

Boa

SECOND STAGE
EVICTOR BOOSTER

'LY

Figure 8-7a Flow diagram of three-stage ejector with counter-current Figure 8-7b Chilled water refrigeration unit using steam jet ejectors. (By
barometric booster condenser and intercondenser. (By permission from permission from Croll-Reynolds Co.. Inc.)
Ingersoll-Rand Co.)

as possible. because this leads to the most economical operation

and lowest first cost in the majority of cases. Figures 8-9a-e are a
basic comparison guide for vacuum systems. Figure 8-9f represents Lowest Absolute Pressure
different views of a single-stage ejector. Stage No. in System (mmHg abs)
The ranges shown for various numbers of ejector stages
provide a reasonable operational guide with understandable varia- Single 50
tions between various manufacturers, even in combinations of each Two 4-10
manufacturer's specific ejectors used to attain lower or upper range Three 0.8-1.5
of the chart. For example, at zero load or shutoff pressure, Refer- Four 0.1-0.2
ence [9] indicates the approximate values for evacuation pressures Five 0.01-0.02
Six 0.001-0.003
(lowest):
 8.7 VACUUM RANGE GUIDE 531

- Y STAGE Z STAGE

SUCTION

Z STAGE

.c
DISCHARGE
fl
DISCHARGE

Y STAGE

I n 'AGE

SUCTION STAGE

T
DISCHARGE

Figure 8-8 Steam jet arrangements with inter- and aftercondensers. (By permission from Croll-Reynolds Co., Inc.)
532 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

TABLE 8-2 Standard Ejector Units Designations Conforming to Heat Exchange

Institute

Normal Range of Normal Range of

Letter Suction Pressures Disch. Pressures
No. Position in Series (Hg abs) (Hg Abs)
Z Atmospheric stages 3-12" 30-32"
Y 1st of t w o stages 0.5-4 " 4-10"
X 1st of three stages 0.1-1" 1-3"
W 1st of four stages 0.2-4 m m 2-20 m m
V 1st of five stages 0.02-0.4 m m 0.4-3 m m
U 1st of six stages 0.01-0.08mm 0.08-0.4 m m

The different types of condensing equipment used with the various series are identified
by the following letters:
B - Barometric Counter-Flow Condenser, Intercondenser, and Aftercondenser
S - Surface-Type Condenser, Intercondenser, and Aftercondenser
J - Atmospheric Jet Condenser, Intercondenser, and Aftercondenser
C - Surface Coil-Type Condenser, Intercondenser, and Aftercondenser
N - Signifies no condenser in the series
The operating range of the condensing equipment determines the nomenclature.
Here are the basic divisions.
Condenser 1.5-4" Hg abs
Intercondenser 4-10"Hg abs
Aftercondenser 30-32" Hg abs

By permission from Croll-Reynolds Co., Inc.

Figure 8-10 is a summary of operating pressure ranges for a One kilogram per square = 14.22 pound per square inch abs
variety of processes and vapor mixtures. centimeter
Tables 8- 1 and 8-3 give the usual industrial application ranges One kilogram per square = 735.6 millimeter
for ejector stages. centimeter
Figures 8-lla-c indicate the capacity of various ejector-
condenser combinations for variable suction pressures when using
the same quantity of 1OOpsig motive steam. Each point on these
curves represents a point of maximum efficiency, and thus any one EXAMPLE 8-1
curve may represent the performance of many different size ejec- Conversion of Inches Vacuum to Absolute
tors each operating at maximum efficiency [ 1 11. Good efficiency A distillation column is operating at 27.5 in. Hg vacuum, referenced
may be expected from 50 to 115% of a design capacity. Note that to a 30-in. barometer. This is the pressure at the inlet to the ejector.
the performance range for the same type of ejector may vary widely Due to pressure drop through a vapor condenser and trays of a
depending upon design conditions. distillation column, the column's bottom pressure is 23 in. vacuum.
Determine the absolute pressures at the entrance to the ejector and
at the bottom of the column.

8.8 PRESSURE TERMINOLOGY Solution

Ejector inlet, absolute pressure = 30 - 27.5 = 2.5 in. Hg
For design purposes it is necessary to use absolute pressures. In Column's bottom, absolute pressure = 30 - 23 = 7 in. Hg
plant operation, pressures are often used as "vacuum." It is impor-
tant to eliminate confusion before making a proper performance
analysis (see Tables 8-4 and 8-5).
If pressure is expressed as inches of mercury vacuum, the
reading of the local barometer (or a reference barometer) is neces- 8.9 PRESSURE DROP AT LOW ABSOLUTE
sary to establish the absolute suction pressure, or pressure in the PRESSURES
vacuum system.
Refer to Chapter 4.
Absolute measurement relations (reference to mercury)

One inch mercury = 25.4 millimeters mercury = 0.491 8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS
pound per square inch abs STEAM PRESSURE
One inch = 25,400 microns (micrometers)
One millimeter = 0.03,937 inch The motive steam design pressure must be selected as the lowest
One millimeter = 1000 microns expected pressure at the ejector steam nozzle. The unit will
One micron = 0.001 millimeter not operate stably on steam pressures below the design pressure
One micron = 0.00,003,937 inch PI.
One kilogram per square = 28.96 inches Recommended steam design pressure = minimum expected
centimeter line pressure at ejector nozzle minus 1Opsi.
 8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS 533

M E C H A N I C A L VACUUM PUMPS S T E A M - J E T EJECTORS

ABSOLUTE
- 'R ESSURE TEMPERATURE
S T D . ATMOSPHERIC P R E S S . = 14.7 PS1A.a 7 6 0 m n BOILING POINT 8 212.F
7i////,////,/////////////// /
,
/ /////,
- FOR WATER AT //////
500- NORMAL ATMOS. PRESS.

FINAL STAGE OF a ,&Oo F.

0
MULTISTAGE UNITS n
-4 " a
>
a
50- - 2"
(DRY VAC.PUMP)
25- -1.0''
a
,om -0.4"

5- -0.2"
I
m4 ROTARY
(OIL S E A L E D )
2

Imm-
- -
-
0.1"

MlCRONS
1000
J
FOUR STAGE
FREEZING
POINT

-
0. F.

t-
a

1
0
-500 a
s
DISCHARGE TO
ROTARY P U M P
-250
-w
0

r---
n
OR MULTISTAGE EJECTOR w
r .O.lmm- -
100 I-
a
a
-
J
W 3 5 0 . F.
0 t-
PlFFUSlON PUMPS $
a a
-50 v)

OIL e MERCURY w
( VAPOR TYPES ) d
s07
-25
I
PUMP I N L E T
0.01- -
IO Note: This chart gives the urual
operating range for each type of
vacuum equipment; that is. not nec-
W essarily the maximum vacuum or
(9 -5 minimum pressure it can maintain i n
+
a an airtight system. Special designs or
2 modifications of these common types
c -2v2 are available for even lower pres-
L -I
sure6 than those indicated.
1 I
3

,0.001mm- -
: I MICRON

Figure 8-9a Where vacuum equipment applies. (By permission from Ingersoll Rand Co.)

This design basis allows for stable operation under minor of performance curves depending upon the motive steam pressure.
pressure fluctuations. This type has a lower compression ratio across the ejector than
An increase in steam pressure over design will not increase the fixed-type. The fixed-type unit is of the most concern in this
vapor handling capacity for the usual "fixed capacity" ejector. presentation.
The increased pressure usually decreases capacity due to the extra For a given ejector, an increase in steam pressure over the
steam in the diffuser. The best ejector steam economy is attained design value will increase the steam flow through the nozzle in
when the steam nozzle and diffuser are proportioned for a specified direct proportion to the increase in absolute steam pressure [8].
performance [14]. This is the reason it is difficult to keep so-called The higher the actual design pressure of an ejector, the lower the
standard ejectors in stock and expects to have the equivalent of steam consumption. This is more pronounced in one- and two-
a custom-designed unit. The "throttling type" ejector has a family stage ejectors. When this pressure is above about 350psig, the
534 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

Figure 8-9b Typical jet (gas) system application. (By permission from Penberthy, Inc.)

IrnDeller Blades Figure 8-9d Schematic of a three-stage system with direct contact or
barometric condensers. (Source: Foxvalve.)

-
c
Discharge Port
impeller ’ *suc:tion Port pressures below 200 mmHg abs cannot operate efficiently on steam
pressures below 25 psig [ 1 I]. The first or second stage of a multi-
stage system can be designed (although perhaps not economically)
to use steam pressures below 1 psig.
Figure 8-9c Improving the maximum vacuum obtainable by staging an To ensure stable operations the steam pressure must be above
ejector ahead of the suction of a liquid ring pump any other device that a minimum value. This minimum is called the motive steam pickup
can handle water into the unit, unless dry air is used. (By permission from pressure [ 111 when the pressure is being increased from the unstable
Graham Manufacturing Co., Inc.) region. Figure 8-13 indicates both this point and the second lower
break pressure which is reached as the pressure is lowered from
decrease in steam requirements will be negligible. As the absolute a stable region. As the pressure is reduced along line 5-3-1, the
suction pressure decreases, the advantages of high pressure steam operation is stable until point 1 is reached. At this point the ejector
become less. In very small units the physical size of the steam capacity falls off rapidly along line 1-2. As the steam pressure is
nozzle may place a lower ceiling on steam pressures. Figure 8-12 increased, stable operation is not resumed until point 4 is reached
illustrates the effect of excess steam pressures on ejector capacity and the capacity rises along line 4-3. With further increases, it rises
for single- and two-stage units. along 3-5 which is the stable region. Operation in the region 3-1 is
For ejectors discharging to the atmosphere, steam pressures unstable and the least drop in pressure can cause the system to lose
below 60psig at the ejector are generally uneconomical [8]. If vacuum. The relative location of points 3 and 1 can be controlled
the discharge pressure is lower as in multistage units, the steam- to some extent by ejector design; and the points may not even exist
pressure at the inlet can be lower. Single-stage ejectors designed for for ejectors with low ratios of compression.
 8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS 535

Figure 8-9e Schematic of an agitated vessel being cooled by a three-stage ejector system. (Source: Fox 'Valve.)

Figure 8-14 indicates the change in region of stable perfor-

mance as reflected in changes in the backpressure on the ejector and
the variation in steam pressure. This system backpressure might
represent a variation in barometric pressure for a unit discharging
to the atmosphere, or the variation in a feedwater (or other) heater
operating pressure if the ejector discharges into closed system or
condenser. Figure 8-14 numerically represents the latter situation,
although the principle is the same.
The three motive steam pressure curves, 100-90-80%, are
obtained from the ejector manufacturer as is the performance curve
of suction pressure versus percent of ejector design capacity. This
latter curve for an actual installation would show actual absolute
suction pressures versus pounds per hour or cubic feet per minute
of air or percent design capacity.
The backpressure is represented by the straight lines labeled
minimum, normal, and maximum. Only one capacity curve is
shown since the increase in capacity resulting from the lower steam
pressure is negligible [15].
Curves 1, 2, and 3 represent the maximum safe discharge
pressure, as the system will operate along the capacity curve as
long as the system discharge pressure from the ejector is less than
the maximum value of the curve, all for a given suction pressure
[15]. The slopes of the curves are a function of the type of ejector,
its physical design, and relative pressure conditions. Whenever
the discharge backpressure exceeds the maximum safe discharge
pressure as represented by one of the curves, the ejector operates
in the "break" unstable region.
In Figure 8-14, the 100% pressure curve does not cross any
of the system backpressure lines (minimum, normal, or maximum)
and the ejector would be expected to operate stably over its entire
range, down to shutoff. F:ollowing the 90% steam pressure curve,
Figure 8-9f Views of a single-stage ejector. (Source: Fox Valve.) the ejector is stable at 100% design suction pressure and 100%
536 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS

A B C
Normal Dry Air Mixtures of Air Condensible Steam
or Other Gases 81Water Vapor Etc. or Water Vapor Etc.
760mm -2 9 . 9 2 " H p . : 14.7 P S I A - STD. A T M O S P H E R I C P R E S S .
////////////////////////////////////////////// / / / / / / / / I /
NORMAL B O I L I N G P O I N T 212*F=lOO*C
I
500- - 20" VENTILATING FANS FOR MINES h TUNNELS, ETC. VACUUM COOKERS FOR
BOILING AT REDUCED
EXHAUSTERS FOR LOW VACUUM SERVICE 1
0
'
TEMPERATURE

250-
-
IO" VACUUM CLEANING VACUUM FILTERS FOR
VACUUM PANS AND
FILTERING h CONVEYING PAPER AND OTHER EVAPORATORS FOR SALT,
SUGAR, MILK, ETC. 100
OF DRY PRODUCTS WET PRODUCTS
- 4" VACUUM DEAERATION AIR REMOVAL EQUIPMENT
VACUUM DISTILLATION h
CRYSTALLIZATION UNITS
OF CLAY, PORCELAIN, FOR: FOR VARIOUS CHEMICAL
STEAM CONDENSERS, a REFINERY PRODUCTS, ETC.
50 - - 2" & OTHER PRODUCTS
EVAPORATORS h VACUUM
DISTILLATION UNITS FOR STEAM CONDENSERS FOR
IO'
TEST CHAMBERS CHEMICAL AND REFINERY GENERATING EQUIPMENT
FOR HIGH.ALTITUDE PRODUCTS, ETC.
25 - -1.0'' RESEARCH STUDY
EVAPORATORS FOR CON.
CENTRATED ORANGE JUICE !OO
VACUUM PACKING
10 -0.4" EQUIPMENT FOR COFFEE VACUUM STRIPPING AN0 WATER VAPOR REFRIG-
AND OTHER PERISHABLE DEODORIZING UNITS FOR ERATING UNITS FOR AIR
FOODS OR CHEMICAL ANIMAL h VEGETABLE COND. 6 PROCESS WORK
5- -0.2" PRODUCTS, ETC. OILS,ETC. NORMAL FREEZING P O I N T 32%
-0. c
////lli///l/////
-
0.I "
VACUUM DEHYDRATING
EVACUATING & SEALING EVAPORATIVE FREEZING
MICRONS AND UNITS FOR VARIOUS
EOUIPMENT FOR. FOOD PRODUCTS, ETC.
IMPREGNATING EOUIPMENT
-
1000
REFRIGERATION UNITS, FOR
FREEZE-DRYING OR .20*
ELECTRIC LIGHT BULBS, VARIOUS PRODUCTS
DEHYDRATING EOUIPMENT
-500 INCLUDING:
RADIO TUBES AND FOR SUBLIMATION DRYING
OF:
ELECTRICAL CABLE, AND
VACUUM TUBES FOR FOOD SPECIALTIES,
-250
WINDINGS. ETC. FOR HIGH BLOOD PLASMA,
RADAR EQUIPMENT, PENICILLIN, VITAMINS,
VOLTAGE SERVICE SPECIAL DRUGS, ETC.
0.1 -
100 TELEVISION SETS, AND -40.
OTHER TYPES OF -503

-50 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT MOLECULAR DISTILLATION

a RESEARCH APPARATUS OF COMPLEX CHEMICAL

-25
COMPOUNDS ETC.

0.01mm 10 -
Note: Certain portions of this chart
-5 are diagrammatic only, and special
VACUUM COATING OF modifications of these or similar
vacuum processes are often designed
-2v2 OPTICAL PARTS AND for other than the typical ranges in-
dicated.
OTHER MATERIAL, ETC.

0.00Imm -
= I MICRON

OPERATING RANGES OF VACUUM PROCESSES

Most of the principal industrial processes that necessitate combinations of air, other gases, and water vapor, as shown
the use of subatmospheric pressures are listed here, to- under the three headings A, B, and C. The charts on this
gether with the typical pressure range for each one. The page and the preceding one were compiled by J. F. Plum-
processes involve the evacuation or removal of various mer, Jr., of Ingersoll-Rand Company, Phillipsburg, N. J.

Figure 8-10 Operating range of vacuum processes. (By permission from Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
 8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS 537

TABLE 8-3 General Pressure Ranges for Ejectors

Minimum Practical Range Operating

No. of Absolute Pressure Suction Pressure Closed Test Pressure
Stages (mmHsl' (rnrnHg)',* (mmHgS
1 50 75, (3")and up 37-50
2 5 10-1 00 5
3 2 1-25 1
4 0.2 0.25-3 0.05-0.1
5 0.03 0.03-0.3 0.005-0.01
6 0.003
7 0.001-0.00055

* Linck, C.G.,Selecting Ejectors for High Vacuum, Chem. Eng. Jan 13, p. 145 (1958)
Ref. [IO].
Worthington Corp. Bul. W-205-E21(1955),Ref. [I21
* The Jet-Vac Copr., Bulletin, Ref. [I31
Berkeley, F.D., Ejectors Have a Wide Range of Users, Pet. Ref. 37, No. 12, p. 95
(1958), Ref. [Ill

1000

100
0
c
3

2 IO
d
I

2 1.0
I

t
t
t
0
0.1
-
5

e
3 3 Throa Stoqet -Noncondatlng
u) 301Thraa Stages -OM Intercondtnrrr
3(aThret Stager -Two Inttrcondmrm
4 Four Staqer -Two lnhrcondrnttrt
5 Five Stager -Two Intercondmwrt
6 SIX Stapes -Two InterC011def18tr8
7 Seven Stapes -Two Intercondenserr
1
0.1 1.0 10 100 I(
Capaclty-Lbr. Of Nonconden8oble Gas Per Hour

Figure 8 - l l a Comparison guide for steam ejector performance. As absolute pressure is reduced, the number of stages increases for a given capacity.
The same steam consumption is used for each design. (By permission from Berkley, F.D. [ l 11.)

design capacity at the maximum back pressure. It is unstable below on performance is significant and is usually reflected in fluctuating
design load unless the heater pressure is reduced. Note that its vacuum.
break occurs at 20psia and 100% design suction pressure. If the
discharge-pressure is reduced to 19psia, the unit will be stable to
EFFECT OF SUPERHEATED STEAM
shutoff (zero capacity). The 80% steam pressure will allow stable
operation from shutoff up through the full capacity range as long A few degrees of superheat are recommended (5-15"F), but if
as the backpressure does not exceed 18 psia. This type of analysis superheated steam is to be used, its effect must be considered in
is necessary to properly evaluate ejector performance with varying the ejector design. A high degree of superheat is of no advantage
system conditions. because the increase in available energy is offset by the decrease
A unit is said to have 50% overload capacity when it blanks in steam density [ 8 ] .
off (zero load) at a stable absolute pressure and has an operating
curve which stably handles 1.5 times the design conditions of flow. SUCTION PRESSURE
The suction pressure of an ejector is expressed in absolute units.
EFFECT OF WET STEAM If it is given as inches of vacuum it must be converted to abso-
lute units by using the local or reference barometer. The suction
Wet steam erodes the ejector nozzle and interferes with perfor- pressure follows the ejeclor capacity curve, varying with the non-
mance by clogging the nozzle with water droplets [SI. The effect condensable and vapor load to the unit.
538 EJECTORS AND MECHANICAL VACUUM SYSTEMS

400
300

200

'80"
80
70
60
50
40
30

20

10
9
8
" 7
5 6
2
U
5
- 4
.L;

E 3
E
I

: 2
v)
v)

:
a
c
c IO
g .9
v) .8
.7
.6
.5
.4
.3

.2

.I
.09
.08
07
-06
.05
.04
.03

.02

.o I
0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120
Copacity - Ibs Air per hour

Figure 8 - l l b A typical relative comparison of various designs of steam ejectors based on same steam consumption (1OOpsig steam pressure and 85" F
water). Curves represent the capacity of ejectors designed for maximum air-handling capacity at any one particular suction pressure (By permission from
GrahamI Manufacturing Co )
 8.10 PERFORMANCE FACTORS 539

TABLE 8-4 Low Absolute Pressure Equivalents

(References to Mercury)
1 Inches Vac. Referred
Microns Millimeters Inches to 30" Barometer

10 0.01 0.000394 29.999606

100 0.10 0.003937 29.996063
200 0.20 0.007874 29.992126
300 0.30 0.011811 29.988189
400 0.40 0.015748 29.984252
500 0.50 0.0 19685 29.980315
600 0.60 0.023622 29.976378
700 0.70 0.027559 29.972441
800 0.80 0.03 1496 29.968504
900 0.90 0.035433 29.934567
1000 1.oo 0.039370 29.960630
Basis: 70'F soling water
I I I I I
50 100 150 200 250 3w
Pressure, torr must be taken into consideration. Discharge piping should not have
pockets for condensation collection.
Figure 8 - l l c Typical performance curves for steam jet ejectors, liquid
Figure 8-15 indicates the effect of increasing the single-stage
ring pumps, and rotary piston oil-sealed pumps. (By permission from Ryan,
J.L. and Roper, D.L. [ 11.) ejector backpressure for various suction pressures. Figure 8-16
illustrates the effect of increasing the motive steam pressure to over-
come backpressure effects. When this pressure cannot be increased,
the nozzle may be redesigned to operate at the higher backpressure.
DISCHARGE PRESSURE
CAPACITY
As indicated, performance of an ejector is a function of backpres-
sure. Most manufacturers design atmospheric discharge ejectors for The capacity of an ejector is expressed as pounds per hour total
a pressure of 0.5-l.0psig in order to insure proper performance. of non-condensables plus condensables to the inlet flange of the
The pressure drop through any discharge piping and aftercooler unit. For multistage units, the total capacity must be separated into

TABLE 8-5 Absolute Pressure Conversion Table (Millimeters to Inches Mercury)

Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches Millimeters Inches

1 0.0394 26 1.0236 170 6.6929

2 0.0787 27 1.0630 180 7.0866
3 0.1181 28 1.1024 190 7.4803
4 0.1575 29 1.1417 :200 7.8740
5 0.1969 30 1.1811 210 8.2677
6 0.2362 35 1.3780 220 8.6614
7 0.2756 40 1.5748 230 9.0551
8 0.3150 45 1.7717 240 9.4488
9 0.3543 50 1.9685 250 9.8425
10 0.3937 55 2.1653 260 10.236
11 0.4331 60 2.3622 270 10.630
12 0.4724 65 2.5590 280 11.024
13 0.51 18 70 2.7559 290 11.417
14 0.5512 75 2.9528 300 11.811
15 0.5906 80 3.1496 325 12.795
16 0.6299 85 3.3465 350 13.780
17 0.6693 90 3.5433 375 14.764
18 0.7087 95 3.7402 400 15.748
19 0.7480 100 3.9370 450 17.717
20 0.7874 110 4.3307 500 19.685
21 0.8268 120 4.7244 550 21.653
22 0.8661 130 5.1181 600 23.622
23 0.9055 140 5.5118 650 25.590
24 0.9449 150 5.9055 700 27.559
25 0.9843 160 6.2992 750 29.528

Courtesy of C.H. Wheeler Mfg. Co., Philadelphia, PA

Note: To change the above values to pressure in psia, multiply by the following factors:
M u Iti ply m i IIi meters of mercury by 0.0 1934
Multiply inches of mercury by 0.4912
540 EJECTORS AND MECHANICALVACUUM SYSTEMS
260
240

220

200
180
n
+
a

t 200
.E
0
320

LYU

160
-
160
2
.-0,
120

s 140 E 80
.-0
L

40 sia Back Pressur

g I20 shGtLof:f i
0
V
& 100 40 80 Id0 110'&'2:0
.-a Design Capacity,%
80
A = 150 Ib. Pressur
60
Figure 8-14 Effect of steam back-pressure variations with steam pressure.
40
(By permission from Freneau, P. [15].)

20
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Absolute Pressure a t S u c t i o n , In. Mercury

Figure 8-12 Effects of excess steam pressure on ejector capacity. (By

permission from C.H. Wheeler Mfg. Co.)

Increase in Steam Consumption, YO

Figure 8-15 Effect of back pressure on single-stage exhausters. (By
permission from Keterma, Schutte & Koerting Div. and Ketterer, S.G. and
Blatchley, C.G. [14].)

Design Capacity ,'/o

2. Barometric or Low Level Jet Condenser
Figure 8-13 Effect of steam pressure on capacity for constant system In this case, the temperature at the air outlet of this condenser
suction and back pressure. (By permission from Freneau, P. [15].) type is generally assumed to be 5" F above the inlet temperature
of the cooling water. In addition to the normally expected air
leakage, an allowance must be made for air liberated from the
injection water [ 171.
pounds per hour of condensables and non-condensables. The final
stages are only required to handle the non-condensable portion of
the load plus the saturation moisture leaving the inter-condensers.
The non-condensables leaving a surface condenser are satu-
rated with water vapor at the temperature corresponding to the 8.11 TYPES OF LOADS
pressure. For a process condenser the vapor corresponds to the
process fluid. AIR PLUS WATER VAPOR MIXTURES
The Heat Exchanger Institute [7] references all tests and calcula-
1. Surface Condenser tions for jet performance to 70°F air equivalent. Figures 8-17 and
To provide for sufficient total capacity, the temperature at the air 8-18 are used to handle the evaluation on an equivalent air basis.
outlet of a well-designed surface condenser is generally assumed If actual performance curves are available for the temperature and
to be about 7.5" F below the temperature of saturated steam at vapor mixture in question, conversion to an equivalent basis is not
the absolute pressure in the condenser [16]. necessary except for test purposes.
 Next Page

8.11 TYPES OF LOADS 541

EXAMPLE 8-2
70" F Air Equivalent for Air-Water Vapor Mixture
What is the 70" F air equivalent for 500 Ib/h of a mixture containing
1501bk of air and 3501bk of water vapor if it is at 350"F?

Solution
From Figure 8-17, the entrainment ratio for air is 0.931b air at
70" F/lb air at 350" F.

For air: 70°F air equivalent = 150/0.93 = 161.31b/h

For steam: From Figure 8-17, entrainment ratio = 0.9081b
steam at 70" F/lb steam at 350" F
70" F stearn equivalent = 350/0.908 = 385 Ib/h
From Figure 8-18, molecular weight = 18,
ratio = 0.81
The 70" F air equivalent of the steam
equivalent = 385/0.81 = 4761b/h
Mixture: The mixture 70" F air equivalent = 161.3 476 +
= 637.3 lb/h

Figure 8-16 Effect of high back-pressure on ejector operation. (By

permission from C.H. Wheeler Mfg. Co.)

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
I .oo I .00

0.95 0.95

0.90 0.90
2
0.85 0.85
E8
2a
I

0.80 0.80 8
-'8
w
I1

Entrainment Ratio =
0.75 wt of air or steam at actual temp 0.75
wt of air or steam at 70' F

0.7011 I I I I I I I i I I I i I i I I I i ii i i
I I I I I I I iii i ii ii 0.70 ~ ~ .
0.69 ' 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' I
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 IO00
GAS TEMPERATURE, O F

Figure 8-17 Temperature entrainment ratio curve. (Reprinted by permission from Standards for Steam Jet Vacuum Systems 4th ed., Heat Exchange
Institute, Inc., 1988.)