Structure of Metals

BY
DIGVIJAY GABHANE
CADD ENGINEER
M-Tech CAD/CAM (Pursuing)
BE (Mech Eng)
Diploma (Mech Eng)
Introduction to Metals
Metals are a group of chemical elements characterized by their ability to conduct electricity and heat, as well as their metallic luster and
metallic luster and malleability. They are found in most of the periodic table, with the exception of hydrogen, helium, and a few other
few other elements.
Metals generally have a crystalline structure and are solid at room temperature, with the exception of mercury which is a liquid. They are
liquid. They are typically strong and dense and have high melting and boiling points. Metals can be categorized based on their physical and
their physical and chemical properties, such as their atomic structure, reactivity, and the types of bonds they form with other elements.
other elements.

Importance of Metals in Various Industries

Metals play an essential role in various industries due to their unique properties. In construction, metals are used to create strong and
strong and durable structures such as buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure. In transportation, metals are used to create vehicles,
create vehicles, airplanes, and ships that are designed to withstand the stresses of travel and provide a safe and reliable means of
means of transportation.
Metals are also essential in manufacturing industries, as they are used to produce machinery and equipment necessary for manufacturing
manufacturing processes. Additionally, metals are widely used in electronics for their electrical conductivity and heat resistance, and in
resistance, and in energy production for their ability to conduct heat and generate electricity.

Metals also play a vital role in medical applications, where they are used for implants and medical devices due to their biocompatibility and
biocompatibility and durability. They are also used in diagnostic imaging technologies such as X-rays and MRI scans.

Overall, metals are a crucial component of modern society, and their unique properties make them essential in a wide range of industries
range of industries and applications.
Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding occurs when the valence electrons of metal atoms are delocalized, creating a "sea of electrons" that holds the metal ions
together.

Key Features of Metallic Bonds

• Delocalized electrons: The valence electrons of metal atoms are not bound to a specific atom, but instead move freely throughout the
throughout the metal structure.
• Metallic lattice: Metal atoms are arranged in a closely packed structure, forming a repeating pattern known as a metallic lattice.

• Electron sea model: The delocalized electrons form a "sea" or cloud of negatively charged electrons that surround the positively
charged metal ions.
• Strength and conductivity: Metallic bonds give metals their characteristic properties of high electrical and thermal conductivity, as well
as strength and malleability.

• Non-directional bonding: Metallic bonds are non-directional, meaning that they do not have a specific orientation or angle.
Crystal Structure Basics
The arrangement of atoms or ions in a crystalline solid is called its crystal structure. It determines many of the physical properties of metals.

Repeating Unit Cells

The crystal structure of a solid is composed of repeating units called unit cells. These unit cells are the building blocks of the crystal lattice
and are repeated in all directions to form the entire crystal structure.

Types of Unit Cells

There are several types of unit cells, including:

• Cubic unit cell: This type of unit cell has equal edge lengths and 90-degree angles, resulting in a cubic crystal structure.

• Hexagonal unit cell: This type of unit cell has six sides and angles of 120 degrees, resulting in a hexagonal crystal structure.

• Tetragonal unit cell: This type of unit cell has equal edge lengths in two dimensions, but a different length in the third dimension,
third dimension, resulting in a tetragonal crystal structure.
• Orthorhombic unit cell: This type of unit cell has unequal edge lengths and 90-degree angles, resulting in an orthorhombic crystal
structure.
• And many more...
Metallic Crystal Lattices
Metallic crystals often have a regular repeating pattern called a lattice. This structure gives metals their
metals their characteristic strength and ductility.

Common Metallic Structures

There are several common metallic structures, including:

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure
In a BCC structure, each atom is surrounded by 8 neighbors arranged at the corners of a cube, with one additional atom in
the center of the cube.

Properties of BCC Metals

BCC metals possess certain properties due to their crystal structure:

• High melting points

• Good electrical conductivity
• High ductility
• High impact resistance

Examples of Metals with BCC Structure

Some common metals that exhibit the BCC structure include:

• Iron (Fe)
• Tungsten (W)
• Chromium (Cr)
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure
In an FCC structure, each atom is surrounded by 12 neighbors arranged at the corners of a cube, with one additional atom in the center of each face.

Properties of FCC Metals

FCC metals possess certain properties due to their crystal structure:

• High ductility
• Good thermal conductivity
• High electrical conductivity
• Low melting points

Examples of Metals with FCC Structure

Some common metals that exhibit the FCC structure include:

• Aluminum (Al)
• Copper (Cu)
• Gold (Au)
• Silver (Ag)
Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Structure
In an HCP structure, each atom is surrounded by 12 neighbors arranged at the corners of a hexagonal prism, with one additional atom in each base.

Properties of HCP Metals

HCP metals possess certain properties due to their crystal structure:

• Good strength-to-weight ratio

• High anisotropy

• Low ductility along the c-axis

• High melting points

Examples of Metals with HCP Structure

Some common metals that exhibit the HCP structure include:

• Magnesium (Mg)

• Titanium (Ti)

• Zirconium (Zr)
Allotropes and Polymorphism
Metals can exist in different crystalline forms called allotropes due to differences in the arrangement of atoms. Polymorphism refers to the
existence of multiple crystal structures at different temperatures and pressures.

Examples of Metals Exhibiting Allotropy or Polymorphism

Some common examples of metals that exhibit allotropy or polymorphism include:

• Iron (Fe): Exhibits allotropy with different crystal structures such as ferrite, austenite, and martensite.

• Titanium (Ti): Shows polymorphism with different phases like alpha (α) and beta (β) titanium.

• Carbon (C): Although not a metal, carbon exhibits allotropy with different forms such as diamond and graphite.
Effects of Temperature on Metal Structure
Temperature plays a significant role in influencing the arrangement of atoms in a metal, resulting in changes in crystal structure and various
structure and various properties like strength, conductivity, and magnetism.

Phase Transitions and Changes in Crystal Structure

As temperature changes, metals can undergo phase transitions, leading to alterations in their crystal structure. Some examples include:
examples include:

• Iron (Fe): Undergoes a phase transition at 912°C, changing from a body-centered cubic (BCC) structure to a face-centered cubic (FCC)
structure.
• Aluminum (Al): Experiences a phase transition at 660°C, transitioning from an FCC structure to a body-centered cubic (BCC) structure.

• Lead (Pb): Demonstrates a phase transition at 327°C, shifting from an FCC structure to a rhombohedral structure.
Applications of Understanding Metal Structure
Understanding the structure of metals is crucial for various applications, including alloy design, material selection, and the
and the development of new materials with desired properties. Here are some examples of real-world applications:

Alloy Design
Knowledge of metal structure is important for designing alloys with desired properties. For example, stainless steel is a popular alloy
a popular alloy with high corrosion resistance, which is achieved through the addition of chromium to iron.

Material Selection
Understanding metal structure helps in selecting appropriate materials for specific applications. For instance, metals with a high
strength-to-weight ratio, such as titanium alloys, are widely used in aerospace and automotive industries.

Development of New Materials

Researchers use knowledge of metal structure to develop new materials with unique properties. For example, shape memory alloys
are metals that can "remember" their original shape and return to it after deformation, making them useful in biomedical applications
like stents and orthodontic wires.
Defects in Metal Crystals
Introduction to Metal Crystals
Metal crystals are formed when metal atoms bond together in a repeating pattern. They are essential to our daily lives and are used in everything from
in everything from electronics to construction. But what happens when they aren't perfect? Let's find out.

Perfect crystals are rare in nature; most metal crystals have defects. These defects can occur during the crystal formation process or as a result of
external factors such as temperature, pressure, and impurities. Defects can affect the physical and mechanical properties of the metal, making each
crystal unique. Despite their imperfections, metal crystals continue to play a crucial role in various industries and applications.
What are Defects in Metal Crystals?

Defects in metal crystals are disruptions in the regular arrangement of metal atoms. These can occur naturally or
through external influence during the formation process. Their study provides insight into the behavior of these
materials under different circumstances.
Common Types of Defects in Metal Crystals

When it comes to metal crystals, there are several common types of defects that can occur. These include point defects, line defects,
and planar defects. Point defects involve the presence of extra or missing atoms, while line defects are dislocations in the crystal lattice.
Planar defects, on the other hand, are boundaries between different crystal orientations. Understanding these defects is crucial in
studying the properties and behavior of metal crystals.
Point Defects in Metal Crystals
Defects in metal crystals can have significant impacts on their properties and behavior. Let's explore some of the common
of the common types of point defects.

Vacancies
Empty spaces where a metal atom should be. Vacancies can affect material properties such as conductivity and
mechanical strength.
When there are vacancies in a crystal lattice, it means that some of the metal atoms are missing from their designated
designated positions. This can lead to changes in the material's properties. For example, in terms of electrical
electrical conductivity, vacancies can disrupt the flow of electrons, reducing the material's conductivity. In terms of
terms of mechanical strength, vacancies can create defects in the lattice structure, making the material more prone to
more prone to deformation or fracture.

Interstitial Atoms
Foreign atoms that occupy spaces between metal atoms. They can cause degradation or improvement in mechanical
mechanical properties, depending on their size.
Interstitial atoms are atoms that are not part of the original crystal lattice but occupy the spaces between the metal
atoms. The presence of interstitial atoms can have significant effects on the mechanical properties of the material.
Depending on the size and type of interstitial atoms, they can either weaken or strengthen the material. Larger interstitial
atoms tend to disrupt the lattice structure and weaken the material, while smaller interstitial atoms can enhance the
material's mechanical properties by providing additional stability and preventing dislocation movement.
Substitutional Defects
Foreign atoms that replace metal atoms in the lattice. This can change electrical and mechanical properties.

Substitutional defects occur when foreign atoms replace some of the original metal atoms in the crystal lattice. This substitution
This substitution can have significant effects on the material's electrical and mechanical properties. Depending on the size, charge,
the size, charge, and chemical nature of the substitutional atom, the material's conductivity, strength, and other properties can be
properties can be altered. For example, if the foreign atom has a different valence or size compared to the original metal atom, it
metal atom, it can disrupt the electrical conductivity or crystal structure, leading to changes in the material's behavior.
behavior.
Line Defects in Metal Crystals

1 Dislocations

A line where the arrangement of atoms is disrupted, caused by physical deformation or thermal expansion.
Dislocations play a significant role in the plastic deformation of metals. They allow the metal to deform without breaking by moving through the
crystal lattice. There are two main types of dislocations: edge and screw. Edge dislocations occur when an extra half-plane of atoms is introduced
into the lattice, causing misalignment. Screw dislocations occur when the atoms in the lattice are sheared into a spiral pattern around the
dislocation line.
The motion of dislocations through the crystal lattice can occur through two primary mechanisms: glide and climb. Glide occurs when the
dislocation moves along the slip plane, and climb occurs when the dislocation moves perpendicular to the slip plane.

2 Grain Boundaries

Regions where the crystal lattice changes orientation, which can cause corrosion or material failure.
Grain boundaries are interfaces between adjacent crystalline regions in a metal crystal. They occur due to variations in crystallographic
orientation between neighboring grains. Grain boundaries can affect the properties and behavior of metals, including corrosion initiation and
mechanical properties.
The size and distribution of grains and grain boundaries can be influenced by various factors, including metal processing, temperature, and
impurities. Controlling the grain structure and grain boundary properties is essential in materials engineering.

3 Interfaces

Junctions between two crystals with different properties, which can cause welding defects.
Surface Defects in Metal Crystals

1 Cracks
Fractures on the surface of crystals. Can
Can be caused by external stress or
Impurities 2 corrosion
Foreign particles on the surface of a
crystal that can impede functionality or
or appearance. 3 Blisters
Raised areas on the surface of a crystal
crystal caused by internal gas bubbles.
Stress Corrosion Cracking 4 bubbles.
A type of crack formed in a corrosive
environment due to tensile stress.
Volume Defects in Metal Crystals
1 Porosity 2 Inclusions
Holes or voids within the structure of a Foreign particles that cannot be
of a crystal, can cause a decrease in removed during the manufacturing
in mechanical or electrical properties. manufacturing process and have a
properties. different composition to the host
material, can cause fatigue and failure.
failure.

3 Segregation
Regions with differing properties within a crystal, can cause material deformation or failure.
or failure.
Consequences of Defects in Metal Crystals

The presence of defects in metal crystals affects the structural integrity and mechanical properties of the material,
which can lead to component failure. Understanding these defects can improve manufacturing processes and
prevent costly mistakes.
Practical Applications of Understanding Defects
in Metal Crystals
Material Science Manufacturing Quality Control
The study of defects in metal Manufacturers can use this By detecting and understanding
crystals provides a deeper knowledge to develop better understanding the defects that
understanding of the better manufacturing processes that can occur in metal crystals,
fundamental properties of processes that will produce crystals, quality control
materials, allowing engineers more reliable and cost-effective measures can be put in place to
and scientists to design better effective products. place to ensure that all materials
materials for a variety of materials being used meet the
applications. the desired specifications.
Relationship Between Structure and
and Properties
Understanding the relationship between structure and properties is essential in the field of materials science. In
science. In this presentation, we will explore the fascinating connection between the two.
The Relationship Between Structure and Properties

The relationship between structure and properties is a fundamental concept in various fields, including materials science, chemistry, and
engineering. Understanding how the arrangement of atoms or molecules influences the characteristics and behavior of materials is crucial for
designing new materials with desired properties. This knowledge allows scientists and engineers to develop innovative materials for
applications such as electronics, aerospace, medicine, and renewable energy.
Understanding the Structure of Materials
In materials science, the term "structure" refers to the arrangement of atoms, molecules, or components within a material. It encompasses the
organization and spatial distribution of these building blocks at different scales, ranging from the atomic level to the macroscopic level. The
structure of a material plays a crucial role in determining its properties and behavior.

At the atomic level, the arrangement of atoms and the bonding between them can greatly impact the material's properties. For example, in
example, in crystalline materials, atoms are arranged in a highly ordered and repeating pattern, resulting in unique properties such as high
such as high strength and well-defined crystal planes. On the other hand, in amorphous materials, the arrangement of atoms lacks long-range
lacks long-range order, leading to different properties such as transparency and flexibility.

Furthermore, the structure of a material can also be influenced by factors such as grain boundaries, defects, and interfaces. These features can
have a significant impact on the material's mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties.

Understanding the structure of materials is essential for designing new materials with specific properties, improving existing materials, and
materials, and developing innovative applications in various fields, including engineering, physics, chemistry, and nanotechnology.
nanotechnology.
Properties of Materials
Materials possess a wide range of properties that define their characteristics and potential applications.
applications. These properties include mechanical, electrical, thermal, and optical properties.
How Atomic Arrangements Influence Material Properties

In materials science, the arrangement of atoms and molecules in a material has a significant impact on its properties. The specific atomic arrangement affects various
affects various characteristics, such as mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and thermal behavior.

Here are a few examples of how atomic arrangements influence material properties:

1. Crystal Structure
The crystal structure refers to the repeating arrangement of atoms in a crystalline material. Different crystal structures, such as cubic, hexagonal, or tetragonal, result in
distinct material properties. For example, diamond and graphite both consist of carbon atoms, but their different atomic arrangements give them contrasting properties,
with diamond being extremely hard and graphite being soft and slippery.

2. Grain Boundaries
In polycrystalline materials, grain boundaries are the interfaces between individual crystal grains. The arrangement of these grain boundaries affects properties such as
properties such as mechanical strength and electrical conductivity. A material with smaller grain sizes generally exhibits improved strength due to increased grain boundary
increased grain boundary interactions and impediments to dislocation movement.
3. Amorphous Structure
Amorphous materials lack a well-defined crystal structure and have a disordered arrangement of atoms or molecules. This arrangement gives rise to different properties
different properties compared to crystalline materials. For instance, amorphous metals, often called metallic glasses, exhibit unique properties like high strength, high
strength, high elasticity, and excellent corrosion resistance.

4. Molecular Packing
In polymers, the arrangement of polymer chains influences their properties. For instance, in a crystalline polymer, the chains are packed in an ordered manner, resulting in
higher stiffness and strength. In contrast, in an amorphous polymer, the chains are randomly arranged, leading to lower stiffness and higher flexibility.

By understanding and manipulating these atomic arrangements, materials scientists can design materials with tailored properties for specific applications.
applications.

Crystal Structure Grain Boundaries Amorphous Structure Molecular Packing in Polymers

The Importance of Crystal Structure in Determining
Determining Properties
The crystal structure of a material is a significant factor in determining its properties. In materials science, a crystal structure is defined as
structure is defined as the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline material. The specific arrangement of these particles
these particles affects various characteristics like mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, and optical behavior.

Here are a few examples of crystals with different structures and their properties:

1. Diamond
Diamond is a well-known example of a crystalline material with a unique crystal structure. It consists of a three-dimensional network of
carbon atoms linked by strong covalent bonds. This arrangement gives diamond its exceptional mechanical properties, such as hardness,
toughness, and high thermal conductivity. Diamond is also transparent and has a high refractive index, making it useful in optical
applications.
2. Graphite
Graphite is another form of carbon that has a different crystal structure than diamond. It consists of hexagonal layers of carbon atoms that are
weakly bonded to each other, resulting in a soft and slippery material with low mechanical strength. However, graphite has excellent thermal
conductivity and is an excellent electrical conductor, making it useful in applications like electrodes and lubricants.

3. Quartz
Quartz is a mineral that is commonly found in the Earth's crust. It has a complex crystal structure consisting of SiO4 tetrahedra that are linked
tetrahedra that are linked together by oxygen atoms. This arrangement gives quartz its unique optical properties, such as birefringence and
birefringence and piezoelectricity. Quartz is also hard and resistant to chemical weathering, making it useful in applications like sandpaper and
like sandpaper and glass.

By understanding the crystal structure of a material, materials scientists can predict and manipulate its properties for specific applications.
How Types and Ratios of Atoms/Molecules Affect Material
Material Properties
The types and ratios of atoms/molecules in a material play a crucial role in determining its properties. Different elements and their
their combinations can significantly impact various characteristics of materials, such as mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and
conductivity, and corrosion resistance.

Let's explore some examples of alloys, which are metallic materials composed of two or more elements, and how they exhibit enhanced
properties:

1. Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is an alloy that contains iron, chromium, and other elements. The addition of chromium enhances the material's resistance to
corrosion and staining, making it highly durable and suitable for applications in environments with high moisture or chemical exposure.
2. Bronze
Bronze is an alloy composed of copper and tin. The addition of tin provides improved strength, hardness, and wear resistance compared to pure
copper. Bronze is commonly used in applications like statues, musical instruments, and bearings.

3. Brass
Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc. The incorporation of zinc into copper enhances the material's machinability, corrosion resistance, and
resistance, and aesthetic appeal. Brass is widely used in applications such as plumbing fittings, musical instruments, and decorative items.
decorative items.

These examples demonstrate how the careful selection and combination of different elements in alloys can result in materials with enhanced
properties that meet specific requirements.
The Impact of Microstructure on Material Behavior

The microstructure of a material refers to the arrangement and characteristics of its constituent particles, such as grains, phases, and defects, at the microscopic
at the microscopic level. The microstructure plays a critical role in determining the material's behavior and properties.

Here are some key ways in which microstructure influences material behavior:

1. Mechanical Properties
The arrangement and size of grains in a material's microstructure affect its mechanical properties, such as strength, hardness, and ductility. For example, materials
with smaller grain sizes often exhibit higher strength due to grain boundaries acting as barriers to dislocation movement.

2. Phase Transformations
The presence of different phases in a material's microstructure can lead to phase transformations under certain conditions, such as changes in temperature or
stress. These transformations can significantly impact material behavior, resulting in changes in mechanical, electrical, or magnetic properties.
3. Corrosion Resistance
The presence of certain microstructural features, such as grain boundaries or precipitates, can affect a material's corrosion resistance.
resistance. These features can act as sites for corrosion initiation or hinder the movement of corrosive agents, influencing the material's
the material's overall resistance to degradation.

Visual representation of different microstructures:

[Insert visual representation of different microstructures here]

Understanding and controlling microstructure is crucial for tailoring material properties to meet specific requirements and optimize
and optimize performance in various applications.
Influence of Molecular Weight on Properties

The molecular weight of a substance refers to the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in its chemical formula. It plays a significant role in determining the properties of both
the properties of both polymers and organic compounds.

Polymers
In polymers, the molecular weight affects various properties, including:

• Mechanical Strength: Generally, higher molecular weight polymers exhibit increased mechanical strength due to the entanglement of longer polymer chains, leading to
enhanced intermolecular forces.

• Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures: Higher molecular weight polymers tend to have higher melting and glass transition temperatures, as the increased chain
length results in stronger intermolecular interactions.

• Solubility: The solubility of polymers can be influenced by molecular weight. Higher molecular weight polymers often have lower solubility due to the increased size and
complexity of the polymer chains.

• Viscosity: Molecular weight affects the viscosity of polymer solutions. Generally, higher molecular weight polymers exhibit higher viscosity, which can impact their
processability and flow behavior.
Organic Compounds
In organic compounds, molecular weight can also influence various properties, such as:

• Boiling and Melting Points: Generally, higher molecular weight organic compounds have higher boiling and melting points due to stronger
points due to stronger intermolecular forces, such as van der Waals interactions.

• Solubility: Similar to polymers, molecular weight can impact the solubility of organic compounds. Higher molecular weight compounds may
have lower solubility in certain solvents.

• Volatility: In general, higher molecular weight organic compounds tend to have lower volatility, as the increased molecular size leads to
stronger intermolecular forces that require more energy to overcome.

These examples highlight how molecular weight can significantly influence the properties of both polymers and organic compounds.