7.3. ARC PHENOMENA S The are consists of a column of ionized gas having molecules which have lost one or more electrons. The electrons being negatively charged are attracted towards the positive contact (ie., anode) with a high velocity and on the way they detach more electrons by impact. The positive ions are attracted towards the negative contact (i.e., cathode), but as they comprise almost the entire weight of the atom, they move towards it relatively slowly. Thus current flow is caused due to movement of electrons. 7.3.1. Initiation of an Arc For the initiation of an arc it is necessary that the electrons are emitted from the cathode as soon as the contacts begin to separate on occurrence of fault. Initiating electrons are thought of produced by the following two processes : (i) By high voltage gradient at the cathode resulting into field emission. As the moving contact is withdrawn, the contact area and the pressure between the separating contacts decreases and due to decrease in contact area the resistance increases (but it is still much less than a ohm). Although contact resistance 1S quite small but due to large magnitude of fault current 4 sufficiently high potential drop, of the order of 10° V/om, is caused between the ie so as to dislodge the electrons from the cathode_surface. (ii) By increase of temperature resulting into thermionic emission. ; s As the contacts apart, the decrease in contact area cause . ; : : ol increase in current density to very high values, of the orderto’ Alem". These very high current densities raise the temperature of the conlat (cathode) surface resulting into tiermal enision. Incase of circuit breakers the contacts used are usualy of coppe. the thermionic emission from such a metal is quite low and 50 fr initiation of arc, the field emision is mostly responsible. 7.3.2. Maintenance of Arc ‘The electrons so emited from the cathode make many collisions with the atoms and molecules of gases and vapours existing ‘between the two contacts during their journey towards the anode, Such collisions cause ionization of atoms and the roecules, thus dislodging more electrons. The ionization is further facilitated by (i) high temperature of the medium around the contacts caused by high cuent dense, wih high emperature the kinetic energy gained by the moving electrons is increased, (a) the fied suength or voltage gradient which increases the kinetic energy of moving electrons and increases the chances of detaching electrons from neutral molecules (i) an increase of mean fre path—the distance through ‘which the electron moves freely. As the contacts apart, the mean path increases andthe numberof neural molecules increases, also, the increase in mean path decreases the density of gas which fuer increases the fre path movement of the eletrons Allthe above thre processes (thermal emission, ionization and field emission) may start ether one after the other or almost simultaneously and enable the are to be iniisted and rinained and finaly ifthe are curent is high, the are may atin a temperature high enough for thermal ionization to become the main source of electrical conductivity. 7.3.3, Arc Voltage As the contacts of the circuit breaker apart, an are is formed The wotge that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker is called the are voltage For moderate values of current and voltage, the arc ctaractrtic can be expressed by Ayton’s equation T 4) ‘Thus withthe increase in are current, the voltage drops as ‘hyperbola. The constants A and B var linearly withthe ae length Asati and B =B +8! (72) ‘Average values of a, 9, B and 8 for arcs in air between ‘Copper electrodes are as follows : = 30V;4= 10 Vim: B= 10VA; 5 = 30 Vale From above Eq, (7.1) itis obvious thatthe volt-ampere ‘Characteristic of an arc voliage is negative ie, arc voltage is high when the are curenis low and vice versa. This i, of course, a well known property of acs. Figure 71 illustrates the characterises of a curent and Voltage with respect to time. I is seen from Fig. 7.1 that the are voltage is almost constant during the time when the current is near its peak values. At current zero, the are voltage rises rapidly to peak vale and this peak valve tends to maintain the cutent flow in the form of ar: nc ‘ouThGe ane feumaewr ee 1 Fig. 1 Voliage and Current Waveforms ofan AC Are ‘The voltage across the arc isin phase with ae cuten as the are curent is predominantly resistive. The magnitude of are voltage increases in each sucessive current loop. This is, ‘because the cit breaker contacts are assumed tobe separating thereby increasing the arc length and therefore the are voltage 7.4. ARC EXTINCTION ‘When current carrying contacts of a circuit breaker are parted, an are i formed, which persists during the bref period after separation of contacts. The ae provides a gradual transition from the current carying to the volage isolating states ofthe contacts, but tis dangerous on account ofthe energy generated init in the form of heat which may result in explosive force ‘The circuit breaker shouldbe capable of extinguishing the arc without causing any damage tothe equipment or danger to persomel. The arc plays a vital role inthe behaviour of the citeuit breaker. The interruption of de arcs is relatively mare difficult than a aes. In ae ares, athe current becomes zero during the regular wave, the ae vanishes and i is prevented from resting Before discussing the methods of are extinction, it is necessary to examine the factors responsible forthe maintenance of are between the contacts. These ae: (f) potential difference between the contacts, and (i ionised panicles between the contact ‘The potential drop between the separating contacts is just. sufficient to maintain the arc and is quite small. One way to extinguish thea isto separate the contacts to such a distance thatthe pd becomes inadequate to maintain the arc, However, this methd is impracticable in high voltage systems where a separation of many metres would be required for this purpose. ‘The conductance of the are is proportional tothe number of electrons per cubic centimetre produced by ionization, the square of the diameter of the arc, and the reciprocal of the length, As already stated above, we cannot do much byg the length of are to any reasonable value. What can i to reduce the density of free electrons, i. reduce the ionization, and decrease the diameter of the are. The arc extinction can, therefore, be facilitated by deionizing the are path. This may be achieved by cooling the are or by bodily removing the ionised particles from the space between the cirevit breaker contacts. 7.4.1. Methods of Arc Extinction ‘There are two methods of arc extinction in circuit breakers. 1, High Resistance Method. In this case the are is controlled in such a way that its effective resistance increases with the time so that the current is reduced to such a value that heat produced by itis not sufficient to maintain the arc and thus the current is interrupted or the arc is extinguished. The rate at Which the resistance is increased or the current is reduced is not abnormal so as to cause harmful induced voltages in the system. Because of the resistive nature of the are discharge, ‘most of the energy in the system will be dissipated within the circuit breaker. Therefore, while designing the circuit breaker, provision of mechanical strength to withstand such sudden release of large quantities of energy must be made. This is the ‘main drawback of this method of arc extinction and so its use restricted to de circuit breakers and air break type ac circuit breakers of relatively low capacities of the order of a few hundred MVA. “The resistance of the arc can be increased by (@ Cooling of arc. Cooling of arc brings about recombination of ionized particles, This increases the arc resistance. Cooling removes the heat from the arc. Cooling is brought about by bringing the arc in contact with cool air. (Gi) Increasing the length of arc. The length of the arc ccan be increased by increasing the gap length between the contacts but it is not practicable to draw the arc out to such a length (may be in metre for ht system) that the voltage available becomes insufficient to maintain the arc. (iii) Reducing the cross section of arc. The cross section of an arc can be reduced by having a small area of contacts or by letting the arc pass through a narrow opening. By reducing the area of cross section of the arc, the voltage necessary 10 maintain the arc is increased. (iv) Spliaing of arc. The resistance of the are can be increased by splitting the arc into a number of small ares in series. Each one of these arcs experiences the effect of lengthening and cooling. The arc can be splitted up by introducing some conducting plates between the contacts. Inthe ‘ther method of splitting of arc the arc is forced into an arrangement of splitters by which the arc is lengthened and the cooling is improved because of contacts with the spliters. 2. Low Resistance or Current Zero Interruption. This method is applicable only in ac circuit iterrption because theres natural zero of current 100 times ina second for 50 Hz 3-phase supply system. This property of ac circuit is exploited for interruption purposes and the current is not allowed to rise again after a zero occurs. Also itis neither necessary nor desirable to cut off > Switchgear and Ps the current at any other point on the ae wave because induce high voltages in the system. In this method the arc resistance fs kept 1ow unt current is 2er0 where the arc extinguishes naturally ang prevented from restriking afer it has gone out at a ex zero, This method of arc extinction is employed in all modem high power ac circuit breakers. ' ‘The phenomenon of arc extinction is explained by ty | theories as follows: | (i) Energy Balance or Cassie Theory. This theory states | that if the rate of heat dissipation between the contacts is | greater than the rate at which heat is generated, the arc will be extinguished, otherwise it will restike. The heat generated | varies from time to time depending upon the separation of breaker contacts. Initially when the contacts are about to open, the restiking voltage is zero and, therefore, the heat generated is zero. Again when the contacts are fully open, the resistance between the contacts is also infinite and hence the heat generated is zero. Between these two limits the heat generation reaches a maximum. Now if the heat so generated could be removed by cooling, lengthening and spliting the are at arate higher than that of generation, the ac is extinguished. (li) Recovery Rate oF Slepian’s Theory. This theory states that ifthe rat at which the ions and electrons combine to form or are replaced by neutral molecules Le, the rate at which the ap recovers its dielectric strength is faster than the rate at Which voltage stress rises, the arc will be extinguished ; if otherwise the arc may be interrupted for a brief period but it again restrikes, This theory assumes thatthe restiking voltage and build-up of dielectric strength are independent quantities. ‘This assumption is not quite true because the dielectric strength calculations do not agree with the observed value, In an ac system current drops to zero after every half cycle. At every current zero, the arc extinguishes for a bret period. Now the medium between the breaker contacts contains fons and electrons so that it has small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising contact voltage eal the restriking voltage. If such a breakdown does occur, te a will persist for another half cycle when the process wil be repeated. If immediately after the current zero, the dieecie strength of the medium between breaker contacts is bil wp ‘more rapidly than the voltage across the contacts, the ac fais to restike and the current will be interrupted. The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero cen be achieved by either causing the ionised particles in the spat between contacts 10 recombine into neutral molecules & sweeping the ionized particles away and replacing them by un-ionised particles. The problem is, therefore, to remove He ions and electrons either by causing them to recombine isa neutral molecules or by sweeping them away, as soon 25 the current becomes zero, o that rising contact voltage o reskin? voltage cannot breakdown the space between the contats Ths can be achieved by the following methods : (a) Lengthening of the gap. The dielectric strength ost-zero resistance is proportional to the length of te £7 between the breaker contacts, So lengthening by rapid orekt ihe break a jength 18 enetBy erations, e.g, and lity of transient voltages due to current ee ereasing the pressure in the vicinity of the arc. ; b) asing the pressure the density of particles constituting By i rge also increases. The increased density of particles une disc? her rate of deionization and thus the dielectric strength cause’ mediu between the contacts is increased. oO Cooling. If the particles are allowed to cool the natural mbination of ionized particles will take place more rapidly ulting increase in dielectric strength of the medium. Cooling nduction to adjacent parts, e.g., baffles or by the use of ydrogen that has a high diffusion and heat therefore, effective. by col e such as hy ‘ absorption rate 1S, @ Blast Effect. By blowing a stream of air through the arc ionized particles between the contacts are swept away and by un-ionised particles. These un-ionised particles replaced - s increase the dielectric strength of the medium considerably. Extinction of de arc is much difficult than that of an ac arc because in an ac circuit the current wave passes through the zero point twice during each cycle i.e., 100 times in a second but in de circuit the full current has to be broken. When a direct current passing through a highly inductive circuit is broken, the arc tends to persist, this tendency is more marked if the voltage is high. Once an arc is formed between two points, the air molecules in the path become extremely hot and get ionized, i.e., the normal insulation property of the air is destroyed and the hot air molecules become conductors of electricity. Therefore, the arc is maintained even if the contacts are further drawn apart, resulting ultimately in a flash-over. The heat generated by an arc is intense. To overcome this difficulty, several methods have been devised. When small currents are involved, the contacts are broken quickly before the air can get ionised. When heavier currents are to be broken, the arc is blown off by creating a magnetic field having the property of deflecting the arc. The magnetic field is created by blow-out coils through which the current to be broken flows. The arc path is deflected until it is blown upwards in special are chutes.STRIKING VOLIAGE INANDIEN! a power system is an oscillatory network so that i is logical to expect that the interruption of fault current will a rise to a transient whose frequency depends on the Brastants of the circuit. Let us consider a simple circuit, having a circuit breaker CB, as illustrated in Fig. 7.7 (a) and that a short circuit occurs on the feeder close to the bus-bars. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 7.7 (b). Let L be the inductance per phase of the system up to the fault point, R be the resistance per phase of the system up to the fault point and C be the capacitance to earth of circuit breaker porcelain bushing. Consider the opening of a circuit breaker under fault conditions shown in simplified form in Fig. 7.7 (b). Before current interruption, the capacitance C is short-circuited by the fault and the short-circuit current through the breaker is limited by resistance R and inductance L of the system. If R is negligible compared to L, the short-circuit current i will lag behind the system voltage v by 90°, as illustrated in Fig. 7.7 (c). 7,6. RE plectricallyaus. BAR + FEEDER (@) SHORT-CIRCUT NEUTRAL PEAK RESTRIKING VOLTAGE RESTAIKING VOLTAGE a VA Vous CURRENI system VOLTAGE, V ARC. VOLTAGE (c) Operation of a Circuit Breaker Fig. 7.7 With the contacts opened and the arc broken, current i is diverted through capacitance C so that the voltage v, which has so far been effective only across the inductance L, is suddenly applied to the inductance L and capacitance C in series which form an oscillatory circuit, having a natural frequency. ae So= eye (7.8) ‘The initial charging current surge tends to carry the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore across the circuit breaker contacts to double its equilibrium value i.e, 2V,,..3 this is the restriking voltage transient which tends to re-establish the arc in the circuit breaker. These frequencies are of the order of 10 to 10 kHz depending upon the values of L and C. The actual power system is composed of distributed capacitances and inductances. The circuit configuration is also complex. The restriking voltage transient for such circuits can have several component frequencies ranging from a few Hz to several kHz. 7.6.1. Expression For Restriking Voltage Transient When the breaker contacts are opened and the arc finally extinguishes at some current zero, a voltage v is suddenly applied across capacitor and therefore, across the circuit breaker contacts. Thé current i which would flow to the fault is not injected in the capacitor and inductor. Thus ieiti, ai dy ois paredAt 2 a“ in Assi tuner ai a (7.10) “The solution of this standard equation is cosh cos 21/1) 1M eg] = 0 “fom a 08) le = 2, = ‘The above expression is the expression for restriking voltage where V,,,. is the peak value of recovery voltage (phase~ to-neutral), ris time in seconds, L is inductance in henrys, C nee in farads and v is the restriking voltage in ‘The maximum value of restriking voltage is 2Vj,q, and 2 ort = vie. occurs at ¢ 7.6.2. Classification of Restriking Transients Restriking voltage transients, and consequently their respective circuits can generally be placed under two main categories. ( Single Frequency Oscillatory Transients. The single frequency restriking voltage transient is produced in the circuit illustrated in Fig. 7.7(b). The voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 7.7 (c). (i) Double Frequency Transients. Ibis quite possible that the circuit breaker may have L and C on its both sides. as illustrated in basic circuit given in Fig. 7.8 (a). Before clearing the fault, both terminals | and 2 are at the same potential. After the fault is cleared, Le, the are has been extinguished, both the circuits oscillate at their own natural frequencies and a composite double frequency transient appears across the circuit breaker pole. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.8. (6). Characteristics of Restriking Voltage The important characteristics of restriking voltage which affect the performance of the circuit breaker are: (®) Amplitude factor. The amplitude factor is defined as the ratio of the peak of transient voltage to the peak system frequency voltage. (a) Baste Cirewit YOUTAAE. © comment: (b) Current and Voltage Waveforms Double Frequency Restriking Transient Fig. 78 (ii) Rate of Rise of Restriking Voliage (RRRV). It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage and is expressed in KV/jts. It may be defined as the slope of the steepest tangent tothe restriking voltage curve. For a restriking voltage having a single frequency transient component the RRRV jis obtained by dividing the maximum amplitude of the oscillation by the duration of the first half wave. Higher values of natural frequencies can be related with higher rates of rise of restriking voltage, It is clear that other things being equal, the duty of circuit breaker is much more severe whes employed in a network of higher natural frequency than on a network of low natural frequency. This is because the average RRRV is much greater in te former case. In the latter case the voltage across te circuit breaker contacts rises slowly thereby giving longer time for building up of the dielectric strength. 7.6.4. Expression For RRRV The expression for the restriking voltage has already beea derived in An. 7.6.1 and is given as ¥ = Va ( 1-c0s7b ) (vege aw oY, and RRRV = 4 Nous int a” Yue Tee RRRV will be maximum when 048 sine = ores Z, ican 2 Hence maximum value of RRRV, RRRV,., = Yiu 0.8) 7 i VEC Further, the peak restriking voltage oceurs when ¥ is maxi 6 ’ G00 singe womrenieae } qe Brcotins. 2 gactors Affecting Restriking Voltage 165 Characteristics coment 210, te ntl rate of rise and peak vale ofthe ater gage sessing the contact gap depend pon the respon ofthe network, is natural frequency and on the see nes Gn srs On paw a fx main capacitance), a8 shown in Fig. 7.9. Because of eo of resistance dampening ofthe rate of rise of resting reais quite Ingial. The true nature of atenuaton is quite rola ated because the losses depend on several factors such mm gucor resistance, iron loss, diclectrc loss, corona, eto, seompetrs depend on frequency and voltage in diferent wy ew a (Wik Resistances (i) Wh Resinances in nS he Crew Parallel Wih the Creal Copacizance Capacitance (a) Typical Switching Cirewits AESTAKING VoUTAcE CURVE With RESISTANCES senies With THe CIRC ‘CAPACITANGE {serena LTAGE CURVE fo win nesisrances w / aieaeem ine INCU EAPACHANGE Tme,1 ——> o Fig. 79 ‘Ina network consisting of generators, transformers, reactors ‘nd transmission line, each of them exerts its own damping. Usually the attenuation due to them is too small to be relied pon for improvement in the breaker performance. Where high RRV are expected circuit breakers with shunt resistances are employed. Now for ensuring exponential build up of voltage S085 the breaker to the SOHz recovery voltage, without Sretshoot, instead of exhibiting the oscillatory doubling effect ‘Scociated with an undamped circuit, the value of resistance Re requted to achieve critical damping is HUE - Figure 7.10 ilustates the striking voltage critically damped and other ‘lated waveshapes, "can thus be inferred that the shunt resistance across the roe Modifies the oscillatory restriking voltage into an ‘otic wave. This entails the arc to be extinguished even though the dielectric strength ofthe gap increases only relatively slowly as a result of severe shor circuit. Inclusion ofthe shunt resistor thus increase the rupturing capacity of the breaker. oREASING DltecrAIC StHENGTH oF consaer GP AFTER WTERRUPTION (OF ARELATIVELY CaN RAMEL eur MCREASNO OLECTING Smewaty oF conte AFTER mnennurrion OF nemivety Lance Fautt cunnent Gesrma vous Foutowi oscicarony AW WiTH NO RESISTANCE Prattey AtrenwAToR, VOLTAGE, cdaneNt CcrmicaunY paureo AesraxinG VOUIAGE WITH SHUNT S O° Pistwe rom oF nrenséction oF cunves ~ ‘OF RESTAMING VOLTAGE AnD RECOVERY e Dietectnic sraeNeTH Fig. 7.10. Cridcally Damped Restriking Voltage and Other Related Waveshapes fray witwour RESISTOR aUPrusing L cgexcrry wirw P| nuPTUANG ‘caeAciTY watHoUT esiston tm aUPTURING CAPACITY na — nan wivis —> Vana | “sninr heaton rT ee FREQUENEY te Fig. 741. RRRV and Rupturing Capacity of an ABCB Expressed as a Function of Natural Frequency Figure 7.11. shows the relation of RRRV and rupturing capacity of an air blast circuit breaker with and without shunt resistors as a function of natural frequency. Without shunt resistance RRRV is directly proportional to the natural frequency of the circuit, and the rupturing capacity of the breaker therefore drops rapidly with the increase in frequencies In the case of breaker with shunt resistance the RRRV cannot exceed a certain value determined by the resistor and hence the rupturing capacity does not drop to that extent. For higher values of natural frequencies the advantage gained in the rupturing capacity is more. A. 50 Hz, 11 KY generator Is connected toa power 3nd 0.02 uF respectively Calculate a) the maximum vollage neross ihe contacts of the circut breaker at an instant when It passes124 through zero (b) frequency of transient oscillation (c) average rate of rise of voltage up to the first peak of oscillation, Neglect resistance. Urb. Uni, Elee.Power IL (Switchgear and Provection) Dec. 1990 Solution : (a) Active recovery voltage (phase-to-neutral) Maximum restriking voltage (phase-to-ne! = 2x 898 = 17.96 KV Ans. (0) Frequency of transient oscillation ive recovery voltage ee 1 2nVLC anfiox10™ x0.02 x10 = 11.254 kHz Ans. ‘The average rate of rise of rise of restriking voltage up to the first Maximum restriking voltage Time up to first peak f peak is given as and first peak restriking voltage occurs atr= RVLC [Referto Eg. (7.15)] Average rate of rise of restriking voltage 17.96 Vw = nJic 10x10 x 0.0210 = 0.404 KV/jis Ans. Example 7.2. A single-phase equivalent circuit for studying the recovery vollage when a CB clears a fault is given below (Fig. 7.12). ‘Compute average value of rate of rise of restriking voltage (RRRV). ¥(0) = 11,000 cos 314r volts L = 1mH C = 400 pF Fault “ ©: Fig, 712 [U.PS.C.LES, Electrical Engineering I, 2009] Solution : Maximum restriking voltage (phase-to-neutral) = 2 x 11,000 = 22,000 V “Vous = 1,000 V ‘mH = 0.001 H © = 400 pF = 400 x 10°? F ‘Average rate of rise of restriking voltage ‘Maximum restriking voltage aLC _ 22,000 yo.001 x40 x 107? = 11,072 Vius or 11.072 kis Ans. Example 7.3. In a short-circuit test on a circuit breaker, the following data was obtained on a frequency transient. (@ Time to reach the peak restriking voltage 55 ps. Gi) The peak restriking voltage 100 kV. ~ Switchgear afd Prot Determine the (a) natural frequency of the ci (b) average rate of rise of restriking voltage. Solution : From Eq. (7.15) time to reach the first peak rex voltage is given as rest nVLC = 55 x 10° second cuit a king ' (a) Natural frequency of the circuit ———— 2x55x10% = 9,091 Hz or 9.091 kHz Ans, (b) Average rate of rise of restriking voltage Peak restriking voltage Time to reach peak restriking voltage 1 an Jie 100 = 10 ~ 1.82 kvis Ans. 10 = 1.82 kV/us Al Example 7.4. In a short-circuit test on a 3-pole, 110 kV cireui breaker pf of the fault was 0.4, the recovery voltage was 0.95 times 1¢ value. The breaking current was symmetrical. The frequency of oscillation of restriking voltage was 15,000 c/s. Estimate the average rate of rise of restriking voltage. The neutral is grounded and the fault involves earth. (Pb. Univ. Elec, Power III (Switchgear and Protection) June 1993) Solution : The peak value of line-to-neutral voltage, 10 y, t= me = Power factor, cos = 0.4 Power factor angle, = Cos" 0.4 = 66.42" Sin = Sin 66.42° = 0.9165 Recovery voltage is 0.95 times peak value. From Eq, (7.6) the active recovery voltage is given as V, = K,KiK Vic sin volts where K; is multiplying factor due to system voltage and is equal 10095 K; is a condition or phase factor and is unity in this case since the fault involves ground, Ky is unity for recovery voltage between phase and neutral 9.8 KV So recovery voltage (from line-to-neutral), V, =0.95 x 1 x 1 x 89.8 x 0.9165 78.2-KV (instantaneous). Time to reach the peak restriking voltage, te ni = afte L Fx15,000 33.33 js 2x recovery voltage _ 2X 78.2 r 33.33 = 4,692 kV/us Ans. a ha Average RRRV = Example 7.5. In a short-circuit test on a 3-pole, 132 kV CB, the following observations are made : Pf of fault 0.4, the recovery voltage 0.90 times full-Kine val, the breaking current symmetrical, the frequency of oscillationreakind ge 16 kl. Assume that the neutral is grounded ai gs na ole round, determine the average rate fob We estriking voltage. ne Ee over Swear & Proton duly 1950) MN peal value of line-o-neural voltage, Jon so! 132 Vou? ag factor duc (0 system voltage, ins = 09 x2 = 107.78 ky, oooag eR ae K, = 1.5 a8 the fault does not involve ground k=! or, Cos = 04, 6 = Cost 04 = 642° sin = Sin 642° = 0.9165 voltage, V, = Ky Ky, Ky Vas Si 6 = 09x 1.5 x 1 x 107.78 x 0.9165 = 13335 kV rine eae he peak restiking vlog, power fi tive 080 2133.35 31.25 verge RRRV 535 kVijs Ans. example 16. A $0 Hz 3-phase alternator with grounded neutral fasan inductance of 1.6 mH per phase and is connected to the uchars through a circuit breaker. The capacitance to earth of, the circuit between the alternator and the circuit breaker is {10032 uF per phase. Due to a short on the bus-bars the breaker fpens when the rms value of the current is 8,000 A. Determine the following = @ Frequency of oscillations (i) Active recovery voltage (a) Time for maximum RRRV and (iv) Maximum RRRV. Solution : () Frequency of oscillation, 1 1 2mJEC © am i.6x107 x0.0032 x10 = 70:34 kHz Ans. 8,000.8 Reactance = 2n f= 28 50 16 « 10" Recovery vollges Shorucrut caren x reactance = 8000 x 0.5026 = 4021 V rms ( Active recovery vliag, Vaan = VP x 4021 25,687 V (ine t-neurl) Ans Gi Time to attain maximum RRRV, according to Eq, (7.13), t= ENC 2 = F fi.6x107 «0.003210 = 3.55 ps Ans. (>) Maximum RRRV, according to Eg. (7.14), Ver 5,687 RRRY, St VEC fi6x10 x0.0032%10° 513 KVins Ans.4.8. RESISTANCE SWITCHING A deliberate connection of a resistance in parallel with contact space (or arc) is called the resistance switch Resistance switching is employed in circuit breakers hay” high post zero resistance of contact space (i.e., air blast Cireyjy breakers). We have seen in previous sections that severe voltage oscillations occur due to (i) breaking of low inductive curren, (ie, current chopping) and (ii) breaking of capacitive currents ‘This may endanger the operation of the system. This can be avoided by employing resistance switching (by connecting a resistor across the contacts of the circuit breaker). On occurrence of fault, the contacts of the circuit breaker open and an arc is struck between the contacts. With the are shunted by the resistance R a part of arc current is diverted through this resistance. This result in the decrease of arc current and an increase in the rate of deionization of the arc path Thus the arc resistance is increased leading to a further increase in current through the shunt resistance R. This build up process continues until the current becomes so small that it fails to maintain the arc. Now the arc is extinguished and the circuit current gets interrupted. (a) Circuit Diagram OSCILLATORY AESTRIKING VOLTAGE . RECOVERY VOLTAGE VOLTAGE» DAMPED RESTRIKING VOLTAGE ——TiMe,t —> (b) Fig. 7.18. Resistance Switching i Alternatively, the resistance may be automatically i fe in by transference of the arc from the main ae . probe contact as in the case of an axial blast circu ally IS the time required for this action is very small (USM! Toy than one half-cycle of the current wave). Having ye gh substituted by a metallic path, the current flowing resistance is limited and then easily broken.pr gi eo ee ; cal resistor connections are shown in Fig. 7.19, PATIO a second break is provided to break pedi 19 Fi pa Fig. 7-19 ©) the gaps are so arranged thatthe moving a fialy breaks the resistor elements. In Fig. 7.19 (c) the ont a across fixed and moving contacts F and M 20 8 Mipen transferred across fixed and probe contacts we ‘and then broken there, Fi a . (a) () a . oT Altay BREAK co) 1.149. Typical Resistor Connections For Ae Interruption ‘The shunt resistor also helps in limiting the oscillatory gonth of resting voltage transients. It ean be proved tically that the natural frequency of oscillations of the raut shown in Fig. 7.18 (a) is given as =i ff 7a folie wae ‘The effect of shunt resistor R is to prevent the oscillatory of restriking voltage and cause it to grow exponentially tp to recovery voltage, This is being most effective when the talue of R is so chosen that the circuit is critically damped. ‘he value of R required for critical damping is 0 JE/C Figue 7.18 (8) shows the oscillatory growth and exponential spowth when the circuit is critically damped. ‘To sum up, resistors across breaker contacts may be used tp perform any one or more of the following functions. 1. Itreduces the RRRV and thus reduces the burden on the circuit breaker. 2. Itensures the damping of the high frequency restriking voltage transients during switching out inductive or capacitive loads. 4. Ina multi-break circuit breaker it helps in distributing the transient recovery voltage more uniformly across all the contact gaps. (7.18) The resistors employed may be either nonlinear or wire ‘wound. Nonlinear resistors are suitable both from space and relbilty considerations for small shunt currents where wire resistors tend to be less satisfactory from mechanical siderations. Where heavy currents are involved there may difficulty in accommodating the relatively large volume of es ited resistor material. Nonlinear resistors are not suitable for modification of the and of the voltage peak as are linear resistors, but they specially suited to voltage equalization and overvoltage Pression applications in which relatively small currents of the order of 1-10 A at normal peak voltage are adequate. 129 In the plain break oil circuit breakers (tank type) the post- ero resistance of the contact space is low. Hence resistance Switching is not necessarily required. The performance at low currents can, however, be improved by employing resistance switching and it is sometimes employed when interrupting & small current, the value of reactance in the circuit will tend to be so high that the inductance L in the expression for the critical resistance will be larger, resulting in resistors of the order of thousands of ohms. ‘The post-zero resistance of air blast circuit breaker is high. This may result in severe voltage transients due to current chopping. Hence the resistance switching is employed. The auxiliary contacts here are replaced by isolating contacts, which are parts of air circuit breakers. Example 7.7. In a system of 132 KY, the circuit phase to ground capacitance is 0.02 HF and the circuit inductance is 5H. The ireuit breaker interrupts a magnetising current of 5 A (peak). Find: ( The voltage across the circuit breaker contacts after the ccurrent interruption. (di) The value of resistance to be used across the contacts to suppress restriking voltage. Solution : (i) Voltage across the circuit breaker contacts after the interption of 5 A curent cL 3 JE = = 79,000 V or 79 kV Ans. c 0.02 «10% Refer to Eq, (7.16) (id) Value of resistance to be used across the breaker contacts to suppress restiking voltage c 0.02 x10°6 Example 7.8. In a 220 kV system, the reactance and capacitance up to the location of circuit breaker are 8 © and 0.025 HF respectively. A resistance of 600 0 is connected across the contacts, of the circuit breaker. Determine the following : ( Natural frequency of oscillation ; Gi) Damped frequency of oscillation (ii) Critical value of resistance which will give no transient oscillation 5 (Gv) The value of resistance which will give damped frequency of oscillation, one fourth of the natural frequency of oscillation. [AMLE. Sec. B. Advanced Power Systems Summer 2000] Solution : System capacitance up to CB, C = 0.025 x 10 F Xi. 8S = 000854 System inductance up © CB. L= 38 = Faseap Resistance connected across breaker contacts, R = 600 2 (Natural frequency of oscillation, 1 1 fh = 2nVLC an 0.025 x10 x 0.0255 = 63 kHz Ans,8.5. AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS ‘The drawbacks of the oil circuit breakers are the fire risk due the inflammable oil, the deterioration of the oil, necessitating periodic replacement, and the difficulty of reaching the contacts for maintenance purposes. This led to the development of circuit breakers using compressed air or gas as the interrupting medium. Though gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen or freon can be used as the arc interrupting medium but compressed air is the accepted circuit breaking medium for gas blast circuit breakers. The reasons are given below: Nitrogen has circuit breaking properties similar compressed air and there is no added advantage of using it. Carbon dioxide has the drawback of its being difficult to control owing to freezing at valves and other restricted passages. No doubt hydrogen has increased breaking capacity but it is costlier and needs ancillary apparatus. Freon has high dielectric strength and good arc extinguishing properties. but it is expensive and it is decomposed by the arc into acid forming elements. The desirable features to be found in air blast circuit breakers are: to 1. High Speed Operation, which is very necessary on large interconnected networks in order that system stability can be maintained and in the air blast circuit breaker this is achieved because the time interval between the receipt of a tripping impulse (derived from the protective gear applied) and contact separation is very short. Once the contacts part and an are is drawn it should, ideally, be interrupted in the shortest possible time and this time duration should be reasonably consistent at all values of current which the circuit breaker may be called upon to break i.e., from small line charging or transformer magnetising current up to the highest value of fault current. This the air blast circuit breaker does and arc durations throughout the current range are of the order of one-half to one cycle. In the oil circuit breakers this consistency rarely exists and because the deionisation processes are largely | dependent on the current value, it is usual to find longer arcing times at low current values than at the higher values | and that the whole range of arcing times is higher in the air | blast design. | 2. Suitability For Frequent Operation. Repeated switching [by an air blast circuit breaker is possible simply because of ‘absence of oil, which rapidly carbonises with frequent operation, and because there is an insignificant amount of wear and tear at the current-carrying contact surfaces. But it must be152 remembered that iff frequent switching is anticipated, the miintensnce of en adequate air supply is essential. | Facility of High-speed Reclosure. High-speed reclosure iby aptomatic means is an advantage on hy interconnected networks to assist and maintain system stability during the ‘clearance of transient faults, a type of fault which is perheps jn mafority on overhead lines. Provided that the time interval henveen fault intemuption and reclosure is chosen to permit insulation recovery. then 2 system can often be restored to normal by breaker reclosure, the cause of the interruption (Gnsulstor or line flash-over) having diseppeared. The low ineria of the moving contacts in air blast circuit breakers and the relative ease with which compressed air mechanisms can be reversed, all help in very short restoration times being achieved. 4. Negligible Maintenance. The ability of the air blast circuit breaker to cope with repeated switching also means thet negligible maintenance is required. For example, the relatively large quantities of dielectric ofl essential in the oil circuit breaker needs an installation of oil filtering plant and very regular trestment of oil. No such requirement arises with an air blast circuit breaker. 5, Elimination of Fire Hazard. Because of absence of oil the Fisk of fire is eliminated. 6 Reduced Size. The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid in air blast circuit breakers thet final gep required for arc extinction is very small. This reduces the size of the device. Drawbacks of Air Blast Circuit Breakers. Against the formidable array of advantages mentioned above, however, it is worthwhile to note that compressed air t the comect pressure, clean and dry, must be available at all times, involving in the largest installation of a plant with two or more compressors and an excessive ir supply network in the form of a ring main cc duplicate bus system. The maintenance and upkeep of this plant and the problem of air leakages at the pipe fittings are factors which operate against air blast circuit breakers in many (smaller) installations and it is a costly adjunct for low-voltage systems 2s compared with the use of oil or air break circuit, breakers. Because of fixed air pressure, it is obviously available regardless of the magnimde of current to be interrupted by the breaker. It must naturally, be sufficient to deal with the highest valve of anticipated fault current, but this means that it can be very drastic in its effect on small currents and the problem of current chopping arises leading to serious overvoliages, as, Sensitivity of the air blast circuit breaker to circuit severity, the rate of rise of resriking voltage. Many of the air blast circuit breakers (and some very high voltage circuit breakers) ‘overcome this problem by resort to resistance switching where- in external resistors are automatically connected in shunt with the contact gap and thereby damp out very high restriking voltage transients caused by current chopping. - ot all air blast circuit breakers incorporate resistance _ switching. It is usual in the desiga known as axial blast and oo” Switchgear and Pi is less frequently employed in the design known a blast. bs During the period 1950-1970, air Bast cit trey, were preferred for 220 kV and above. However today ¢ circuit breakers, which are maintenance free and of supe switching performance, are prefered for this range. For 11 yt and 33 kV applications vacuum cireuit breakers are prefemsy Thus air blast circuit breakers have become almost obsolag Principle of Arc Excitation in Air Blast Circy, Breakers. The air blast circuit breaker requires an auxlin, compressed air system which supplies air to the breaker ai, receiver. When opening is required, compressed air is admitteg to the are extinction chamber. It pushes away the moving contacts. In doing so the contacts are separated and the ai blast takes away the ionized gases along with it and assist are extinction. Air blast extinguish the arc within one or two. cycles and the arc chamber is filled with high pressure air,” which prevents restrike. In some low capacity circuit breakers the isolator is an integral part of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker opens and immediately after that isolator opens to provide additional gap. In EHV switchyards, isolators are generally independently mounted. The air blast circuit breakers fall under the category of extemal extinguishing encrgy type. The energy supplied for ‘arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is independent of current to be interrupted. ‘Types of Air Blast Circuit Breakers. All air blast circuit breakers follow the principle of separating their contacts in g flow of air established by the opening of a blast valve. The arc which is drawn is usually rapidly positioned centrally through a nozzle where it is kept to a fixed length and ig subject to maximum scavenging by the air flow. The air blast circuit breakers, according to the type of flow of blast of compressed air around the contacts are of three types namely (i axial (i) radial and (if) cross blast. The different ways of flow of the blast of compressed air around the contacts are shown in Fig. 8.14. |e leontacr e| yes [ee Dust a) ee worms contact contser | fuowne coxrner| conracr (2) Axial Blast (b) Radial Blast ——_(c) Cros Blt Fig. 8.14. Methods of Flow of Blast Compressed Air Around The Contacts Axial or radial blast seems to be favoured for the higher voltages although cross blast breakers particularly for volages of about 15 kV and heavy current (up to 100,000 A) hive Proved satisfactory and need less air than would an axial blast circuit breaker at such high currents 1, Axial Blast Air Circuit Breaker. In axial blast type circu breaker, the flow of air is longitudinal along the #°(oy Axil Mast circuit breakers may be single Bas (ee rar (Fig. 8.14 CO}. Breakers employing double Mle Ont are sometimes called radial blast circuit 8 at Mow ally into the noe or space edt contacts een Mental components of @ typical axial blast circuit ‘The eset wn in Fig. 8.15. The fixed and moving contacts restr a oced position by spring pressure under normal tld in Siions. The air reservoir tank is connected to cea ner though an st valve, Which is opened by a eins impulse. igron wovns a2co AL concr soma sims. ‘Cteanaee ctosme FoR oFenarng amyaveoreneo ay —senies |] voice’ Snipe mipulse ‘souaton| | 7” Fig. 815. Axial Blast Air Circuit Breaker On occurrence of a fault, the tripping impulse causes cgexng of the air valve connecting the reservoir tothe arcing thamber. Te air entering the arc chamber exerts pressure on the moving contacts which moves when the air pressure taceeds the spring force. The moving contact is separated and th are is stuck. The air flowing at a high speed axially along the arc causes removal of heat from the periphery of the are andthe diameter of the arc reduces to a low value at current zero. At this instant the are is interrupted and the contact space is flushed with fresh air following through the nozzle. ‘The flow of fresh air through the contact space ensures removal of hot gases and rapid building up of dielectric strength. ‘ter the brief duration of airflow, the interrupter is filled with high pressure air. The dielectric strength of air increases with ‘pessue, Thus the fresh high pressure air in the contact space is capable of withstanding the transient recovery voltage. Itis noteworthy here thatthe air pressure form the reservoir is maximum initially and falls thereafter. It is known that for aparicular reservoir pressure there is a certain optimum contact at which rupturing capacity is maximum. This gap is usually small (ten of mm) and may reach very quickly if the moving, Pats are of small inertia. The shorter the gap, relatively smaller ‘mounts of energy are released in the arcing chamber. The arc is kept in the high velocity blast of air converging into the ‘ozze throat, The falling reservoir pressure and short optimum, ‘2p result in three important features of the axial blast principle. 1. The interruption must take place at the first current zero ‘fier the optimum gap has reached otherwise restrikes may take place at subsequent zeros of current due to ccreasing pressure. In oil circuit breakers itis otherwise, ie, chances of interruption increase if arcing exists beyond the frst current zero. The axial blast circuit breaker gives high speed clearance because of the small gap required for interruption. This i, Rm 153 desirable for improving transient stability on by Uansmission and interconnection networks. ‘The small contact gep after interruption may constitute inadequate clearance for the normal system voltage. Therefore, an isolating switch is incorporated as a part of this circuit breaker. This switch opens immediately after fault interruption to give the necessary clearance for insulation For low voliages the isolating switch is not needed, an adequate travel is provided instead for the moving contact. The arcing time of arc controlled circuit breaker varies considerably depending upon the breaking current. The higher the breaking current (within the rating of the breaker), the smaller the arcing time. The arcing time in case of ir blast circuit breaker is independent of the breaking current dae 1 fixed air pressure and the optimum small contact gap. The short gap along with an isolating switch provides a taal break time of 2 to 5 cycles. ‘The operation of the air blast circuit breaker is very much affected by the circuit natural frequency. When the current is passing through zero value the residual column has relatively high resistance which reduces the chances of the restriking voltage transient being damped. Now the effect of RRRV during this zero current condition is more serious especially where the chance of extinction decreases after the optimam gap has reached. The effect of natural frequency on the performance of the air blast circuit breaker is overcome by shunting the arc with resistors of suitable values. 2. Cross Blast Air Circuit Breaker. In such a breaker, an ir blast is directed at right angles to the arc. aac spurns AY Movng. < contact sae Foes contacr orenne ray @ ee The principle used in the cross blast type air circuit breakers is fundamentally different from the axial blast one. ‘The schematic representation of the principle of cross blast air circuit breaker is given in Fi 8.16. A moving contact arm operates in close proximity to an arc chute to draw an arc which is forced by a transverse blast of air into the splitter plates within the are chute, thereby lengthening it to the point when it cannot restrike after current zero. The consistent high speed operation of the axial blast type is not reproduced in this type, but as the air blast is constant regardless of current ‘magnitude, it is quite efficient in switching small currents.154 Because the moving arm ix not restricted (relatively) in its travel, full isolation is obtained without the need for a series isolator as in other types, Resistance switching is not normally required as the Iengthening of are automatically introdu resistance to control the restriking voltage transient but if extra resistance is thoughtdesirable, itis possible to introduce it by connecting it in sections across the are spliters. 8.6, SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF,) CIRCUIT BREAKERS In circuit breakers discussed so far (oil circuit breakers, air break circuit breakers and air blast circuit breakers) the extinguishing ively slowly after the moment of contact \ hence the arc is usually extinguished after a few half cycles of current have passed zero. ‘The prevention are re- ignition needs a high dielectric strength of the are path and its fast recovery after current zero. In case of hy circuit breakers, these properties are particularly required to have quick arc extinction and have less time for quick recovery voltage build up. Vacuum circuit breakers and SF, cireuit breakers have better properties in this regard compared to conventional bulk oil, minimum oil as well as air blast circuit breakers. Hence modem trend is to employ vacuum circuit breakers and SF, circuit breakers in hv systems. Oil, an obviously inflammable substance for extinguishing the hot are, is a well proven medium because it releases hydrogen which by virtue of its low mass and high velocity is an excellent cooling medium, But modem circuit breakers employ heavy gas SF, as the medium for quenching the arc, SF, gas, because of its excellent dielectric, arc quenching, chemical and other physical properties, has proved its superiority over other mediums such as oil, or air for use in circuit breakers. Several types of SF, circuit breakers have been developed by different manufacturers during last three decades for rated vollages 3.6 to 760 KV. Before 1970's in bulk oil, minimum oi During 1970's vacuum circuit breakers were introduced for applications up to rated voltage of 36 KV. Single pressure puffer lype SF, breakers were introduced for rated voltages from 3.3 to 760 KV. Faull levels and rated voltages in the power system have increased. The bulk oil breakers, minimum oil breakers, air blast circuit breakers are becoming obsolete now, 8.6.1. Properties of Sulphur Hexafluoride Gas Sulphur hexafluoride (SF,) gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed sulphur in fluorine gas, in a gas-tight steel box, provided with staggered horizontal shelves, each bearing about 4 kg of sulphur. The gas thus obtained contains other fluorides such as SF yo. SF, and must be purified further. SF, gas ‘generally supplied by chemical firms. The gas costs less manufactured on a large scale, ‘The gas is transported in liquid form in cylinders. Before filling the gas, the circuit breaker is evacuated to the pressure The abitiy oF —— Suitchgoat and ig of about 4 mm of metcury $0 28 to remove the mig air, The gas is then filled in the circuit breaker, The A a ‘be reclaimed by the gas handling unit, BAS cay ‘The sulphur hexafluoride gas possesses yer insulating properties and outstanding are-quenahye! characteristics which make it an ideal medium for gin” erruption, ui ‘The physical, chemical and dielectric properties and ap, quenching characteristics of SF, gas are given below: 1. Ibis colourless, odourless, non-toxic and noninflammahe ga 2. This gas is extremely stable and inert, and five times that of air has a thermal conductivity higher (about 2-2.5 times) than that of air and assists in better cooling of curren carrying part 4, The gas starts liquefying at certain low temperatures, The temperature at which the SF, gas changes to liquid state depends on pressure, With higher pressure, this temperature increases. To avoid the liquefaction of SF gas the temperature of SF, should be maintained above certain level. For 15 atm pressure SF, gas starts liquefying at temperature of about 10°C. Thermostatically controled heaters are, therefore, provided so that the gas temperature above about 16°C could be maintained in case of high pressure system. 5. Heat content property at temperatures below 6,000 K is mich higher than that of nitrogen. This assists in cooig of are space after current zero, due to continuous removal of heat from the contact space by the surrounding gx iS density jy 6. ‘The thermal time constant of SF, is low and as a resut the pressure at which it should be stored and used ae relatively smaller as compared to air. 7. Due to the electronegativity* of SF, gas the arc tine ‘constant (the time between current zero and the insta, the conductance of contact space reaches zero value) of SF, gas is very low (S I Hs) and rate of rise of dielects strength is high. Hence SF, circuit breakers can withstand severe RRRV and thus are more suitable for short le faults without switching resistors and can interupl capacitive currents without restriking. 8. It is chemically stable up to SOO%C and does not re! with structural material up to SO0*C. 9. The gas is strongly electronegative, which means that fre electrons are readily removed from a discharge by formation of negative ions through processes by which? free electron is attached to a neutral gas molecule. Te attachment of the electron with the neutral gas molecde may occur in two ways: (0 As direct attachment SF, + &°—> SFe (i) As dissociative attachment SF, +e > SFs+ ‘The negative ions formed are relatively heavier and ‘atom to atract and hold electrons has been designated as its electronegativitysyed to fee electrons and are therefore, onont carters so that ionized SF. has as 8 rena as unionlzed E6865 Such as CR al densi at ny possesses 2 good dielectric strength sty of fast recombination after Es ing te spa is removed. This property te yey efletive im quenching ar. SF is B38 jp mesa effective as air quenching are sis My Tow reactivity and’ does not atack yu pss Exec. The chemical inertness of SF, gas is ! sie switchgear. The life of metallic par, vs ge in SF gs. The components do not get eriorated. Hence the maintenance reduced—the breaker can be operated thout opening for the purpose of es Bh unique sis feed oF det 1s are ie i several years Wil ing. verso very harmful t0 the properties of SF gas. In OF moisture, hydrogen fluoride is formed jisrare 1S Sc esenee OF th can attack the metalic and insulating Soa ee extinction process SF, is decomposed, into sons Spine cpl © form th rial SF, 8 on ey. They form low molecular gaseous sulphur coe and compounds withthe conact metals, fe fores. The percentage of gaseous decomposition ave been found extremely small. These products merany other secondary gaseous reaction products are ‘Mroved from the gas circuit by filters containing activated ‘Janina (ALO3) When the gas is pumped back into the figh pressure tank. ‘The metallic fluorides are good dielectric materials and am therefore, safe for electric equipment. However, they must be removed during periodic maintenance as they sorb moisture and loose their dielectric property. This tappens if the breaker is dismantled during rainy season. 1M, Dielectric strength of SF, gas at atmospheric pressure is 235 times that of air and 30% less than that of dielectric oil At higher pressure the dielectric strength of the gas increases, At pressure about three times the atmospheric pessur, it is more than that of oil. This property permits smaller clearances and small size of equipments for the same voltage level. ‘Actually speaking the dielectric strength of the SF, 28 depends upon the nature of field existing between the electrodes, which in turn depends on the shape and configuration of electrodes, and the gap between the electrodes, The dielectric strength may actually increase to about 5 times depending upon the non-homogeneity of the field. |S. SF, gas maintains high dielectric strength even when diluted by air (nitrogen). 30% SF, and 70% air by volume has a dielectric strength twice that of air at a given Pressure. Below 30% by volume the dielectric strength fals sharply. 155, 8.6.2. Are Extinction in SF, Circuit Breakers The are extinction in SF ci xtnction process in SF, circuit breakers i from that in ae Bast ciel beskens During the arcing period, SF, gas is blown axially along te on ease a ac a faa dissipation. Consequently, the are diameter reduces suing the decreasing node of the current wave. The diameter "comes small during current zero. Turbulent flow is introduced around current zero for extinguishing the arc ue (5 Seay mentioned in the preceding section, SF, 588, due to its electronegativity and low arc time constant, regains its dielectric strength rapidly after the final current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very high and the time constant is very small. SF, is a remarkable medium for arc extinction, The arc extinguishing properties are improved by ‘moderate rates of forced gas flow through the are space. The SF gas at atmospheric pressure can interrupt currents of the ‘order of 100 times the value of those can be interrupted in air with a plain breaker interrupter. ‘The basic requirement in are extinction is not primarily the dielectric strength, but high rate of recovery of dielectric strength. In SF, gas, the dielectric strength is quickly regained, as already explained. Problems connected with current chopping are, therefore minimum. In SF, circuit breakers, the gas is made to flow from a high pressure zone to a low pressure zone through a convergent-divergent nozzle. The nozzle is located such that the gas flows axially over the arc length. The flow of gas attains almost supersonic speed in the divergent portion of the nozzle, thereby the gas takes away the heat from the arc periphery and arc diameter is reduced. Finally the arc diameter becomes almost zero at current zero and the arc is extinguished. ‘The contact space is filled with fresh SF gas and its dielectric strength is rapidly regained because of electronegativity of the gas and turbulent flow of fresh gas in the contact space. 8.6.3. Construction Such a circuit breaker essentially consists of two parts, namely (i the interrupter unit and (i) the gas system. The Interrupter Unit, This unit consists of moving contact and fixed contacts comprising a set of current carrying fingers and an arcing probe. In the close position of the breaker, the fingers make contact round the circumference of the moving contact having the arcing probe enclosed within its hollow end. The contacts are surrounded by interrupting nozzles and blast shield to control the arc displacement and the movement of the hot gas. The moving contact is in the form of hollow nozzle sliding in a second set of spring loaded fingers. Side ‘vents in the moving contact permits the high pressure gas into the main tank, When the moving contact is withdrawn from the fixed finger contacts an arc is struck between the moving nozzle and the arcing probe. With the increasing separation between the contacts the arc is extended and attenuated and it is finally extinguished by the flow of gas from the high pressure to low pressure systems.156 owns. contac ‘onvice cunnent Thansren "FNGERS ons 19 Iwrennderen ugh conract ihnoen” ebeaent wovwe contact aa ‘CROSS:BAR — (a) Imerrapter Head = exten non wearee nisenvone connection agur coupresson| foe rata t Patan ow wesyerew Tpsvsren_|reupeharune icine (0) Gas System SF, Crcult Breaker Fig. 817 ‘The Gas System, The closed circuit gas system [Fig 8.17 (6) costly, it is employed in SF, circuit breakers. Since the gas is reconditioned and reclaimed after each operation of the breaker. Necessary auxiliary system is provided for such ‘purpose. The low and high pressure systems are provided with Tow pressure alarms and a set of lockout switches which give ‘a waming the moment the gas pressure drops below a certain value, failing which dielectric strength will be reduced and are quenching ability ofthe circuit breaker will be endangered. (On reaching danger limit the safety devices immobilise the breaker. The gas is stored in the high pressure chamber at 16 atmospheres while the gas pressure on the low pressure side is 3 atmospheres. Lot of care is required to prevent gas leakages at joints by providing perfect sealing. The temperature is kept 20°C. A heater backed with a thermostat at 16°C is provided in the high pressure chamber to prevent liquefaction of the {gas in the high pressure chamber at Jow temperature. SF, Circuit Breaker With Puffer Piston Principle. SF, Circuit breaker employing puffer piston principle is shown in Fig. 8.18. ‘Switeheat a ‘Wa ihe ptfer-piston principe the SF, are quenny roe daring an erie oreo y meee ‘allached to the moving contacts. The are extine Pi place in the insulating nozzle. A generously dine’ Sy sent earying pth concenticaly ange around contaets permits high load currents to be sccommodgeet q | Prmany ‘connection n PRESSURE EQuau, ‘iawoer OED ARCING ‘eovtact oap cunneNt ‘contact VENTURL wovna cowraer ‘connection ocean even rraysuission | ‘case Le [orenarmatees HINGE Pow operating fob, THREE-POLE petiael SEAL Fig. 818. SF, Circuit Breaker With Puffer-Piston Principe SF, breakers are made from 72-550 kV with ried interrupting current of 20-63 kA and rated current of 1,20 12,000 A. 8.6.4. Advantages of SF, Circult Breakers SF, circuit breakers have the following advantages ove conventional breakers. 1, Excellent insulating, arc-extinguishing, physical ax chemical properties of SF, gas is the greater advantage o SF, circuit breakers. 2. The gas is noninflammable and chemically stable. T# decomposition products are non-explosive ive. there is risk of fire or explosion. Electrical clearances are very much reduced bees high electric srengih of SF