PHYSICS ANNUAL PROJECT

Name -Kaustav Bhattacharjee

Class-XI-A(pure science)
SUB- PHYSICS
School- East point school
 INDEX

• ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

• CERTIFICATE.

• AIM OF THE PROJECT.

• WHAT IS BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE.

• APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE.

• VENTURI METER.

• AIR FLOW ALONG WING.

• DE LAVAL NOZZLE.

• COMPRESSIBLE FLOW.

• INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW.

• DERRIVATION OF THE EQUATION.

• EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

• CONCLUSION.

• BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am over helmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to acknowledge my depth to all those who
have helped me to put these ideas, well above the level of simplicity and into something concrete.I
would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my Physics teacher Mr Biplab Ballav as
well as our principal mam Mrs . Keya Chakraborty who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic (To study of Bernoulli’s principle and its applications) which also
helped me in doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many new things. I am really
thankful to them.Any attempt at any level can ‘t be satisfactorily completed without the support
and guidance of MY parents and friends.
I would like to thank my parents who helped me a lot in gathering different information, collecting
data and guiding me from time to time in making this project, despite of their busy schedules, they
gave me different ideas in making this project unique.

Kaustav Bhattacharjee
Date – 17/01/2023
CLASS-XI-A(PURE SCIENCE)
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Kaustav Bhattacharjee ,A student of class XI-A(PURE SCIENCE).Has
successfully completed the project work on the topic (To study of Bernoulli’s principle and
its applications) under the guardian MR . Biplab Ballav during the year 2022-23 as per the
guidelines issued by CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education)

Signature___________________
 WHAT IS BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPAL
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli’s principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential
energy. The principle is named after the Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel
Bernoulli, who published it in his book Hydrodynamics in Although Bernoulli deduced that
pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler in who derived
Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form. The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows:
when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes
(e.g. thermal radiation) are small and can be neglected.Bernoulli’s principle can be applied
to various types of fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli’s equation. The simple
form of Bernoulli’s equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows and
gases moving at low Mach number). More advanced forms may be applied to compressible
flows at higher Mach numbers. Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of
conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady flow, the sum of all forms of energy in
a fluid is the same at all points that are free of viscous forces. This requires that the sum of
kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy remains constant. Thus an increase in
the speed of the fluid—implying an increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic pressure)—
occurs with a simultaneous decrease in (the sum of) its potential energy (including the
static pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing out of a reservoir, the sum of all
forms of energy is the same because in a reservoir the energy per unit volume (the sum of
pressure and gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere. Bernoulli’s principle can
also be derived directly from Isaac Newton’s second Law of Motion. If a small volume of
fluid is flowing horizontally from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure,
then there is more pressure behind than in front. This gives a net force on the volume,
accelerating it along the streamline.Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their
own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the
speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region
of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be
because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure.
Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the
pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.
 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE.
Some of the applications are:
▪ Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an airfoil, if the behaviour of
the fluid flow in the vicinity of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top
surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air flowing past the bottom surface,
then Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be lower
above than below. This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting force. Whenever
the distribution of speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces
can be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's equations,[24] which were
established by Bernoulli over a century before the first man-made wings were used for the
purpose of flight.

▪ The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a venturi to create a region of
low pressure to draw fuel into the carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air.
The low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the
narrow throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.

▪ The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to determine the airspeed of the
aircraft. These two devices are connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the
dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate
the airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed appropriate to the dynamic
pressure.
▪ A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to create a force by turning pressure energy
generated by the combustion of propellants into velocity. This then generates thrust by way
of Newton's third law of motion.
▪ The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such as a Venturi meter or
an orifice plate, which can be placed into a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a
horizontal device, the continuity equation shows that for an incompressible fluid, the
reduction in diameter will cause an increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently,
Bernoulli's principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the pressure in the
reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is known as the Venturi effect.
▪ The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap at the base can be calculated
directly from Bernoulli's equation and is found to be proportional to the square root of the
height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law, which is compatible with Bernoulli's
principle. Increased viscosity lowers this drain rate; this is reflected in the discharge
coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds number

▪ During a cricket match, bowlers continually polish one side of the ball. After some time, one
side is quite rough and the other is still smooth. Hence, when the ball is bowled and passes
through air, the speed on one side of the ball is faster than other, and this results in a
pressure difference between the sides; this leads to the ball rotating ("swinging") while
travelling through the air, giving advantage to the bowlers.
 VENTURI METER

Venturimeter is a type of flowmeter that works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation. This
device is widely used in the water, chemical, pharmaceutical, and oil & gas industries to
measure the flow rates of fluids inside a pipe. The pipe cross-sectional area is reduced to create
a pressure difference which is measured with a manometer to determine the rate of fluid flow.
So, the venturi meter is a differential head type flowmeter that converts pressure energy into
kinetic energy. The principle of the Venturimeter was demonstrated by Giovanni Batista Venturi
(Hence the name Venturimeter), But it was first used in practical metering applications by
Clemens Herschel. In this article, we will explore the parts, working principles, equations, and
applications of the Venturimeter.
▪ There are two tappings on the venturi meter for pressure measurement; the upstream
pressure tapping is located at a distance of one-half of pipe diameter (D/2) upstream of
the convergent entry, while the downstream pressure tapping is located in the throat
(d/2).
▪ Cylindrical Entrance Section: Venturimeter entrance is a straight cylindrical section with
a length equal to 5 to 8 times the pipe diameter.
▪ Convergence Conical Section: In this section, the venturi meter tube diameter gradually
decreases. The conical angle is normally 210 ± 20. While the liquid flows inside the
Venturimeter, the velocity of fluid increases at the expense of a decrease in pressure.
▪ Cylindrical Throat: Throat consists of the minimum Venturimeter diameter. In the throat
section, the velocity is maximum and pressure is minimum. Normally, throat diameter =
1/3 to 1/4th of inlet pipe diameter.
▪ Diverging Conical section: At this section of Venturimeter, the tube diameter gradually
increases. So, the pressure is build up again to the original inlet pressure. The cone angle
is 5-70. British Standard BS-1042 specifies two conical angles, 5–70 and 14–150 for the
outlet cone.
Working principle of Venturi meter :-
When a fluid flows through a venturimeter, it accelerates in the convergent section and then
decelerates in the divergent section. The pressure difference between an upstream section and
the throat is measured by a manometer. Using that differential pressure, applying Bernoulli’s
Equation and Contininuity Equitation the volumetric flow rate can be estimated. In the next
section, the equations of venturimeter to find the discharge value are discussed.
Equation of Venturi meter:-
Bernoulli’s principle states the relation between pressure (P), kinetic energy, and gravitational
potential energy of a fluid inside a pipe. The mathematical form of Bernoulli’s equation is given
as:
Where,

P= pressure inside the pipe

Ρ =density of the fluid

G =gravitational constant

V = velocity

Z=elevation or head

A = cross-sectional area of the pipe

D= diameter of the pipe

Suffixes 1 and 2 are used to denote two different areas; 1 denotes cylindrical inlet section and 2 denotes
throat section.Now as the pipe is horizontal; There is no difference in elevation of pipe centerline; So,
z1=z2. Re-arranging the above equation we get the following:

(p1-p2)/ρg = (v22-v12)/2g

(p1 – p2)/ ρg is the difference of pressure heads in sections 1 and 2 which is equal to h
that can be measured in the differential manometer. So the above equation
becomes

h=(v22-v12)/2g……….eqn. 1

Now applying continuity equations between the same sections 1 and 2, we get

A1v1=a2v2 or v1=(a2v2)/a1

Putting this value of v1 in eqn. 1 and solving we get,

So, the rate of flow through the throat (Q) can be calculated as Q=a 2v2; Substituting
the above value of v2 we get,

This Q represents the theoretical discharge of Venturi Meter in ideal condition. But in actual
practice, there will always be some frictional loss. Hence, the actual discharge will always be
less than the theoretical discharge. So, to calculate the actual discharge, the above Q value
is multiplied by Cd, called the Coefficient of discharge of venturimeter. So the actual flow
rate through the throat of the venturimeter will be given by the following equation.
TYPES OF VENTURI METERS:-

Normally three types of venturimeters are available:

▪ Horizontal Venturimeter: This type of venturimeter has the highest kinetic energy
and the lowest potential energy.
▪ Vertical Venturimeter: This type has the maximum potential energy and the
minimum kinetic energy.
▪ Inclined Venturimeter: Both potential and kinetic energy are in between the above
two types mentioned.
APPLICATIONS:-
▪ Venturimeters find wide application in fluid industries. The major application of
venturimeter include

▪ Used in Engine Carburetor (Automobile Sector) to measure airflow

▪ Used in process industries (Process and Power Piping Industries) to measure and
control process flow.
▪ In the medical industry, blood flow in the arteries is measured by venturimeter.
▪ Measures the fluid flow inside pipelines (Oil & Gas Industries)

Advantages and Disadvantages of venturimeter:-

Advantages of venturimeter:
▪ They provide accurate results.
▪ The accuracy of venturimeter is not dependent on temperature and pressure inside
the pipe.
▪ No moving part.
▪ Very low energy loss.
▪ Wide applicability for Water, suspended solids, gases, slurries, chemicals, dirty
liquids, etc.
▪ High discharge coefficient and very low-pressure drop.
▪ Venturimeters can be installed in a horizontal, inclined, or vertical direction.
▪ Very less chance of being clogged.
▪ The pressure recovery of venturimeter is very high. The discharge pressure is
almost near to inlet pressure.
DISADVANTAGES:-
▪ Venturi meters are large in size; so difficult to install where there is space
constraint.
▪ Expensive as compared to other types of flowmeters
▪ Limited range of flow measurement
▪ Not suitable for very small diameter pipes.
 AIR FLOW ALONG THE WING
An airplane moves through the air, its wings cause changes in the speed and pressure of
the air moving past them. These changes result in the upward force called lift. To
understand lift, you first have to understand how air (a gas) behaves under certain
conditions. Let’s start with the Bernoulli principle. The Bernoulli principle states that an
increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in the pressure
exerted by the fluid.
DE LAVAL NOZZLE
 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Bernoulli developed his principle from observations on liquids, and
Bernoulli’s equation is valid for ideal fluids: those that are
incompressible, irrotational, inviscid, and subjected to conservative
forces. It is sometimes valid for the flow of gases: provided that
there is no transfer of kinetic or potential energy from the gas flow
to the compression or expansion of the gas. If both the gas
pressure and volume change simultaneously, then work will be done
on or by the gas. In this case, Bernoulli’s equation—in its
incompressible flow form—cannot be assumed to be valid.
However, if the gas process is entirely isobaric, or isochoric, then no
work is done on or by the gas (so the simple energy balance is not
upset). According to the gas law, an isobaric or isochoric process is
ordinarily the only way to ensure constant density in a gas. Also the
gas density will be proportional to the ratio of pressure and
absolute temperature; however, this ratio will vary upon
compression or expansion, no matter what non-zero quantity of
heat is added or removed. The only exception is if the net heat
transfer is zero, as in a complete thermodynamic cycle or in an
individual isentropic (frictionless adiabatic) process, and even then
this reversible process must be reversed, to restore the gas to the
original pressure and specific volume, and thus density. Only then is
the original, unmodified Bernoulli equation applicable. In this case
the equation can be used if the flow speed of the gas is sufficiently
below the speed of sound, such that the variation in density of the
gas (due to this effect) along each streamline can be ignored.
Adiabatic flow at less than Mach 0.3 is generally considered to be
slow enough.It is possible to use the fundamental principles of
physics to develop similar equations applicable to compressible
fluids. There are numerous equations, each tailored for a particular
application, but all are analogous to Bernoulli’s equation and all rely
on nothing more than the fundamental principles of physics such as
Newton’s laws of motion or the first law of thermodynamics.
Compressible flow in fluid dynamics:-

For a compressible fluid, with a barotropic equation of state, and

under the action of conservative forces

Where:
P is the pressure
Ρ is the density and ρ(p) indicates that it is a function of pressure
V is the flow speed
Ψ is the potential associated with the conservative force field, often the
gravitational potential
In engineering situations, elevations are generally small compared to
the size of the Earth, and the time scales of fluid flow are small enough
to consider the equation of state as adiabatic. In this case, the above
equation for an ideal gas becomes
where, in addition to the terms listed above:
γ is the ratio of the specific heats of the above
g is the acceleration due to gravity
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane
In many applications of compressible flow, changes in elevation are
negligible compared to the other terms, so the term ‘gz' can be
omitted. A very useful form of the equation is then:

Where:

P0 is the total pressure

Ρ0 is the total density
The most general form of the equation, suitable for use in thermodynamics in case of
(quasi) steady flow, is:

Here w is the enthalpy per unit mass (also known as specific enthalpy), which is also often
written as h (not to be confused with “head” or “height”).
When shock waves are present, in a reference frame in which the shock is stationary and
the flow is steady, many of the parameters in the Bernoulli equation suffer abrupt changes
in passing through the shock. The Bernoulli parameter remains unaffected. An exception to
this rule is radiative shocks, which violate the assumptions leading to the Bernoulli
equation, namely the lack of additional sinks or sources of energy.
Unsteady potential flow:-
 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW.
In most flows of liquids, and of gases at low Mach number, the density of a fluid parcel can be
considered to be constant, regardless of pressure variations in the flow. Therefore, the fluid can
be considered to be incompressible, and these flows are called incompressible flows. Bernoulli
performed his experiments on liquids, so his equation in its original form is valid only for
incompressible flow. A common form of Bernoulli's equation is:

where:

▪ is the fluid flow speed at a point,

▪ is the acceleration due to gravity,

▪ is the elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive -direction
pointing upward—so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration,

▪ is the pressure at the chosen point, and

▪ is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.

Bernoulli’s equation and the Bernoulli constant are applicable throughout any region of flow
where the energy per unit of mass is uniform. The energy per unit of mass of liquid in a reservoir
is uniform throughout the reservoir so if the reservoir feeds liquid into a pipe or a flow field,
Bernoulli’s equation and the Bernoulli constant can be used to analyse the fluid flow everywhere
except where viscous forces exist and erode the energy per unit mass. [6]: Example 3.5 and p.116
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply: [2]: 265
▪ the flow must be steady, that is, the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc.) at any point
cannot change with time,
▪ the flow must be incompressible—even though pressure varies, the density must remain
constant along a streamline;
▪ friction by viscous forces must be negligible.

For conservative force fields (not limited to the gravitational field), Bernoulli's equation can be
generalized as:
Simplified form
In many applications of Bernoulli's equation, the change in the ρgz term is so small
compared with the other terms that it can be ignored. For example, in the case of
aircraft in flight, the change in height z is so small the ρgz term can be omitted. This
allows the above equation to be presented in the following simplified form:

where p0 is called "total pressure", and q is "dynamic pressure".[14] Many authors refer to the
pressure p as static pressure to distinguish it from total pressure p0 and dynamic pressure q.
In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes: "To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the
actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its state, is often
referred to as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static
pressure."[1]: § 3.5

The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following

memorable word equation:[1]: § 3.5
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure

Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the fluid speed at that point, has its
own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q. Their sum p + q is defined to be
the total pressure p0. The significance of Bernoulli's principle can now be summarized as
"total pressure is constant in any region free of viscous forces". If the fluid flow is
brought to rest at some point, this point is called a stagnation point, and at this point
the static pressure is equal to the stagnation pressure.
If the fluid flow is irrotational, the total pressure is uniform and Bernoulli's principle can
be summarized as "total pressure is constant everywhere in the fluid flow".[1]: Equation
3.12 It is reasonable to assume that irrotational flow exists in any situation where a large
body of fluid is flowing past a solid body. Examples are aircraft in flight and ships
moving in open bodies of water. However, Bernoulli's principle importantly does not
apply in the boundary layer such as in flow through long pipes.

Unsteady potential flow:-

The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow is used in the theory of ocean surface
waves and acoustics. For an irrotational flow, the flow velocity can be described as the
gradient ∇φ of a velocity potential φ. In that case, and for a constant density ρ, the
momentum equations of the Euler equations can be integrated to:

Which is a Bernoulli equation valid also for unsteady—or time dependent—flows. Here
∂φ/∂t Denotes the partial derivative of the velocity potential φ with respect to time t, and v
= |∇φ| is the flow speed. The function f(t) depends only on time and not on position in
the fluid. As a result, the Bernoulli equation at some moment t applies in the whole fluid
domain. This is also true for the special case of a steady irrotational flow, in which case f
and
∂φ/∂t Are constants so equation (A) can be applied in every point of the fluid
domain.[2]: 383 Further f(t) can be made equal to zero by incorporating it into the velocity
potential using the transformation:

Note that the relation of the potential to the flow velocity is unaffected by this
transformation: ∇Φ = ∇φ.

The Bernoulli equation for unsteady potential flow also appears to play a central role in
Luke’s variational principle, a variational description of free-surface flows using the
Lagrangian mechanics.
 DERRIVATION OF THE EQUATION
Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible fluid is
flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow speed v, height
from the ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 are given in the figure
below.

Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:

dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv
We know that the work done on the fluid was due to the conservation of change in gravitational
potential energy and change in kinetic energy. The change in kinetic energy of the fluid is given as:

The change in potential energy is given as:

dU = m2gy2 – m1gy1 = ρdvg(y2 – y1)
Therefore, the energy equation is given as:
dW = dK + dU
 PRINCIPAL OF CONTINUITY
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we can say that mass
of fluid passing through different cross sections are equal

From the above situation, we can say the mass of liquid inside the container remains the same.

The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving

The rate of mass entering = ρA1V1Δt—– (1)

The rate of mass entering = ρA2V2Δt—– (2)

Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
This equation is known as the Principle of Continuity.
 CONCLUSION
Bernoulli’s theorem implies, therefore, that if the fluid flows horizontally so that no change
in gravitational potential energy occurs, then a decrease in fluid pressure is associated with
an increase in fluid velocity.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
▪ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bernoulli
▪ https://www.skybrary.aero/articles/bernoullis-
principle#:~:text=In%20fluid%20dynamics%2C%20Bernoulli’s%20principle
,1738%20in%20his%20book%20Hydrodynamics.
▪ https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle
▪ https://www.vedantu.com/physics/physics-symbols
▪ https://unsplash.com/s/photos/physics
▪ https://www.shutterstock.com/search/physics
▪ https://pixabay.com/images/search/physics/
▪ Ncert book
▪ Fundamental physics pradeeps
▪ S.l Arora
▪ https://byjus.com/physics/bernoullis-principle/
▪ https://byjus.com/physics/bernoullis-principle/
▪ https://www.academia.edu/5255008/Bernoullis_principle_From_Wikipedia
▪ https://www.britannica.com/science/Bernoullis-theorem
▪ https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Bernoulli_equation
▪ https://safeswisscloud.com/en/blog/1738-hydrodynamica-and-bernoullis-
principle/