KOM3510
MECHATRONICS
Fall : 2023
Lecture 9
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Temperature Sensor
Integrated-circuit temperature sensors come in various configurations. A common
example is the LM34 and LM35 series.
The LM34 produces an output voltage that is proportional to Fahrenheit temperature,
and the LM35 produces an output that is proportional to Celsius temperature.
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Example Temperature Sensor
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Temperature Sensor
Another device, the AD7414 (Analog Devices), is a complete digital temperature
monitoring system. In a small, 6-pin IC, it has a temperature sensor, a 10-bit ADC, and
a serial interface. It can also be programmed with high and low temperature limits; one
of the output pins indicates when a programmed limit is exceeded.
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Flow Sensor
This group of flow sensors is based on the fact that pressure in a moving fluid is
proportional to the flow. The pressure is detected with a pressure sensor; based on
the physical dimensions of the system, the flow can be calculated. The simplest flow
sensor is called the orifice plate and is simply a restriction in the pipe that causes a
pressure drop in the flow, much like a resistor that causes a drop in voltage in a circuit.
This sensor requires two pressure ports, one upstream and one downstream of the
restriction. The flow is proportional to the pressure difference between these ports and
is calculated as follows:
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Example Flow Sensor
A flowmeter for water is made from a 3-in. ID (inside diameter) pipe. The orifice
plate has a 2-in. opening. What is the flow if the pressure drop across the orifice plate is
0.2 psi?
The flow equation is an approximation because, in addition to the pressure drop, the
actual flow is dependent on velocity effects, the area ratio A1/A2, and the surface
condition of the pipes. To get the correct constant (C in Equation) for a particular
application, the flow sensor would have to be calibrated.
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Liquid Level Sensor
Liquid-level sensors, which measure the height of a liquid in a container, have two
classifications: discrete and continuous. Discrete-level detectors can only detect
whether the liquid is at a certain level. The continuous-level detector provides an analog
signal that is proportional to the liquid level.
An application of discrete-level detectors would be determining when to stop the fill
cycle of a washing machine. The simplest type of level detector uses a float and a limit
switch. There are many possible configurations of discrete-level detectors.
Many liquids—such as tap water,
weak acids, beer, and coffee (to name
a few)— are slightly conductive
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Liquid Level Sensor
Continuous-level detectors provide a signal that is proportional to the liquid level.
There are a number of ways in which this can be done.
• One of the most direct methods (used in the gas tank of your car) is a float connected
to a position sensor.
• Another way to measure liquid level is to measure the pressure at the bottom of the
container. This method is based on the fact that the pressure at the bottom
• of the tank (called the head) is directly proportional to the level, as expressed in
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Example Liquid Level Sensor
Calculate what the pressure (head) would be at the bottom of a 3-m deepwater
tank.
we need to know the weight density of the fluid (which can usually be found in a data
book). The weight density for water is 9800 N/m3:
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Liquid Level Sensor
• Monitoring the weight of the liquid with load cells is another technique that can
determine liquid level. The level can then be calculated knowing the diameter and
weight of the tank (empty) and the density of the fluid. Note that the total weight of
the tank is the sum of the weights reported by the three load cells.
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Vision Sensor
A vision sensor simply is a TV camera connected to a computer. Machine vision is being
used to perform inspections and to guide machine operations. For example, a system
might use machine vision to determine whether parts had been made or assembled
properly, or a vision system might be used to reject blemished oranges from a fruit-
processing line. Alternatively, a vision system might be used to provide guidance to a
pick-and-place robot for doing such things as unloading boxes from a pallet or inserting
components in a circuit board.
Vision systems require computing power to process thousands of pixels of information
continuously in order to arrive at a go/no-go decision about what is “seen”
In digital imaging, a pixel, pel,or picture element is a physical point in a raster
image, or the smallest addressable element in an all points addressable display
device; so it is the smallest controllable element of a picture represented on the
screen.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
An optical rotary encoder produces angular position data directly in digital form,
eliminating any need for the ADC converter.
A light source and photocell arrangement are mounted so that the slots pass the light
beam as the disk rotates. The angle of the shaft is deduced from the output of the
photocell.
There are two types of optical rotary encoders: the absolute encoder and the
incremental encoder.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
Absolute optical encoders use a glass disk marked off with a pattern of concentric
tracks. A separate light beam is sent through each track to individual photo sensors.
Each photo sensor contributes 1 bit to the output digital word. The encoder in Figure
outputs a 4-bit word with the LSB coming from the outer track.
The disk is divided into 16 sectors, so the
resolution in this case is 360°/16 = 22.5°.
For better resolution, more tracks would be
required. For example, eight tracks
(providing 256 states) yield 360°/256 =
1.4°/state, and ten tracks (providing 1024
states) yield 360°/1024 = 0.35°/state.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
An advantage of this type of encoder is that the output is in straightforward digital
form and, like a pot, always gives the absolute position. This is in contrast to the
incremental encoder that, as will be shown, provides only a relative position.
A disadvantage of the absolute encoder is that it is relatively expensive because it
requires that many photocells be mounted and aligned very precisely.
If the absolute optical encoder is not properly aligned, it may occasionally report
completely erroneous data.
An absolute optical
encoder showing how an
out-of-alignment photocell
can cause an erroneous
state. (Note: Dark areas
produce a 1, and light
areas produce a 0.)
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Optical Rotary Encoders
If the absolute optical encoder is not properly aligned, it may occasionally report
completely erroneous data.
One solution is to use the Grey code on the disk instead of the straight binary code
With the Grey code, only 1 bit changes between any two sectors. If the photocells are
out of line, the worst that could happen is that the output would switch early or late. Put
another way, the error can never be more than the value of 1 LSB when using the Grey
code.
Grey codded
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Optical Rotary Encoders
The incremental optical encoder has only one track of equally spaced slots. Position is
determined by counting the number of slots that pass by a photo sensor, where each
slot represents a known angle. This system requires an initial reference point, which
may come from a second sensor on an inner track or simply from a mechanical stop or
limit switch.
In many applications, the shaft being monitored will be cycling back-and-forth, stopping
at various angles. To keep track of the position, the controller must know which
direction the disk is turning as well as the number of slots passed.
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Example Optical Rotary Encoders
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Optical Rotary Encoders
A single photo sensor cannot convey which direction the disk is rotating; however,
a clever system using two sensors can.
The two sensors, V1 and V2, are located slightly apart from each other on the same
track.
V1 is initially off (well, almost—
you can see it is half-covered
up), and V2 is on. Now
imagine that the disk starts to
rotate CCW. The first thing
that happens is that V1 comes
completely on (while V2
remains on). After more
rotation,V2 goes off, and
slightly later V1 goes off again.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
The hardware of the incremental encoder is simpler than for the absolute type. The
price paid for that simplicity is that we do not get direct binary position information from
V1 and V2. Instead, a decoder circuit must be employed to convert the signals from the
photo sensors into a binary word. Actually, the circuit has two parts:
The first part extracts direction information, and
The second part is an up-down counter, which maintains the slot count.
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Optical Rotary Encoders
The quadrature signals are digital signals that produce two channels, channel A and
channel B. When optical encoder rotates in a clockwise direction, channel A leads
channel B. If optical encoder rotates in CCW direction, channel B leads channel A.
When more resolution is needed, it is possible for the counter to count the leading and
trailing edges of the quadrature encoder’s pulse train from one channel, which doubles
(×2) the number of pulses per revolution. Counting both leading and trailing edges of
both channels, a quadrature encoder will quadruple (×4) the number of pulses per
revolution. For example, if we have 2,000 pulses per revolution (ppr) quadrature
encoder, it can be increased to a maximum of 8,000 pulses per revolution (ppr) counter
data.
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Example Optical Rotary Encoders
The angular position of a shaft must be known to a resolution of 0.5°. A system
that uses a 720-slot encoder is proposed. The controller uses a 8051 microcontroller
which has 8 bit ports. Will this design meet the specifications?
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Example Optical Rotary Encoders
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Optical Rotary Encoders
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Linear Variable Differential Transformers
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a high-resolution position sensor
that outputs an AC voltage with a magnitude proportional to linear position. It has a
relatively short range of about 2 in., but it has the advantage of no sliding contacts.
The center winding, or primary,
is connected to an AC reference
voltage.
The outer two windings,
called secondaries, are wired to
be out of phase with each other
and are connected in series.
If the iron core is exactly in the
center, the voltages induced on
the secondaries by the primary
will be equal and opposite,
giving a net output (Vnet) of 0 V
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Linear Variable Differential Transformers
Figure illustrates an LVDT with its one-chip support electronics. An oscillator
provides the AC reference voltage to the primary—typically, 50-10 KHz at 10 V or
less. The output of the LVDT goes first to a phase-sensitive rectifier. This circuit
compares the phase of LVDT output with the reference voltage. If they are in phase,
the rectifier outputs only the positive part of the signal. If they are out of phase, the
rectifier outputs only the negative parts. Next, a low-pass filter smoothes out the
rectified signal to produce DC. Finally, an amplifier adjusts the gain to the desired
level. The output of the LVDT interface circuit is a DC voltage whose magnitude and
polarity are proportional to the linear distance that the core is offset from the center.
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Linear Variable Differential Transformers
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