Chapter 2 Muscular Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle or striated muscle cells are

Anatomy and Physiology some of the largest cells in the body and it is
the job of these muscles to create movement.
Muscle cells create movement by contracting
Physiology of Muscle (shortening), which pulls the opposite ends of the
There are three different types of muscle muscle together. There are over 600 muscles in
tissue: the human body, and more than 400 are skeletal
Muscle muscles. Muscle does not connect to muscle
Action(s) Example(s) throughout the body. Fascia. tendons, and liga-
Type
ments all play a role in aiding joint movement with
Involuntary actions
Digestive tract, the skeletal muscle.
(controlled by au-
Smooth tonomic nervous
bladder, uterus, Fascia is a sheet or band of fibrous connective
and blood ves- tissue which separates and contains muscles
system)
sel walls within compartments. A tendon is a fibrous cord
(no striations)
Voluntary
(consisting primarily of collagen, due to collagen’s
movement All the muscles ability to withstand tension stress and its elastic-
Skeletal (somatic nervous that control ity) which attaches muscle to bone, although fas-
system) jointmovement cia can also act as a site for muscle attachment.
(has striations) There are three layers of fascia which surround,
Involuntary actions Found only in protect, and enable separate innervation of mus-
Cardiac cle fibers (muscle cells) within a muscle.
(some striations) the heart
The skeletal muscular system is the anatomi- The outermost layer of fascia around muscle
cal system most affected by exercise. The frame- fibers is the epimysium, which completely sur-
work for the body is provided by the bones and rounds muscle. The next layer groups muscle
joints. Muscles that are capable of voluntary fibers in bundles called fasciculi and is referred
contraction are referred to as striated or skeletal to as perimysium. The innermost layer, the en-
muscle, while involuntary muscles, except the domysium, surrounds individual muscle fibers.
heart, are termed smooth muscle. Movement is The epimysium is continuous (becomes one) with
enabled by the contraction and relaxation of spe- the endomysium and perimysium. Continuations
cific muscles. The goal of this section is to give of the epimysium form tendons that become con-
the triathlon coach a fundamental understanding tinuous with the periosteum (outer layer of bone).
of how muscles are able to contract and how the This interweaving of connective tissue makes the
muscles adapt to the stimulus of exercise. muscle-bone connection extremely strong. Along

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with the neuroendocrine system, this intramus- Action Potentials
cular fascia enables some muscle fibers within a Muscle fibers contract in response to an elec-
muscle to be relaxed and others to be active. trical signal sent by the motor neuron. This signal
Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of is known as an action potential. The signal is sent
long, parallel fibers (cells). A muscle is not just one down the motor neuron to its terminal ending on
big fiber. Embedded in the muscle fibers are fila- a muscle fiber known as the motor end plate.
ments called myofibrils which are further divided Where the motor end plate meets the muscle fi-
into sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are the smallest ber is known as the neuromuscular junction. If
contractile unit of skeletal muscle. Muscle fibers the signal is strong enough, an action potential
are called striated because they have striations of the muscle fiber is generated. This causes the
of light and dark bands created by the repeating fiber to contract.
actin and myosin filaments in the sarcomeres.
Muscles are divided by layers of connective tis- Sarcomere and the Sliding
sue to enable fibers within each muscle to be in- Filament Theory
nervated (in order) from smaller to larger numbers The sarcomere is composed of thin filaments
of fibers and sizes (smaller fibers will always be (chains of globular actin) and thick filaments (or-
recruited first, to conserve energy). ganized bundles of myosin). These elements will
A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it slide over each other and the action of all the sar-
activates is known as a motor unit. The size comeres shortening together causes the muscle
principle of recruitment describes how small- to contract as a whole.
er numbers of fibers (and smaller fibers) will al-
ways be selected before larger numbers of fibers Structure of the Sarcomere
(and larger fibers) to preserve muscular energy.
The larger the neuron, the larger the number and Section of
size of fibers it innervates. Once a muscle fiber Section Description
Sarcomere
is innervated (an action potential is sent by the Defines boundary of single
nervous system from the neuron(s) to the muscle Z-lines
sarcomere
fibers), it is either on or off, there can be no par- Runs down center of
tial contraction; this is the all or none theory of M-line
sarcomere
muscle fiber activation. If all muscle fibers were
I-band Contains thin filaments only
on all the time, it would not be a pretty sight (un-
Contains thick filaments
controllable joint movements), and the constant H-zone
only
high intensity contractions would be downright
dangerous! Contains all thick filaments
A-band without any overlapping
portions of thin filaments

Courtesy of 3DScience.com

41
 Roles of Muscles
Muscle Role Action
Acts directly to bring about a desired movement through concentric
Prime Mover or Agonist muscle action (such as the triceps in elbow extension or quadriceps in
knee extension)
Assistant Mover or Assists indirectly to bring about a desired movement (such as the ante-
Synergist rior deltoids in a push-up or the posterior deltoids in a pull-up)

Responsible for opposing the concentric muscle action of the agonist

Antagonist
(such as the biceps in elbow extension as the elbow extends)

A muscle responsible for stabilizing an adjacent segment (such as the

Stabilizer
rotator cuff muscles in the shoulder during any shoulder action)

A muscle responsible for eliminating or canceling out an undesired

Neutralizer movement (this occurs rarely, but is found in some smaller muscles in
the spine to inhibit movement)

Core musculature
stabilizes the spine

Prime movers on the down-

stroke - quadriceps and
gluteus maximus (perform
knee and hip extension
respectively)

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Muscle Fiber Types
There are essentially three muscle fiber types in human muscle:

These fibers are fatigue-resistant. Red fibers are rich in capillaries and
Type I myoglobin (enhancing oxygen delivery) with an increased number of
Fibers mitochondria which enhances the ability to oxidize fats. Muscles containing
Color - Red
a predominant amount of slow twitch muscle fibers tend toward stabilizing
Speed - Slow
Energy -
functions rather than prime movers of muscle tissue. Individuals with a greater
Aerobic number of Type I fibers tend to excel in endurance related activities that last
longer than 3 minutes. These are the fibers predominantly utilized in a triathlon.

Type IIa Fibers These fibers have traits of both Type I and Type IIb. Individuals with a greater
Color - Pink number or more conditioned Type IIa fibers tend to excel in activities lasting
Speed - between 30 seconds and 2 minutes with a moderate level of strength and
Moderate aerobic capacity capabilities. These fibers are often emphasized at the
Energy - beginning and end of races. Type IIA fibers can become more endurance
Aerobic and oriented like Type I fibers with the right exercise stress, but these fibers will
Anaerobic never be powerful like Type IIB fibers.
These fibers are larger in diameter and well suited for brief, powerful
contractions. White fibers have little mitochondria and small capillary beds.
Type IIb Fibers
These fibers tend to be prime movers of joints. Individuals with a greater
Color- White
number of Type IIb fibers tend to excel in highly explosive activities such as
Speed - Fast
maximal lifts and sprinting or jumping. These are also the fibers that have the
Energy -
greatest potential for hypertrophy. These power fibers are not often emphasized
Anaerobic
in triathlons with the exception of the kick or occasional bursts of speed for
passing other competitors.

Muscle Actions
Muscle Action Role
• Shortening of a muscle fiber as it resists against a load
• “Raises” the load
Concentric
• “Accelerates” the load (such as the upward phase of a dumbbell bicep
curl)
• Lengthening of a muscle fiber against a load
• “Lowers” the load
Eccentric
• “Decelerates” the load (such as the downward phase of a dumbbell
bicep curl)
• When a muscle neither lengthens nor shortens against a load (no net
joint movement)
Isometric • A co-contraction of agonist and antagonist muscles.
• “Stabilizes” the load (such as holding the elbow still at 90˚ in a dumbbell
bicep curl)
When a concentric and/or eccentric action is generated to move a load
Isotonic through a range of motion where the force on the muscle does not change
(found in some machines)
When the muscle action speed is held constant (found in special exercise
Isokinetic
equipment often used in a laboratory)

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 Strength and Strength pattern (any direction) at a specified velocity...”
(Knuttgen and Kraemer, 1987). There are mul-
Training tiple categories of strength to meet the variable
needs of the body during movement.
The concept of strength is often misunder- The task of a triathlon coach is to develop an
stood. Strength is not a single fundamental fit- athlete’s various categories of strength (empha-
ness factor like cardiovascular endurance. Most sizing those categories specific to triathlons). The
people associate strength with the ability to lift training program should bring about specific ad-
a maximum amount of weight. This is only one aptations to the client’s body that create improve-
category of strength. Strength is complex, and ment in each strength category. Only then can an
it requires an understanding of biomechanics, athlete truly be “strong”. The interconnections of
functional anatomy and, physiology of the hu- the various types of strength are shown in the
man movement system. following model originally developed by Mel Siff
The original definition of strength is the ability and Yuri Verkhoshansky and later redesigned by
to exert force. A more complete definition is “the Michael Stone. NESTA has developed a model
maximum amount of force a muscle or group of for personal trainers and triathlon coaches which
muscles can generate in a specified movement coincides with this current model.

Strength
d
p ee St
t h -S ren
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y

h-
tre
bilit

S Sk
ill
lexi
h-F

th
ng
Stre

re
ngt

St Sk
d- ill-
ngt
Stre

e St
pe ren
h-E

S durance Speed-Skillg
Speed - Speed-Skill
Skill
n

th
ed
Spe

Sp
ee
d-
En
du
Core ib
ilit
y
d

lex
Strength
ra
ee

nc F
e ill-
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Sk
Sk

th
ng
tre
ill-E
S
ility-
ibilit

nd
ib
Flex

uran
Flex

ce
End

l
kil En
lity-S du
uran

ran
xibi ce
Fle -S
ce-S

pe
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ed
ruea
tr

t h
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Flexibility
nce-Skill
Flexibility-Endurance Endurance-Flexibility
Endurance

*Adapted from the Interrelationship of Fitness Characteristics

(Stone, Stone, & Sands, 2006)

44
Muscular Anatomy

45
 Muscular Anatomy

46
 The major muscles of the human body which are the primary concern of the triathlon coach
are found below. This is not an all-inclusive list and the coach should also possess a high-quality
anatomy book for future reference needs.
The “primary functions” listed here are the actions of the muscles during concentric contraction
(shortening under load). Muscles do not only work concentrically to “lift a load!!” Muscles can also
act eccentrically to decelerate the opposite motion or statically (isometrically) stabilize joints. When
observing the phrase “Primary Function” – remember that the muscle will also contract to “lower
the load” (the opposite motion) and stabilize motion (or lack of motion).

Lower Body Muscles and

Functions Fun Fact: The two heads of the gastrocnemius and the
Lower Leg (Calves and Shin) single head of the soleus come together to form the
“triceps surae complex.” Make sure you differentiate
this from the “triceps brachii” muscle in the arm!

Soleus Plantarflexion

Gastro- Plantarflexion and

cnemius Knee Flexion

Peroneus Plantarflexion and

Longus Eversion

While the location of muscles is important in deter-

mining muscle action, remember that muscles that
work in opposite movements don’t have to be located
opposite each other. For example, the peroneus lon-
gus and anterior tibialis are antagonists (they work
Anterior Dorsiflexion and in opposite movements), but both muscle bellies are
Tibialis Inversion located on the lateral aspect of the lower leg.

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 Anterior Upper Leg (Quadriceps) Posterior Upper Leg (Hamstrings)

Knee Flexion,
Biceps Hip Exten-
Rectus Knee Extension sion, and
Femoris
Femoris and Hip Flexion External
Rotation

Knee
Flexion,
Vastus Semi- Hip Exten-
Intermedius Knee Extension tendinosus sion, and
(deep to Internal
rectus Rotation
femoris)

Knee
Semi- Flexion,
membranosus Hip Exten-
Vastus Knee Extension sion, and
Lateralis Internal
Rotation

Vastus
Medialis Knee Extension
Obliquus and Medial Glide
(VMO) of Patella

Although muscle groups such as the quadriceps

and hamstrings work together to complete the same
movement, each has independent actions as well.
While the vastus medialis primarily works to extend
the knee, it also has an important role in stabilizing
the patella on the medial side where it attaches. This
is why origins and insertions of muscles are impor-
tant, in addition to their actions.

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Posterior Hip (Glutes) Anterior Hip (Hip Flexors)
Hip Flexion, Lumbar Flexion,
Psoas
External Rotation, and Slight Hip
Major
Abduction

Hip Flexion, Lumbar Flexion, and

Iliacus
External Rotation
Gluteus
Maximus

External Rotation, Hip

Extension
Upper-half - Hip Abduction
Lower-half - Hip Adduction
Psoas
Major
Iliacus

Gluteus
Medius
Abduction, Assists in Hip
Flexion
Anterior Fibers - Internal
Rotation
Posterior Fibers - External When combined, the Iliacus and Psoas Major
Rotation are also known as the Illiopsoas.

Gluteus
Minimus

Abduction, Internal Rotation,

and Assists in Hip Flexion

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 Other Muscles of the Hip and Thigh

Adductor Brevis
Gracilis

Hip Adduction and Flexion

Hip Adduction, Inter-
nal Rotation, and Knee
Flexion

Adductor
Longus
Tensor
Fascia Latae
(TFL)

Adduction and Hip flexion

Hip Flexion, Abduction, and

Internal Rotation

Adductor
Magnus
Sartorius

Adduction (some fibers con-

tribute to both Internal and Hip Flexion, Abduction, Ex-
External Rotation as well as ternal Rotation. Knee Flexion,
Hip Flexion and Extension) and Internal Rotation

Fun Fact: The sartorius is the longest muscle in the

human body. It is also known as the “tailor’s muscle”
due to the cross-legged position in which a tailor of-
ten sits.

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Abdominal and Lower Back (Deep to Superficial)

Forced Expiration and

Increased Intra-Abdom-
Transverse inal Pressure (stiffens
Abdominus the trunk to prevent the
spine from buckling un-
der compressive loads).

Spinal Flexion, Poste-

riorly Tilts Pelvis, and
transverse
Increases Intra-Abdom-
inal Pressure. Although
abdominus rectus
the rectus abdominus abdominus
is responsible for flex-
Rectus
ing the “spine,” it does
Abdominus
not actually attach to the
vertebrae. The rectus
abdominus attaches to
the pubis of the pelvis
and the sternum of the
ribcage.

Flexion, Ipsilateral (same

side) Spinal Rotation and
Internal Oblique Increased Intra-Abdom-
inal Pressure (fibers run external
down and out). oblique
internal
oblique
Flexion, Contralateral
(opposite side) Spinal
Rotation, Tilts Pelvis
External
Posteriorly, and Increas-
Oblique
es Intra-Abdominal Pres-
sure (fibers run down
and in)

Quadratus Spinal Lateral Flexion (tilts

Lumborum pelvis laterally as well)

Here is a quick way to remember your abdominal muscles. If you have too much fat around your waist, you have a
“spare TIRE.” The abdominal muscles run, in order from deep to superficial: Transverse Abdominis, Internal Oblique,
Rectus Abdominis, and External Oblique.

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 Start to notice the constant forward flexion
of the spine. What do you think might be
some consequences of this position?

Posterior Spine

Iliocostalis
Lumborum, Spinal Extension and
Thoracis, Lateral Flexion
Cervicis
iliocostalis
longissimus cervicis
Longissimus thoracis
Capitus, Spinal Extension and
Thoracis, Rotation
Cervicis iliocostalis
lumborum

Spinalis
Thoracis and Spinal Extension spinalis
cervicis
Cervicis spinalis
thoracis

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Upper Body Muscles and Functions
Shoulder Girdle
trapezius

Upper Trapezius Scapular Elevation

Middle Trapezius Scapular Retraction

Scapular
Lower Trapezius
Depression

Rhomboid
Scapular Retraction
Major and Minor

Scapular Adduction,
Levator
Depression, and
Scapula
Cervical Rotation

Serratus Scapular Protraction

Anterior and Abduction

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 Shoulder Girdle

Stabilizes and De-

Subclavius presses Shoulder
Girdle

Pectoralis Depresses Scapula

Minor (and pulls it anteriorly)

Rotator Cuff
The four (SITS) muscles work together to maintain in-
tegrity and alignment of the glenohumeral joint

Latissimus
Dorsi
Shoulder Extension,
Adduction, and Interal Supraspinatus
Rotation Provides shoulder joint stability during
swimming and throwing movements
and assists in Abduction and External
Rotation

Teres Major Infraspinatus

Shoulder Extension, Shoulder External Rotation and as-
Adduction, and Inter- sists in posterior movement of the
nal Rotation shoulder in Shoulder Extension

Teres Minor

Shoulder Flexion and Shoulder External Rotation and as-

Adduction sists in posterior movement of the
shoulder in Shoulder Extension

Here is a quick way to remember your ro-

tator cuff muscles. Remember “SITS”.
“SITS” is an acronym for the four muscles
of the rotator cuff which are: Supraspina-
Subscapularis
tus, Infraspinatus, Teres minor, and Sub-
scapularis. You must prescribe movements Internal rotation of the humerus. In
that initiate all functions of the rotator cuff extension it helps move the humerus
muscles beyond mere external and internal posteriorly. In adduction, it helps
rotation. Increased shoulder stability will move the arm toward the body.
not be achieved from mere shoulder rota-
tion exercises.
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Shoulder Girdle

Anterior Fibers
of Deltoids

Shoulder Flexion, Internal

Rotation, and Horizontal
Adduction

Medial/Lateral
Fibers Deltoids

Shoulder Abduction

The word deltoid comes from “delta,” which means

triangle. This can help you remember that the deltoid
muscle has three parts. There is also a deltoid liga-
Posterior Fibers ment located on the medial ankle. This ligament also
of Deltoids has three parts, positioned in a triangular shape.

Shoulder Extension, Exter- Remember that memorizing the anatomy and

nal Rotation, and Horizontal functions of the major muscle groups of the body
Abduction is important, but it is even more important to be
able to apply this knowledge. Professional triath-
lon coaches cannot rely simply upon information
Horizontal Adduction, found in books; they must be able to apply this
Pectoralis knowledge in “real world” situations to be con-
Shoulder Internal Rotation,
Major
and Flexion sidered a true professional and worthy of high
consumer demand.

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 Upper Arm Forearm

Elbow Flexion
and Wrist
Biceps Brachii Pronation Brachioradialis Elbow Flexion
and Wrist
Supination

Elbow Flexion Wrist

Brachialis Supinator
Supination

Wrist Prona-
Pronator tion and
Teres (slight) Elbow
Flexion
Elbow Exten-
sion (long
Triceps Brachii head assists
with shoulder Wrist
extension) Pronation
Pronator
Quadratus

The names of muscles are developed from different word roots. For example, the “Bi” in biceps brachii means two,
and the biceps muscle has two parts. The “Tri” in triceps means three, and the triceps muscle has three heads.
There are also several movements that may use one of two different reference terms, depending on the refer-
ence source. In rotation, medial and internal rotation are the same, as are lateral and external rotation. In scapular
movement, retraction is synonymous with adduction just as protraction is synonymous with abduction.

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