Chapter 8.

1 (Force) Form 2

Force = a push or pull upon an object

There are a few forces :

- Gravitational Force (Everything points towards the centre of the Earth)

- Buoyant Force (Everything that floats on a liquid)
- Elastic Force (A pull of something as Spring/ arch （弓）)
- Frictional Force (摩擦力) (It is always the opposite of an object movement)
Exp: Someone is pushing a box towards the left and the frictional force will be facing the
right.

Characteristics of Forces

- Magnetism (Basically like – 10N （newton）, the measurement of the force)

- Directions (Right or left)
- Point of application (It’s like the contact between two points)
Exp : You are using a hammer and there is a wooden box underneath, the point where the
hammer and the wooden box touch = Point of application.

Unit of Force :

- newton (The N must be in a small letter)

- N (if there is only the unit, it must be in a capital letter)
- 1KG = 10N

Action force = usually the weight (the object)

Reaction force = usually the force (like gravitational force or anything underneath the object)

Chapter 8.2 A (Force) Form 2

Force cannot be seen but can be felt

Effects of Force :

- Move a stationery (not moving) object

- Stop an object from moving
- Change the speed of a moving object (Speeds up/ slows down)
- Change the directions of a moving object
- Change the size and shape of an object

Buoyant Force

If the object = 10N and the buoyant force = 10N, the object floats
If the object = 10N and the buoyant force = 8N, the object immersed

So, the buoyant force have to be larger that the weight of the object to make it floats

How do we calculate the buoyant force?

Buoyant Force = Actual weight – Apparent Weight

Actual weight = The weight of an object that are measured in the air

Apparent weight = The weight of an object that are measure in the water (Put the object into the
water and measure the apparent weight)

Cargo Ships are marked with Plimsoil (A data to measure whether ships will float or sink)

Chapter 8.2 B (Force) Form 2

Lever
- A bar that rotates on a fixed point
- There are three parts in a lever, Load (L), Effort (E), Fulcrum (F)

Load is usually something that we try to use our opener on, exp :

We are opening a can using a spoon. Hence, the can is the load

Effort is usually something we use our hand on, exp:

We are opening a can using a spoon. Hence, we are holding the holder of the spoon. The holder of
the spoon is the effort

Fulcrum is usually something that minimal our strength, exp:

We are opening a can using a spoon. Hence, we use the part we usually use to eat to open. The part
is where fulcrum is used

Function of Lever

- We can work easily

- We can use lesser strength while doing something

Three classes of Lever

- First Class
- Second Class
- Third Class

(First Class) – Fulcrum in the middle

(Second Class) – Load in the middle

(Third Class) – Effort in the middle

Chapter 8.2 D (Force) Form 2

Moment of force

The turning effect = Moment of force (It’s like pulling a door open and you would have to use force to
open and the moment the door opens, it’s moving and it is called moment of force)

Moment of force requires :

- The newton of strengths you use

- The perpendicular distance between fulcrum and the strength

EXAMPLE 1

Formula to calculate the moment of force = The force applied (N) x The perpendicular distance
between the fulcrum and the strength (m)

1. Draw two lines to make it a 90 degree graph as seen above

2. Take the force applied, 50N and multiply with the perpendicular distance between the
fulcrum the strength, 20cm
3. Take the 20cm to change with m, because the formula only accept m. 20cm = 0.2m
4. Mutiply them, 50N x 0.2m
5. 50N x 0.2m = 10Nm

Formula to calculate
the distance of effort = effort (N) x Distance (m)
the distance of load = Load (N) x Distance (m)
 Load (N) x Distance (m) = Effort (N) x Distance (m)
*They are always the same*

PLEASE NOTE : 1kg = 10N and distance must convert to m

Formula to calculate pressure = Force (N) / Surface Area (m square)

S.I. UNIT = pascal (Pa) this is the unit of pressure
1 Pa = 1 newton per square m (m negative square)

Air Pressure : It happens because there are a lot of air molecules inside floating around
FREELY as they keep bumping into walls, the shape of exp : Balloon changed

Factors that affect air pressure :

1. Volume – As the volume decreases, the air pressure increases
2. Temperature – As the temperature increases, the air pressure increases.

The lower the sea, the higher the pressure

The lower the mountain, the higher the pressure (Because most of the air molecules have
gravitational effection)

Chapter 9.1 (Heat) Form 2

Relationship between temperature and heat

Heat

- A form of energy
- Flows from a hotter region to a colder region
- Uses unit : joule (J)
- The amount of heat depends of
Types of material
Quantity of material
Temperature
- Various sources :
Sun
Electric Appliances
Burn of Fuels

Temperature

- A measure of degree of hotness and coldness about an object

- Use thermometer to measure the degree
- Uses degree Celcius (C。) and kelvin (K) to measure
- Temperature depends on
 The degree of movement of particles in a matter

Heat Flow

- Flows from a hotter region to a colder region

Exp : Ice creams will melt if you put it outside without freezing it, because the temperature
outside is hot and they flows to ice creams, which are cold

There are three ways for heat to flow

First, Conduction

Heat will flows through a SOLID, exp : A pot with fire underneath will makes the ingredient inside
cooked because the pot transfers the hot to the inside and outside of it

Second, Convection

Heat will flows through fluid (Liquid or gas) and there will be a circulation which is called convection
current

Last, Radiation

Heat will flows without any median, and will be transferred through the empty spaces. The heat will
be influenced by the total surface area

Sun heats the Earth through vacuum

How does sea breeze happen?

The sun heats the land up quicker that the sea. Hence, air above the land is warmer and less dense
so it will rise up. The air above the sea is colder and more dense so it moves to the land

How does land breeze happen?

The land cools down faster than the sea. Hence, air above the sea is hotter and it will rise since it has
lesser dense. The air above the land is colder and have more dense so it will moves to the sea.

Hot Conductor = allows heat flows (usually metal)

Hot Insulator = prevent heat flows

Thermal contact = two objects touch to exchange the temperature

Thermal equilibrium = two objects that touch has the same temperature

If a thing gets hotter, it expands （扩大）Expansion

If a thing cooled down, it contract （缩小）Contraction

Black and dull color = absorb and cooled down faster

White and shiny color = absorb and cooled down slower

Chapter 10.1 (Sound Waves) Form 2

Sound waves is a form of energy that propogate (Transfer) through vibration

- Sound propogates through medium (Solid, Liquid, Gas)

- Sound propogates at different speed through different medium
- Sound can be absorbed and reflected

Medium that absorb sound easily (They can block sound because they already absorb the sound)

(Hard and smooth surfaces)

- Wall
- Marble Tiles

Medium that reflect sound easily

(Soft and rough surfaces)

- Carpet
- Softboard

Sound have different strengths and pitches

Loudness of sound

- The loudness or the strengths

- Depends on the amplitude of sound wave

Pitch of sound

- Low pitch or high pitch

- Depends on the frequency
- The unit : hertz (Hz)

The doppler effect

- The obvious change in frequency

- This effect will happens because of the siren approaches the stationery object

Echo happens when sound waves are reflected from a hard surface to the listener’s ear

Echos happen at : empty spaces, tunnels, caves

Ultrasound : A type of sound waves that have frequency more that 20000 Hz

Sonar : A type of technology that produces ultrasound to detect fish, enemies and anything

Humans can only hear sound waves that have frequency from range 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
Chapter 11 (Galaxies) Form 2

Galaxies = A set of bodies consist millions of stars with gas and dust particles

Three types of galaxies :

Spiral Galaxies

- Andromeda
- The milky way

Elliptical Galaxies

- Ursa Major
- Messier 87

Irregular Galaxies

- Small Magellanic cloud

- Large Magellanic cloud

Characteristics of stars

- Colour
- Brightness
- Size
- Distance
- Temperature

The stars temperature

(Red) – the coolest

(Orange)

(Yellow)

(White)

(Blue) – the hottest

Star is formed from nebula

Nebula = large cloud that consists dust particles and gas such as hydrogen and helium.

The gases and dust particles will convert into a globe because of the strong gravitational force. It will
turns into a core and the hydrogen gas will become helium gas and it will become hotter and hotter
until it form a protostar (baby star). The protostar will soon become an average star (Like The Sun) or
massive star.

Death of stars
Stars used a lot of heat in the process of forming it. Hence, the outermost (the farest part of the
star) will started to burn and inhale all the hydrogen gas and it will started to expand because of the
heat and form a star in red (Red Giant)

- If the red giant is not massive, it forms a “White Dwarf”

- If it’s big, it will turn into super giant, it will sink very quickly and explode (supernova) It’s
extremely bright and it will turn into a neutron star
However, if the star before burning all the hydrogen gas is super – large star, it will become a
black hole after the process of supernova