MICROBES

Microbes are tiny living things that are found all around us and are too small to be
seen by the naked eye. They live in water, soil, and in the air. The human body is
home to millions of these microbes too, also called microorganisms.
Some microbes make us sick, others are important for our health. The most
common types are bacteria, viruses and fungi. There are also microbes called
protozoa. These are tiny living things that are responsible for diseases such as
toxoplasmosis and malaria.
Go to:

Bacteria are made up of just one cell

Bacteria are single-cell organisms. Some bacteria need oxygen to survive and
others do not. Some love the heat, while others prefer a cold environment. Well-
known examples of bacteria include salmonella and staphylococcus bacteria.
Most bacteria aren't dangerous for humans. Many of them even live on or in our
body and help us to stay healthy. For instance, lactic acid bacteria in the bowel
help us to digest food. Other bacteria help the immune system by fighting germs.
Some bacteria are also needed in order to produce certain types of food, like
yogurt, sauerkraut or cheese.
Less than 1% of all bacteria are responsible for diseases – but this is just a rough
estimate because there are no exact numbers. Tuberculosis, for instance, is caused
by bacteria. Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics. These are
medicines that kill the bacteria or at least stop them from multiplying.
Many other infections – including diarrhea, colds or tonsillitis – can also be caused
by bacteria, but viruses are usually responsible for them. Antibiotics aren't
effective against viruses. So it's not a good idea to start using them too soon if it's
only suspected that bacteria are causing the infection.
Go to:
 Viruses invade healthy cells and make us ill
Unlike bacteria, viruses have no cells of their own. This means that they're not,
strictly speaking, living organisms. Instead, they're made up of one or more
molecules surrounded by a protein shell. The genetic information found inside this
shell is needed for the viruses to reproduce.
Many viruses are responsible for diseases. Some are harmless and only trigger a
minor cold, while others can cause serious diseases like AIDS. Other diseases
caused by viruses include influenza ("the flu"), measles or inflammation of the
liver (viral hepatitis).
Viruses invade healthy cells and start to multiply from these cells. A virus can't
reproduce without these host cells. Not all viruses cause symptoms, and in many
cases the body successfully fights back against the attackers. This is the case with
cold sores, which many people have experienced at some time. They are caused by
viruses that are found in certain nerve cells and can lead to the typical blisters in
some people if their immune system is weak or run-down.
It's relatively difficult to fight viruses with medication. To protect against some
viruses, the immune system can be “trained” by a vaccination so that the body is
better prepared to fight the virus.
Go to:

Fungi are widespread

Fungi can live in lots of different environments. The best-known fungi include
yeast, mold and edible fungi like mushrooms. Just like bacteria, some fungi occur
naturally on the skin or in the body. But fungi can also cause diseases.
Diseases caused by fungi are called mycoses. Common examples include athlete’s
foot or fungal infections of the nails. Fungal infections can sometimes also cause
inflammations of the lungs, or of mucous membranes in the mouth or on the
reproductive organs, and become life-threatening for people who have a weakened
immune system.
But humans have also benefited from the helpful qualities of some fungi. We owe
the discovery of penicillin to a type of mold that is used to produce this antibiotic.
extracing nutrients. Several species of fungi, mostly yeasts, live harmlessly on the
human body.
 Protists

Protists are single-celled or multi-cellular, microscopic organism with cell nuclei, and
which aren't plants, animals, or fungi. Multi-cellular protists live as colonies, without
specialization. Protists are a category of leftovers and oddballs that don’t fit into other
groups, and taxonomists are continually reorganizing them.
Because protists are defined more by what they don’t have than what they do, they’re
a very diverse group. Some make their own food using chloroplasts, but most don’t.
They have many ways of moving around, including flagella, cilia, and amoeboid
action. They have multiple ways of reproducing, and some have quite complex life
cycles. But they have membrane-wrapped organelles and an outer cell membrane.
Several parasitic protists can cause deadly diseases, including malaria, amoebic
dysentery, and giardia. But the human body is also home to beneficial and neutral
protists.
 Viruses

Viruses are microscopic particles made of nucleic acids, proteins, and sometimes
lipids. Viruses can’t reproduce on their own. Instead, they reproduce by infecting
other cells and hijacking their host’s cellular machinery. Viruses are specialized to
infect a certain host, and often a specific cell type within that host. HIV, for example,
infects a certain type of immune cell in primates. Other viruses infect plants, animals,
bacteria, or archaea.
Since the ability to reproduce is often listed as a requirement for life, some consider
viruses to be non-living. Regardless, viruses are an important part of all ecosystems,
including the human body.
In our bodies, viruses infect not only our cells, but also other microbes that live in our
bodies. Viruses that infect bacteria are called baceriophage. Viruses that infect archaea
come in unusual shapes: some have two tails, others are shaped like bottles or flowers.

Microscopic Animals

Microscopic animals are also counted as microbes. Animals are multicellular, with
different types of cells that carry out specialized functions. Their cells have
membrane-wrapped compartments, including nuclei. Flexible membranes enclose
each cell, but animal cells do not have rigid cell walls. In contrast to plants, they
cannot make their own food. Microscopic animals include mostly arthropods,
crustaceans, and rotifers.
Mites are one type of microscopic animal that can live on our bodies. These spider-
like arachnids live in tight spaces, including hair follicles. Most of us have them and
don’t even know it.
 Microscopic Plants

The "microbe" category includes microscopic plants. Most microscopic plants are
counted among the “green algae” (a general term), and they live as single cells
(sometimes with flagella) or long fibers. Plant cells have membrane-wrapped
compartments, they’re surrounded by both an outer membrane and a cell wall made of
cellulose, and they have chloroplasts for making their own food.
Microscopic plants generally do not live in or on the human body, but they are very
important food sources for animals in both freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. They
also release oxygen, which is essential for animal life.
The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient
times, such as in Jain scriptures from sixth century BC India. The scientific
study of microorganisms began with their observation under
the microscope in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis
Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the
theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that
microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria,
and anthrax.
Because microorganisms include most unicellular organisms from all three
domains of life they can be extremely diverse. Two of the three
domains, Archaea and Bacteria, only contain microorganisms. The third
domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms as well as many
unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes. Some protists are
related to animals and some to green plants. There are also many
multicellular organisms that are microscopic, namely micro-animals,
some fungi, and some algae, but these are generally not considered
microorganisms.[further explanation needed]
Microorganisms can have very different habitats, and live everywhere from
the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some
are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very cold conditions, others
to high pressure, and a few, such as Deinococcus radiodurans, to high
radiation environments. Microorganisms also make up
the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. There is
evidence that 3.45-billion-year-old Australian rocks once contained
microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Earth.[1][2]
Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving
to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and
other bioactive compounds. Microbes are essential tools in biology as model
organisms and have been put to use in biological warfare and bioterrorism.
Microbes are a vital component of fertile soil. In the human body,
microorganisms make up the human microbiota, including the essential gut
flora. The pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes
and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures.
Microbes have numerous shapes. Are all microbes considered
harmful? Microscopic organisms can be either harmful microorganisms or
beneficial microorganisms. Harmful types may cause mild or serious
diseases in humans and animals. On the contrary, useful types may be
beneficial for either the human body or in some industrial processes.

Biology definition:
A microbe refers to any of the microorganisms, especially those
causing diseases or infections. The term microbe was coined to refer
collectively to microscopic organisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and viruses. However, the term is used commonly to denote any of
the bacteria that are harmful, pathogenic. Etymology: Greek mīkro- (small)- +
bíos (life). Synonym: microorganism (micro-organism).

Discovery
Microbes have been discovered many years ago. During every era, scientists
classified them according to different features.

Ancient precursors
Ancient precursors varied according to different features. They noticed the
presence of certain symptoms associated with certain diseases. They
assumed that diseases were associated with the presence of certain agents
transmitted from the diseased to the healthy person. However, they did not
attribute illnesses yet to microbes. So ancient precursors correlated diseases
to other factors such as the association of malaria with bad air. Therefore,
hygiene was their approach to fighting malaria.

Other ancients used microbes without knowing they exist in some fields
such as the fermentation process. Fruits and honey were used in the
microbial fermentation process to make beverages. The steps of the
discovery process of microbes in ancient precursors went as follows:

• Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, stated that diseases are

caused within humans or by the environment surrounding them.
• Marcus Terentius proposed that diseases were caused by something
that can not be seen. He warned others from living beside the
swamps. Since he thought that minute creatures lived there spreading
in the air and can enter the human body causing diseases.
• Girolamo Fracastoro suggested that diseases were transmitted from
one person to another in ways such as by direct contact with the
infected person or his clothes or being in contact with the infected air
surrounding the infected person.

Early modern

• Athanasius Kircher studied the blood of patients infected with

bubonic plague under a microscope. He found small “worms” that
 caused the plague. His discovery was considered the first theory of
diseases caused by germs.
• Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek discovered a great number of living
things or life forms under the microscope. But he did not correlate
their existence with diseases. So, this observation was considered the
first description of microorganisms.
• Sir John Pringle was the first scientist to propose using antiseptics in
hospitals and quarters.
• Alexander Gordon was the first scientist to describe the contagious
nature of puerperal fever. He also suggested that doctors who treated
the patient must wash well to avoid being infected.

19th century

• John Goodsir was one of the first people to correlate disease with a
specific microorganism. He examined the vomiting of a diseased
person under the microscope and found microorganisms, which he
called Sarcina ventriculi.
• Louis Pasteur worked on both the fermentation
and pasteurization processes of milk and wine. He suggested that
microorganisms present in the atmosphere were responsible for
fermentation.
• Robert Koch detected microbes that caused anthrax, tuberculosis, and
cholera.

Classification and Structure

Let us understand microbial evolution and the different types of microbes.

Evolution
In the evolutionary tree, the genes are transferred either vertically or
horizontally, however, the evolution of microbes resembles a net where the
transfer of genes occurs between several species at the same time.

Genes are transferred between microbes in several ways. Genes present

in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) may be transferred from a donor to recipient
bacteria through a tube connecting the two cells. Genes can also be
transferred from one microbe to another through mobile plasmids.
Another method by which genes are transferred involves the bacteriophage,
which is a virus that infects certain microbes and transfers its genes to
another microbe by subsequently infecting it. All transferred genes may be
inherited by the following generation contributing to their evolution.

For example, one of the most common evolutionary genes for microbes are
antibiotic resistance genes where microbes develop mutations to protect
them again antibiotics, these genes move to other cells by one of the three
mechanisms- most commonly by plasmid- and recipient cells, as well as their
next generations, become resistant to that certain type of antibiotic without
even being exposed to it.

Archaea

Halobacterium sp. strain NRC-1, an

archaeon species
Archaea are primitive prokaryotic organisms; they lack a nucleus. There are
two groups of archaea: (1) Crenarchaeota, ammonia-oxidizing
microorganisms found in the soil, and (2) Euryarchaeota, found in the deep-
sea marina. Archaea can be found in harsh environments, such as in high
saline concentration, acidic, and anaerobic environments. Archaea can live
in the human body. The structure of archaea is characterized by the
presence of multiple RNA polymerase enzymes. The archaeal cell wall does
not contain peptidoglycan. The glycerol and fatty acids are connected
through ether bonds in archaea and not ester bonds as bacteria.
Bacteria

Figure 1: E. coli germs under a

microscope. Image Credit: Wikimedia
Are bacteria microbes? Bacteria are considered a type of microorganism.
They are single-celled organisms that have a cell wall containing
peptidoglycan. and contain a nucleoid as they do not have organized nuclei.
Some microbial bacteria have a single loop of DNA at the center while
others have a circular DNA called a plasmid. Here are some of the general
features of bacteria:

• Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms.

• Bacteria are classified into groups depending on their shape. Bacteria
under the microscope are as follows: cocci bacteria, corkscrew, rod
(bacilli), vibrio, spiral.
• Bacteria may be found as singles or pairs or chains.
• Bacteria spread in every place on earth, from soil to the human body.
• Are bacteria a living thing? Bacteria are living things and can be either
pathogenic microorganisms and cause diseases or can be useful like
human microbes in the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts.
• Bacteria are covered with two layers — outer cell wall and inner cell
membrane. Conversely, Mycoplasma bacteria do not have a cell wall.
Others have a third layer called a capsule.
• Some bacteria move via flagella or pili.
• Bacteria are either gram-negative or gram-positive according to their
peptidoglycan layer thickness and the existence of an outer lipid
membrane.
Eukaryotes
Microbial eukaryotes have three groups as follows:

• Protists
Protists are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms. They have a nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. Some protists have the ability to
do photosynthesis to make nutrients using sunlight
(called photoautotrophs). Others swallow up food, as heterotrophs.

• Fungi
Fungi microorganisms are eukaryotes. While many are multicellular, there
are fungi that are single-celled, particularly yeast (Saccharomyces).
Mushrooms and molds are fruiting bodies of fungi that under the
microscope appear as long fibrous structures (hyphae).

• Plant-like Microbes
Algae are plant-like microorganisms because they have chloroplasts. But
aside from chloroplasts, they have other plastids that give them colors other
than green. There are macroalgae, such as kelps, but those that are
considered microorganisms are single-celled algae, such
as diatoms and dinoflagellates. Algae thriving in aquatic habitats, such as
marine and freshwater, are members of the plankton.

Ecology
Microorganisms can be found in every part of the earth depending on their
adaptation to the surrounding environment.

Extremophiles
Extremophiles are mainly prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea). Extremophiles
are organisms that can bear environmental extreme conditions. They exist
in different extreme conditions as follows:

• Acidophilic conditions: where acidophilic organisms grow in pH

between 1 to 5
• Alkaliphilic conditions: where alkaliphilic organisms live in pH over 9
• Halophilic conditions: halophilic organisms grow in high
concentrations of salt
• Thermophilic conditions: thermophilic organisms grow in high
temperatures
 • Psychrophilic conditions: psychrophilic organisms grow in extremely
low temperatures
• Barophilic conditions: the growth of barophilic organisms requires
high pressure
• Oligotrophic conditions: they grow in an environment that has a
shortage of nutrients
• Xerophilic conditions: where the growth needs dry conditions and a
minimal amount of water

Plants and soil

There are numerous microbes in soil and plants. For example, the
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, have a beneficial role
where they improve the nutrition of the plant through minerals. Different
types of microbes developed adaptation methods to survive inside the soil,
plant roots, or exudates. However, not all microbes are beneficial for plants
and soil, where some microbes can infect plants and diminish them.

Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a long-term relationship between two or more organisms or
organisms and other biological species. symbiosis differs according to
benefits as follows:

• Mutualism: where both species benefit from this interaction. For

example, Escherichia coli microbes exist inside the human gut where
they get nutrients, while humans benefit from their existence as they
produce important vitamins for humans such as vitamin K.
• Commensalism: where one of the species benefits while the other
remains unaffected, such as the commensal
microorganisms Staphylococcus epidermidis found on our skin using
dead skin cells for nutrition. A healthy human does not benefit or harm
from their presence.
• Parasitism: when one of the species harms the other. The relationship
between humans and pathogenic disease-causing microorganisms or
parasites is an example of parasitism.

Applications
Microbes are utilized in numerous applications such as:
1. Food production
Microbes can be used to produce foods such as bread, fermented meat, and
fish, fermented milk products such as cheese and yogurt, or even in the
preservation of different foods.

2. Water treatment
Microbes are used in cleaning water to be consumed by humans. The
general role of microbes is to convert toxic substances found in water to
harmless substances. For example, the conversion of organic matter to
CO2 and H2O by using microorganisms and their enzymes. This technology
is known as bioremediation. There are many microbes to be used in water
treatment as follows:

• Aerobic microorganisms: uses free oxygen in the water to degrade

toxins in the wastewater.
• Anaerobic microorganisms: they are used to convert toxins water into
methane gas.

• Obligate anaerobic bacteria are commercially cheap since they do not

need oxygen to purify water.
• Facultative: they are types of bacteria that can be either aerobic or
anaerobic depending on the environment.

3. Energy
Microorganisms can be used to produce energy. Using microorganisms in
generating energy is a cheap and reproducible method. Hydrogen is
produced using cyanobacteria in a process called oxygenic photosynthesis
using water and sunlight only. Moreover, methane is another fuel that can
be generated by microbes in a process known as methanogenesis. Also,
electrical energy is generated using microbes using a microbial fuel cell
which depends on the decomposition of organic or inorganic matter at the
anode using specific organisms, which leads to flowing electrons from the
anode to the cathode through a conductive matter such as copper
generating electricity.
4. Chemicals, enzymes
The usage of microbes in the chemical industry is referred to as industrial
microbiology. As microbes can produce citric acid and other organic acids
fermentation of lemon. Organic acids also may be produced using glucose
by Aspergillus niger bacteria. Microbial enzymes can be used in commercial
fields since they are more stable than animal enzymes. Microbial enzymes
can be used in the production of glucose syrups, the paper industry, and
decreasing the viscosity of starch. One of the most widely used enzymes
is alpha-amylases that are able to break down alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds of
polysaccharides such as starch, producing a short chain of dextrins.

5. Science
Microbes are extremely important in different fields of research. They
contribute to many molecular biology breakthroughs such as understanding
the mechanism of protein synthesis and genetic coding. Microbes are used
as an example of how biological systems work, therefore, using microbes
helps in the development of new medicines, production of new enzymes
used in medical or industrial fields, clinical diagnosis, forensics, and DNA
applications such as cloning.

Many pharmaceutical products were developed and discovered using

microbial biotechnology to cure several diseases. For example,
human insulin hormone was produced using genetically modified microbes
to control diabetes. Moreover, a huge number of vaccines are manufactured
using attenuated or modified microbes to prevent serious infections.

6. Warfare
Bacterial agents, toxins, and viruses expose the health of humans to danger.
These agents can be used in warfare attacks. Bioterrorist attacks pose
challenges to human health as they are difficult to contain. For example, the
plague in the ancient era killed a great number of people and the bodies of
dead victims were moved to other cities to spread the disease. Indian
populations were infected with smallpox after supplying them with linens
and blankets used by smallpox patients. Biological weapons are dangerous
since they can spread easily in the form of aerosols or by introducing
microbes in food or clothes.
7. Soil
Indigenous microorganisms have a role in biodegradation, improving soil
fertility, and nitrogen fixation in the soil. There are five types of microbes
that live in the soil; bacteria, which are responsible for the final stage of
breaking down nutrients in the root of the plant.

Actinomycetes are a type of fungi that act as an antibiotic. Moreover, fungi

such as mycorrhiza live in roots, they facilitate water reuptake by roots.

Protozoa eat harmful bacteria that harm the plant and consume nutrients.

Nematode worms are found around the plant to protect the plant from
different pathogens.

Human Health
Microbes affect human health in different ways such as discussed below.

Human gut flora

What are microorganisms in the human gut? Human gut flora contains about
300 to 500 types of microorganisms. It is important for the health of
humans in many ways since flora can protect humans from diseases by
competing with other bacteria, additionally, the normal flora can also
protect the gut against inflammation. It also helps in the fermentation of
non-digestible substrates such as fibers to produce short chains of fatty
acids such as acetate, butyrate, and propionate.

Disease
Microbes can infect humans. Some infections can be easily managed by
the immune system while others can be severe and life-threatening.
Microbes may infect the respiratory tract causing tuberculosis, the
gastrointestinal tract causing diarrhea, and the urogenital tract causing
cystitis.

Hygiene
Hygiene is the main weapon for humans to protect themselves against
microbes. The human body can be protected from microbes by washing and
disinfecting hands frequently, brushing teeth twice daily, washing the whole
body every day, and shortening nails to avoid infections
Microbes have numerous shapes. Are all microbes considered
harmful? Microscopic organisms can be either harmful microorganisms or
beneficial microorganisms. Harmful types may cause mild or serious
diseases in humans and animals. On the contrary, useful types may be
beneficial for either the human body or in some industrial processes.

Biology definition:
A microbe refers to any of the microorganisms, especially those
causing diseases or infections. The term microbe was coined to refer
collectively to microscopic organisms, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and viruses. However, the term is used commonly to denote any of
the bacteria that are harmful, pathogenic. Etymology: Greek mīkro- (small)- +
bíos (life). Synonym: microorganism (micro-organism).

Discovery
Microbes have been discovered many years ago. During every era, scientists
classified them according to different features.

Ancient precursors
Ancient precursors varied according to different features. They noticed the
presence of certain symptoms associated with certain diseases. They
assumed that diseases were associated with the presence of certain agents
transmitted from the diseased to the healthy person. However, they did not
attribute illnesses yet to microbes. So ancient precursors correlated diseases
to other factors such as the association of malaria with bad air. Therefore,
hygiene was their approach to fighting malaria.

Other ancients used microbes without knowing they exist in some fields
such as the fermentation process. Fruits and honey were used in the
microbial fermentation process to make beverages. The steps of the
discovery process of microbes in ancient precursors went as follows:

• Hippocrates, the father of western medicine, stated that diseases are

caused within humans or by the environment surrounding them.
• Marcus Terentius proposed that diseases were caused by something
that can not be seen. He warned others from living beside the
 swamps. Since he thought that minute creatures lived there spreading
in the air and can enter the human body causing diseases.
• Girolamo Fracastoro suggested that diseases were transmitted from
one person to another in ways such as by direct contact with the
infected person or his clothes or being in contact with the infected air
surrounding the infected person.

Early modern

• Athanasius Kircher studied the blood of patients infected with

bubonic plague under a microscope. He found small “worms” that
caused the plague. His discovery was considered the first theory of
diseases caused by germs.
• Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek discovered a great number of living
things or life forms under the microscope. But he did not correlate
their existence with diseases. So, this observation was considered the
first description of microorganisms.
• Sir John Pringle was the first scientist to propose using antiseptics in
hospitals and quarters.
• Alexander Gordon was the first scientist to describe the contagious
nature of puerperal fever. He also suggested that doctors who treated
the patient must wash well to avoid being infected.

19th century

• John Goodsir was one of the first people to correlate disease with a
specific microorganism. He examined the vomiting of a diseased
person under the microscope and found microorganisms, which he
called Sarcina ventriculi.
• Louis Pasteur worked on both the fermentation
and pasteurization processes of milk and wine. He suggested that
microorganisms present in the atmosphere were responsible for
fermentation.
• Robert Koch detected microbes that caused anthrax, tuberculosis, and
cholera.

Classification and Structure

Let us understand microbial evolution and the different types of microbes.
Evolution
In the evolutionary tree, the genes are transferred either vertically or
horizontally, however, the evolution of microbes resembles a net where the
transfer of genes occurs between several species at the same time.

Genes are transferred between microbes in several ways. Genes present

in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) may be transferred from a donor to recipient
bacteria through a tube connecting the two cells. Genes can also be
transferred from one microbe to another through mobile plasmids.

Another method by which genes are transferred involves the bacteriophage,

which is a virus that infects certain microbes and transfers its genes to
another microbe by subsequently infecting it. All transferred genes may be
inherited by the following generation contributing to their evolution.

For example, one of the most common evolutionary genes for microbes are
antibiotic resistance genes where microbes develop mutations to protect
them again antibiotics, these genes move to other cells by one of the three
mechanisms- most commonly by plasmid- and recipient cells, as well as their
next generations, become resistant to that certain type of antibiotic without
even being exposed to it.

Archaea

Halobacterium sp. strain NRC-1, an

archaeon species
Archaea are primitive prokaryotic organisms; they lack a nucleus. There are
two groups of archaea: (1) Crenarchaeota, ammonia-oxidizing
microorganisms found in the soil, and (2) Euryarchaeota, found in the deep-
sea marina. Archaea can be found in harsh environments, such as in high
saline concentration, acidic, and anaerobic environments. Archaea can live
in the human body. The structure of archaea is characterized by the
presence of multiple RNA polymerase enzymes. The archaeal cell wall does
not contain peptidoglycan. The glycerol and fatty acids are connected
through ether bonds in archaea and not ester bonds as bacteria.

Bacteria

Figure 1: E. coli germs under a

microscope. Image Credit: Wikimedia
Are bacteria microbes? Bacteria are considered a type of microorganism.
They are single-celled organisms that have a cell wall containing
peptidoglycan. and contain a nucleoid as they do not have organized nuclei.
Some microbial bacteria have a single loop of DNA at the center while
others have a circular DNA called a plasmid. Here are some of the general
features of bacteria:

• Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms.

• Bacteria are classified into groups depending on their shape. Bacteria
under the microscope are as follows: cocci bacteria, corkscrew, rod
(bacilli), vibrio, spiral.
• Bacteria may be found as singles or pairs or chains.
• Bacteria spread in every place on earth, from soil to the human body.
 • Are bacteria a living thing? Bacteria are living things and can be either
pathogenic microorganisms and cause diseases or can be useful like
human microbes in the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts.
• Bacteria are covered with two layers — outer cell wall and inner cell
membrane. Conversely, Mycoplasma bacteria do not have a cell wall.
Others have a third layer called a capsule.
• Some bacteria move via flagella or pili.
• Bacteria are either gram-negative or gram-positive according to their
peptidoglycan layer thickness and the existence of an outer lipid
membrane.

Eukaryotes
Microbial eukaryotes have three groups as follows:

• Protists
Protists are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms. They have a nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. Some protists have the ability to
do photosynthesis to make nutrients using sunlight
(called photoautotrophs). Others swallow up food, as heterotrophs.

• Fungi
Fungi microorganisms are eukaryotes. While many are multicellular, there
are fungi that are single-celled, particularly yeast (Saccharomyces).
Mushrooms and molds are fruiting bodies of fungi that under the
microscope appear as long fibrous structures (hyphae).

• Plant-like Microbes
Algae are plant-like microorganisms because they have chloroplasts. But
aside from chloroplasts, they have other plastids that give them colors other
than green. There are macroalgae, such as kelps, but those that are
considered microorganisms are single-celled algae, such
as diatoms and dinoflagellates. Algae thriving in aquatic habitats, such as
marine and freshwater, are members of the plankton.

Ecology
Microorganisms can be found in every part of the earth depending on their
adaptation to the surrounding environment.
Extremophiles
Extremophiles are mainly prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea). Extremophiles
are organisms that can bear environmental extreme conditions. They exist
in different extreme conditions as follows:

• Acidophilic conditions: where acidophilic organisms grow in pH

between 1 to 5
• Alkaliphilic conditions: where alkaliphilic organisms live in pH over 9
• Halophilic conditions: halophilic organisms grow in high
concentrations of salt
• Thermophilic conditions: thermophilic organisms grow in high
temperatures
• Psychrophilic conditions: psychrophilic organisms grow in extremely
low temperatures
• Barophilic conditions: the growth of barophilic organisms requires
high pressure
• Oligotrophic conditions: they grow in an environment that has a
shortage of nutrients
• Xerophilic conditions: where the growth needs dry conditions and a
minimal amount of water

Plants and soil

There are numerous microbes in soil and plants. For example, the
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi, have a beneficial role
where they improve the nutrition of the plant through minerals. Different
types of microbes developed adaptation methods to survive inside the soil,
plant roots, or exudates. However, not all microbes are beneficial for plants
and soil, where some microbes can infect plants and diminish them.

Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a long-term relationship between two or more organisms or
organisms and other biological species. symbiosis differs according to
benefits as follows:

• Mutualism: where both species benefit from this interaction. For

example, Escherichia coli microbes exist inside the human gut where
they get nutrients, while humans benefit from their existence as they
produce important vitamins for humans such as vitamin K.
 • Commensalism: where one of the species benefits while the other
remains unaffected, such as the commensal
microorganisms Staphylococcus epidermidis found on our skin using
dead skin cells for nutrition. A healthy human does not benefit or harm
from their presence.
• Parasitism: when one of the species harms the other. The relationship
between humans and pathogenic disease-causing microorganisms or
parasites is an example of parasitism.

Applications
Microbes are utilized in numerous applications such as:

1. Food production
Microbes can be used to produce foods such as bread, fermented meat, and
fish, fermented milk products such as cheese and yogurt, or even in the
preservation of different foods.

2. Water treatment
Microbes are used in cleaning water to be consumed by humans. The
general role of microbes is to convert toxic substances found in water to
harmless substances. For example, the conversion of organic matter to
CO2 and H2O by using microorganisms and their enzymes. This technology
is known as bioremediation. There are many microbes to be used in water
treatment as follows:

• Aerobic microorganisms: uses free oxygen in the water to degrade

toxins in the wastewater.
• Anaerobic microorganisms: they are used to convert toxins water into
methane gas.

• Obligate anaerobic bacteria are commercially cheap since they do not

need oxygen to purify water.
• Facultative: they are types of bacteria that can be either aerobic or
anaerobic depending on the environment.
3. Energy
Microorganisms can be used to produce energy. Using microorganisms in
generating energy is a cheap and reproducible method. Hydrogen is
produced using cyanobacteria in a process called oxygenic photosynthesis
using water and sunlight only. Moreover, methane is another fuel that can
be generated by microbes in a process known as methanogenesis. Also,
electrical energy is generated using microbes using a microbial fuel cell
which depends on the decomposition of organic or inorganic matter at the
anode using specific organisms, which leads to flowing electrons from the
anode to the cathode through a conductive matter such as copper
generating electricity.

4. Chemicals, enzymes
The usage of microbes in the chemical industry is referred to as industrial
microbiology. As microbes can produce citric acid and other organic acids
fermentation of lemon. Organic acids also may be produced using glucose
by Aspergillus niger bacteria. Microbial enzymes can be used in commercial
fields since they are more stable than animal enzymes. Microbial enzymes
can be used in the production of glucose syrups, the paper industry, and
decreasing the viscosity of starch. One of the most widely used enzymes
is alpha-amylases that are able to break down alpha 1,4 glycosidic bonds of
polysaccharides such as starch, producing a short chain of dextrins.

5. Science
Microbes are extremely important in different fields of research. They
contribute to many molecular biology breakthroughs such as understanding
the mechanism of protein synthesis and genetic coding. Microbes are used
as an example of how biological systems work, therefore, using microbes
helps in the development of new medicines, production of new enzymes
used in medical or industrial fields, clinical diagnosis, forensics, and DNA
applications such as cloning.

Many pharmaceutical products were developed and discovered using

microbial biotechnology to cure several diseases. For example,
human insulin hormone was produced using genetically modified microbes
to control diabetes. Moreover, a huge number of vaccines are manufactured
using attenuated or modified microbes to prevent serious infections.
6. Warfare
Bacterial agents, toxins, and viruses expose the health of humans to danger.
These agents can be used in warfare attacks. Bioterrorist attacks pose
challenges to human health as they are difficult to contain. For example, the
plague in the ancient era killed a great number of people and the bodies of
dead victims were moved to other cities to spread the disease. Indian
populations were infected with smallpox after supplying them with linens
and blankets used by smallpox patients. Biological weapons are dangerous
since they can spread easily in the form of aerosols or by introducing
microbes in food or clothes.

7. Soil
Indigenous microorganisms have a role in biodegradation, improving soil
fertility, and nitrogen fixation in the soil. There are five types of microbes
that live in the soil; bacteria, which are responsible for the final stage of
breaking down nutrients in the root of the plant.

Actinomycetes are a type of fungi that act as an antibiotic. Moreover, fungi

such as mycorrhiza live in roots, they facilitate water reuptake by roots.

Protozoa eat harmful bacteria that harm the plant and consume nutrients.

Nematode worms are found around the plant to protect the plant from
different pathogens.

Human Health
Microbes affect human health in different ways such as discussed below.

Human gut flora

What are microorganisms in the human gut? Human gut flora contains about
300 to 500 types of microorganisms. It is important for the health of
humans in many ways since flora can protect humans from diseases by
competing with other bacteria, additionally, the normal flora can also
protect the gut against inflammation. It also helps in the fermentation of
non-digestible substrates such as fibers to produce short chains of fatty
acids such as acetate, butyrate, and propionate.
Disease
Microbes can infect humans. Some infections can be easily managed by
the immune system while others can be severe and life-threatening.
Microbes may infect the respiratory tract causing tuberculosis, the
gastrointestinal tract causing diarrhea, and the urogenital tract causing
cystitis.

Hygiene
Hygiene is the main weapon for humans to protect themselves against
microbes. The human body can be protected from microbes by washing and
disinfecting hands frequently, brushing teeth twice daily, washing the whole
body every day, and shortening nails to avoid infections