Integrated Training System - Designed in association with the \ club66pro.com question practice aid e Module 8 2nd Edition Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comIntegrated Training System (ay Sree mor mises ye Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives” We suggest that you take each chapter in-tum, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono Printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. Module 8 Preface y TTS integeated Training System ‘© Copynaht 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank ii Module 8 Preface TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011“ 5 Integrated Trainin: Module 8 Chapters 8.1. Physics of the Atmosphere 8.2. Aerodynamics 8.3. Theory of Flight 8.4, Flight Stability and Dynamics Module 8 Preface ili TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011raining System Intentionally Blank iv Module 8 Preface TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 20117 j Integrated Training System oy 9 t 2 ms " TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Licence Category B1 and B2 Basic Aerodynamics 8.1 Physics of the AtmosphereIntegrated Training System ¢ ned in association vt en pete a S Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category Bt or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject, Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, crawings and schematics describing the subject The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects, The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals, and specitic examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate, 12 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ‘TTS integrated Training System evn by bw stort © Copyright 2011 "rage oa cnaw Table of Contents Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere The Atmosphere __ Gas Composition Integrated Training System Regions of the Atmosphere Temperature Pressure Performance Ceilings The Gas Laws The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Humidity Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-3 TTS integrated Teaining System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 14 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011FA Integrated Training System A sige Sangean ea Module 8.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex Ill (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: chi EASA 66 | Level Objective Reference Bi B2 Intemational Standard Atmosphere (ISA), application) 8.1 2 21 to aerodynamics — _ Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 15 (orerned by to sateen TTS integrated Training System creepers ‘oCopyrgnt aorIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank 1-6 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS integrated Training System ©Copynght 2011Integrated Training System ‘ ton wnt Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere The Atmosphere ‘The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere. There is no defined upper limit to the atmosphere, but most aviation activity takes place within the first 60,000 ft and therefore we need not study above that. Gas Composition The gases found in the atmosphere are in the following proportions (by volume): Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour) These proportions do not change with altitude. Oxygen is essential for the sustenance of life and the combustion of materials. In the context of aviation, oxygen is required for the combustion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in incomplete burning and reduced engine efficiency, Water vapour is present in the atmosphere in varying proportions, and is responsible for the weather around the earth, which in turn affects aircraft operations and performance. Additionally the presence of water vapour may cause icing of the airframe or engine which may impair an aircraft's performance. Regions of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into a number of layers: (a) The Troposphere - Temperature decreases with an increase in height. In this region nearly all significant weather occurs. (b) The Tropopause - The upper limit of the troposphere where temperature stops decreasing with an increase of height. The tropopause is therefore the upper limit of significant weather, the first point of lowest temperature, and additionally itis the region for maximum wind strengths, The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and prevailing weather conditions with the result that it is usually higher in low latitudes, in summer and in fine weather. Typical heights for the tropopause are: Latitude Tropopause Height Equator 16 - 47 km 53,000—57,000 ft 45°NIS 10-12km —— 33,000—39,000 ft Poles 7% -9km 25,000—29,000 ft Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 17 sore TS tntegrateo Training System Sioned ce ‘© Copynant 2011Integ rated Training System wy () The Stratosphere - From the tropopause to approximately 50 km above mean sea level, and is characterized by the temperature being steady or increasing with height (d) The Mesosphere - From 50 km to 80 km. The temperature generally decreases with height. (c) The Thermosphere or lonosphere - Temperature increases with height. Temperature (a) Units The temperature scales most commonly used are Celsius (aiso known as Centigrade), Fahrenheit and Kelvin (also known as Absolute). The first two scales are based on the melting point of ice, being OC and 32 respectively, and the boiling point of water, being 100T or 212F Heat is a form of transfer of energy, and is related to the random movement of molecules in a substance. If heat is reduced, the molecules become less active. The minimum temperature to which a substance can be reduced is approximately minus 273 and this is known as Absolute Zero, or 0 K. Correspondingly, the melting point of ice is equivalent to 273 K and the boiling point of water to 373 K. To convert from one temperature scale to another, the following formulae may be used: Scxa2 5 5 C= Z(F-32) (b) Temperature Variation in the Troposphere At ground level, in general, the temperature increases with a decrease of latitude With increasing altitude, the conductive and convective effects from the earth are reduced so that temperature will usually decrease with height up to the tropopause. Typical values of temperature found at the tropopause are: Latitude Temperature Equator -80 45NIS -56T Poles -45C 1-8 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS integrated Training System oven yi erent © Copyngnt 2011 oa aapCp Integrated Training System There is, therefore, a reversal of temperatures with latitude in comparison to those found at ground level. This is partly because the tropopause is higher at the equator and the temperature decrease is effective over a greater height. 27,000 _45¢¢ ‘TROPOFAUSE Figure 1.1 — Variations of the Tropopause around the World (c) Lapse Rates The temperature decrease with an increase of height is referred to as lapse rate. A representative value of 2T/1000 ft is a typical value for the troposphere, and this figure is used as the reference for the Jet Standard. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) uses the comparable value of 1.98°C/1000 ft. For meteorological purposes, differentiation between dry (that is, not saturated) and saturated adiabatic lapse rates is made, and the values of 3°C/1000 ft and 1.5/1000 ft respectively are used. The difference of lapse rate for saturated air is caused by the release of latent heat during condensation, thus reducing the temperature change. (d) _ Temperature and Aircraft Performance Ata given pressure, an increase of temperature results in a reduction of density. Firstly, considering airframe performance, a reduction of density (p) reduces lift (L). This may be counteracted by increasing the true airspeed (V) to achieve the required amount of lift (L): L=C. %pVv’S where: C= coefficient of lift and S = surface area The dynamic pressure is gained at the expense of an increased take-off run, cruising TAS or landing run according to the stage of flight. Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere. 1-9 TTS integeated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Seep) On the credit side, drag (D) reduces with increase of temperature: D=Cy % pV’S A piston engine's performance is related to the temperature of the air being drawn into the cylinder head. The higher the temperature, the lower the density and weight of fuel/air mixture that can be bumt in the combustion chamber. The power output of the engine therefore falls with increase of temperature For a propulsion system, piston or jet Thrust = Mass of air x Acceleration to which air is subjected Thus an increase of temperature will reduce the mass flow and, therefore the thrust. Pressure Definition Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area, i.e.: Force _Mass_ Acceleration ‘Area Area Pressure = In the atmosphere, pressure is caused by the mass of the gaseous molecules acting under the force of gravity on a given area. As all molecules act under gravity then the pressure can also be considered to be the weight of a column of air on a unit area. Column of Air Figure 1.2 - A column of air 1-10 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TS integrated Training System sonst Copynght 2011 ran teIntegrated Training System Units: The metric units of pressure are dynes per square centimetre, where the dyne is the force required to accelerate 1 gram by 1 centimetre per second, The Systeme international (SI) units of pressure are Newtons per square metre, where the Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram by 1 metre per second. The Newton is equal to 10° dynes. Although largely obsolete, the Imperial system of units is still encountered, and pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch. In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is equivalent to 1000 dynes per square centimetre. Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressure was measured in terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer that the weight of the atmosphere could support. _Nacuurn ‘of Mercury Proportional to Ai Pressure Pressure Figure 1.3 — Principle of the Mercury Barometer Module 8.1 Physics of the Aimosphere 14 gonoreoty esters TTS integrated Training System Seon eae ‘© Copyngnt 2011Integrated Training System Sresccwreaie (as’ Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere At sea level, pressure generally varies between 950 and 1050 mb. In tropical revolving storms and tornadoes, however, pressures may fall much lower. With increasing altitude the mass of overlying air decreases and so the pressure falls. Pressure values of the International Standard Atmosphere are given below: Altitude Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure (tt) (mb) psi) (in Hg) (mm Hg) 40,000 187.6 2.72 30,000 300.9 4.36 20,000 465.6 6.75 10,000 696.8 10.11 0 1013.25 14.7 29.92 760 From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000 ft. the pressure is half the sea level value. Also, it should now be apparent that the rate of pressure decrease with height is not constant. In the first 10,000 ft. the pressure falls at a rate of approximately 1 mb per 30 ft but between 30,000 ft and 40,000 ft the pressure decrease is closer to 1 mb per 88 ft. Pressure Altitude The altitude at which a given pressure occurs in the International Standard Atmosphere is called the pressure altitude. If, for example, the pressure at the top of Mount Everest were determined as 300.9 mb, then the pressure altitude would be 30,000 ft. Assuming the same mean sea level conditions, and two columns of air of the same height, but differing temperatures, then the cold air would have a greater mass than the warm air due to the density difference. The pressure of the atmosphere, however, is caused by the mass of overlying molecules on a unit area. The pressure above the column of warm air is therefore higher than that above cold air, Because a higher pressure is found at a lower level, then the pressure altitude above warm air is lower than the pressure altitude above cold air. Alternatively it can be expressed that the true altitude of an aircraft is more than that indicated (assuming the correct mean sea level pressure has been set on the subscale) above warm air, and less than that indicated above cold air. 1-12 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TS Integrated Traning System aesorcracn © Copyright 2011 nage Se rateoe. Integrated Training System Design f Pressure Corresponding To 700mb ‘and 15008 ‘A Pressure Altitude Of 10,000 ao ‘500K 10,0008 (less dense) 1013mb 1013mb 1013mb Figure 1.4 — Pressure Altitude ~ The effect of temperature on pressure Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1-13 TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011fischer aid Integrated Training System op Designed in assooaton th Density Definition Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, at a specified temperature and pressure. Mass Density = Volume Units Density is expressed in grams, or kilograms per cubic metre for metric or SI units, respectively. The Imperial units are pounds per cubic feet. Factors affecting density when considering a gas are: Pressure Density= | ——_____Fressure_ Gas constant Absolute temperature For a given temperature, therefore, an increase of pressure increases density, or, at a given pressure, a decrease in temperature increases density. Variation of Density in the Atmosphere At sea level, densities vary between 1.20 and 1.55 kg per cu m, the higher values being usually associated with the colder temperatures of higher latitudes, and the lower values typical of Equatorial latitudes. Air at lower levels in the atmosphere is compressed by the mass of the air above it. With increasing altitude, the overlying mass reduces and air can now expand, resulting in a further reduction of pressure. With increasing altitude the temperature also decreases, but at a rate lower than the pressure. Density, therefore, decreases with height. Density values of the International Standard Atmosphere are summarized below: Altitude Density Density fit) [kg/oum] —_[Ib/cu ft] 40,000 0.302 0.019 30,000 0.458 0.029 20,000 0.653 0.041 10,000 0.905 0.056 0 1.225 0.077 At about 22,000 ft, the density is half the sea level value. We have already seen that density at sea level tends to be higher at the Poles than at the Equator. However, at 26,000 ft, the density value is similar at all latitudes. 114 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Variation of Density with Humidity The total pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the sum of the individual pressures of the gases. The pressure of moist air is less than that for dry air, and so humidity decreases the total pressure. From the gas equation, it can be seen that the reduction in pressure results in a lower density. The greater the humidity, the lower the density. Density Altitude This is defined as the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which a given density is found, Aircraft performance is largely dependent on density altitude as opposed to true or pressure attitude, Density and Performance The effects of density on lift, drag, power and thrust have been described in the section about temperature. There are, however, additional effects of density performance. Above about 300 kt TAS, air becomes significantly compressed, and locally increases the density, At much higher speeds this may give a marked increase in drag, and when increasing altitude, this can offset the otherwise reducing drag value. A similar compressibility effect increases drag on a propeller blade, reducing its efficiency, particularly at higher altitudes. A jet engine's performance, however, is enhanced by this compressibility effect as mass flow is improved. Air Density and the Human Body The reduced density of air with increasing altitude means that in a given volume of air breathed in, the oxygen content has decreased. Above 10,000 ft this reduction leads to hypoxia, its effects ranging from lack of judgment to sleepiness or collapse, according to height. At night, the reduced intake of oxygen impairs night vision at altitudes of 4,000 ft and above. To counter these problems, aircraft operating above 10,000 ft must have an enriched oxygen supply, either in conjunction with a pressurized cabin, or through face-masks. At night, ideally, oxygen should be available from ground level upwards. Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 1:15 TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System on t Performance Ceilings Service Ceiling This is defined as the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to a specified figure, usually 100 ft. per minute. Absolute Ceiling The absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero. Piston-Engined Aircraft For such aircraft operating under 26,000 ft. the improved atmospheric density found in winter in high latitudes will give the highest ceiling, Jet-Engined Aircraft As most jet-engined aircraft operate above 26,000 ft, then the best performance ceiling will be found at the highest pressures and lowest temperature, i.e. in summer, and at low latitudes. 116 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011py Integrated Training System Designed in associ at The Gas Laws Introduction Whilst air is not an ideal gas, it does conform within close limits, to the results of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws. Boyle’s Law The volume (V) of a given mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to pressure (P): PV = constant This can be expressed in the form: P; Vy = P2Ve Charles’ Law The volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure, increases by - of its volume at OC for every 1 rise in temperature vo == constant T The alternative expression below is also useful: V, _ V; ae TT, Combined Boyle's and Charles’ Law Equation The results of both laws may be combined in one equation, expressing the behaviour of a gas under varying conditions of pressure, volume and temperature: P.M Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 117 TTS integrated Teaining System ‘©Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Dose in assocaton wth Ne The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) The International Standard Atmosphere is a tabulation with altitude of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, etc, appropriate to mid latitudes (45°N), released by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). In order to provide a datum for aircraft performance comparison, and instrument calibration, this assumed set of conditions is used. Whilst representative, these conditions do not necessarily reflect actual conditions in the atmosphere. The values used are listed below Sea Level Conditions Property Metric Value Pressure 101.3 kPa Density 1.225 Kg/m® ‘Temperature 15 °C of 288.2 K Speed of Sound 340 m/s Viscosity 1.789x10° Kg/m/s 1.460x10° m‘/s 0.02596 Wim/K 287.1 J/Kg/K 1005 J/Kg/K 717.98 J/Kg/K Kinematic Viscosity Thermal Conductivity Gas Constant Specific Heat Cp Specific Heat Cv Imperial Value 2116.2 Ibit? 0.002878 slug/tt® 59 °F or 518.69 °R 1116.4 fs 3.737x10-7 slug/tt/s, 1.5723x10" ft2/s 0.015 BTU/hritt"R 1715.7 tt Ibf/slug?R 6005 ft Ibf/slug°R 4289 ft Ibf/slugR Ratio of Specific Heats 1.40 1.40 Gravitational Acceleration 9.80665 m/s? 32.174 ft/s? 1:18 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere TTS Integrated Training System © Copynght 2011ow International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Data Viscosity Visco: R atic Integrated Training System Kinematic Ratio b socio wth the SHO f1OCNE BE Altitude Temperature ™ ft °C Pressure Density Ratio Ratio 0 0 15.2 1.0000 1.0000, 152500 «14.20.9823 0.9855 304 1000 13.2 0.9644 o.9711 457 1500 12.20.9470 0.9568 609 2000 11.2 0.9298 0.9428 762 2500 10.2 0.9129 0.9289 914 3000 9.3 0.8962 0.9151 1066 3500 8.3 0.8798 0.9015, 1219 4000 7.3 0.8637 o.ageL, 1371 4500 6.3 0.8477 0.8748 1524 5000 5.3 0.8320 0.8617 1676 5500 4.3 0.8166 0.8487 1828 6000 3.3. 0.8014 0.8359 1981 6500 2.3 0.7864 0.8232 2133 7000 1.3 0.7716 0.8106 2286 7500 0.3 0.7572 0.7983 2438 8000 0.6 0.7428 0.7860 2590 8500 -1.6 0.9287 0.7739 2743 9000 -2.6 0.7148 0.7620 2895 9500 -3.6 0.7012 0.7501, 30a8 10000 -4.6 0.6877 0.7385, 3200 10500 -$.6 0.6745, 0.7269 3352 11000 -6.6 0.6614 0.7155 3505 11500 -7.6 0.6486 0.7043 3657 12000 -8.6 0.6360, 0.6932 3810 12500 -9.6 0.6236 0.6822 3962 13000 -10.6 0.6113 0.6713 4114 13500 -11.5 0.5993 0.6606 4267 14000 -12.5 0.5875 0.6500 4419 14500 -13.5 0.5758 0.6396 4572 15000 -14.5 0.5643 0.6282 4724 15500 -15.5 0.5531 0.6190 4876 16000 -16.5 0.5420 0.6090 5029 16500 -17.5 0.5311 0.5930 5181 17000 -18.5 0.5203, 0.5892 5334 17500 -19.5 0.5098 0.5795 5486 18000 -20.5 0.4994 0.5699 5638 18500 21.5 0.4892 0.5604 5791 19000 -22.4 0.4791 0.511 5943 19500 -23.4 0.4693, 0.5419 6096 20000 -24.4 0.4595 0.5328 6248 20500 -25.4 0.4500 0.8238 6400 21000 -26.4 0.4406 0.5150 6553 21500 -27.4 0.4314 0.5062 6705 22000 -28.4 0.4223 0.4976 6858 22500 -29.4 0.4134 0.4892, 7010 23000 -30.4 9.4046 0.4806 7162 23500 -31.4 0.3960 0.4723, 7315 24000 -32.3 0.3876 0.4642, 7467 24500 -33.3 0.3793 0.4561 ore ° ° ° ° a 9 9 ° ° o 9 o ° 0000 9973 9947 +9920 +9893 9866 29839 9812 9785 -9758 9731 9704 19677 29649 9622 =9595 29567 79540 29512 19485, 9457 9430, 9402 29374 +9347 19319 29291 29263 9235, 19207 29179 -9151 9123 29094 = 9066 9038 9009 Copyngnt 0%Integrated Training System 4 x Intentionally Blank 2-6 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011iy Integrated Training System Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Airflow Atmospheric Pressure In the previous chapter it was shown that the atmosphere exerts pressure at all times. This type of pressure, which exerts a force on all bodies, is called static pressure and acts equally in all directions. When air is in motion, however, it possesses an additional energy (kinetic energy) due to the fact that it is moving, and the faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has. If moving air is now brought to rest against some object, the kinetic energy is turned into pressure energy. This pressure on the surface of the body which causes the moving air to stop is called dynamic Pressure. The value of dynamic pressure depends on the density of the air and its speed and may be expressed as: Dynamic pressure = YppV* This is an important equation which affects all aerodynamic studies. Any object in stil air will experience static pressure in all directions but an object which is moving, or is placed in a moving airstream will experience an additional pressure due to the moving air being brought to rest. Suill Air Moving Air Figure 2.1 — Still air and the additional pressure created in moving air If the speed of the moving air is comparatively slow, say 100 kts, the dynamic pressure exerted by it is quite small in relation to the static pressure at sea level. In fact the dynamic pressure will only amount to less than 2% of the static pressure. If, however, the speed is increased to, say 450 kts, the dynamic pressure rises considerably, to about 30% of the static pressure. It is important to note that at low speeds the density of the air is not significantly affected by these changes in pressure and the air can be considered as an incompressible fluid. At high speeds, however, say in excess of 300 kts, this assumption can no longer be made and the changes in density due to compressibility become significant Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 27 (reed he stone TTS integrated Training System (rape sega © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Streamline Flow It is useful to illustrate the path followed by air when it passes around fixed objects and the idiom used is that of streamlines. A streamline is the path traced out by a single particle of airflow such that this particle does not cross the path of any other. This can be illustrated by dropping dye into a stream of water and watching the visible path of the dye when it moves with ——— SS Figure 2.2 — Airflow around a circular body Flow Continuity When water flows down a tube the principle of continuity of tlow applies and the mass flow in the tube is the same at any point along its length. This rule applies even if the tube is not of constant diameter and this is clearly shown in the Figure 2.3. The mass flow at A, B and C is the same so if the density of the water is ‘p’, the cross sectional area of the tube ‘a’ and the. speed of the water is 'v' then: Mass flow pp av The continuity theorem states that the mass flow at any point A = the mass flow at point B = the mass flow at point C. 4 4 4 A 8 c Figure 2.3 — Airflow through a duct of increasing cross sectional area 28 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System mvonadty eset ©Copyright 2011 ngage er enewy Integrated Training System Venturi effect docdns In a venturi tube, such as that shown in Figure 2.4, that is a tube that has constriction in it, the previous rule still applies; mass flow is always a constant even if the tube is not of constant diameter If, therefore, the pressure is measured at points 1 and 2 in the venturi it can be said: PPIAWVs =pPrav2 Point 1 Point 2 Figure 2.4 ~ Airflow through a venturi Batiste to Sfemb oronda ‘onsidering the fluid as incompressible then as the cross sectional area a; is considerably bigger than the cross sectional area aa the speed V; must be less than the speed V2. In other words, as the flow passes through the venturi the speed of the fluid increases. This can often be seen when watching the flow of a river through the arch of a bridge observing how the water speeds up as it flows through the arch or constriction. The streamlines associated with this flow are shown below. It can be seen that the streamlines draw closer together as they pass through the venturi Moving away from the concept of the tube to that of an aircraft wing, as illustrated in Figure 2.5, it can be seen that due to the curvature of the wing on its upper surface a venturi has been created between the upper surface and the undisturbed air some distance above it. The streamlines will be similar to those in the venturi and, of course, the flow of the air will be increased in speed as it passes through the venturi. > Point 1 Point 2 — Figure 2.5 — Airflow around an aerofoil section Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 29 Severed ye ater TTS integrated Training System Sonameoe ‘© Copynght 2017Integrated Training System signe w sesocaion win Bernoulli’s Theorem During the last century Bernoulli put forward his theorem stating that the total pressure (ie static + dynamic) in a fluid is constant if no work is done by it or on it. Total pressure H = S + % pV’ = constant. Referring back to Figure 2.5 and looking at the point ahead of the wing marked 1 we can find the total pressure at this point: Hy =S1 + % pi)? Similarly the total pressure at the point marked 2 can also be expressed as: He = So + ¥% poVo* However, Bemoulli’s theorem states that the total pressure in a fluid is constant, therefore these two expressions must equal each other. Therefore: Si +¥% piVi? = So + % pV? Considering the density to be a constant factor and knowing the speed at point 1 is less than the speed at point 2, it follows that the pressure at point 1 must be higher than the pressure at point 2. To put it differently there is a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing as a result of Bemoulli’s Theorem. It is this reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing of an aircraft that creates lift and is the reason an aircraft can fly. Stagnation Referring to Figure 2.6, note the flow of air around an object. Notice how the air divides — some flows over the top of the wing and some below it and right in the centre, at the leading edge of the wing, the air is brought completely to rest at point A. This point is called the stagnation point and it is where the full dynamic pressure plus whatever static pressure is effective at the time will be felt. Eames rN aK Figure 2.6 — The stagnation point 2-10 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System onvrnedy torent © Copyright 2011 none cnIntegrated Training System Airspeed The principle of the stagnation point is used in the measurement of airspeed, Refer to Figure 2.7. Air is directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flexible diaphragm in the airspeed indicator. This flexible diaphragm, in the form of a capsule, in fact is a stagnation point and will feel the full effect of dynamic pressure. Static pressure is fed to both sides of the capsule so that it cancels out. The resultant movement of the diaphragm can be taken by a suitable linkage to a dial, this indicating airspeed. It should be noted that the airspeed indicator is in fact a dynamic pressure indicator but is calibrated suitably in knots. As it measures dynamic pressure directly it is extremely useful when flying the aircraft as most aerodynamic functions of the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For instance, the stalling speed of an aircraft is always measured in indicated airspeed and remains, for the same weight, pretty well a constant figure regardless of altitude, No mention has been made yet of compressibility and in fact this should be taken into account. The airspeed indicator reading (corrected for instrument and position errors), when corrected for compressibility at all speeds is called equivalent air speed (EAS). Diaphragm —»- \ Pitot Tube > | Ram Air | }) Lad } Y Static Air Line Figure 2.7 — The stagnation point Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 241 Senay o Saaroe TTS intograted Training Systern ronan ‘© Copygn 201Integrated Training System sre Speed Definitions (a) () (d) (e) ® 212 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - The dynamic pressure of air against a vehicle, or indicated airspeed, is equal to ¥2 pV’, where p density, and V = true airspeed. An airspeed indicator, calibrated to ISA mean sea level conditions secords the dynamic pressure as a speed. If, for example, the indicated reading were 200 kts, then it means that the dynamic pressure is the same as it would be at a true air speed of 200 kts at standard conditions at mean sea level. Rectified Airspeed (RAS) - The indicated airspeed, corrected for instrument and position errors (IE and PE). Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - The rectified airspeed corrected for compressibility (C). It should be noted that compressibility is always a subtracted quantity \tis the airspeed at sea level which represents the same dynamic pressure as that flying at the true airspeed (TAS) at altitude. It is useful for predicting aircraft handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling etc. Note that instrument error and position error are sometimes neglected and thus EAS is then considered to be the same as IAS, and the two terms are used interchangeably. True Airspeed (TAS) - The equivalent airspeed corrected for density. Tas x. | acual air density \ standard air lensity Where: “standard air density” is the ISA sea level density of 1.225 kg/m? or 0.00237 slugs/t®. The ratio “actual air density / standard air density” is known as the density ratio. Density Ratios at different altitudes are listed on the ISA tables in Chapter 8.1. Note that the ratio is equal to 1 only at sea level, and reduces with altitude. Thus EAS decreases with altitude if TAS is kept constant. At 40,000 feet, the density ratio is approximately 0.25. Since V0.25 = 0.5, the EAS is half of the TAS at 40,000 feet altitude. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Some airspeed indicators are corrected for mean sea level compressibility. Calibrated airspeed is the value of this reading, corrected for instrument and position errors. Mach Number (Mn) - Mach number is the ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound (LSS). Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System omvtaaty he ene © Copyright 2011 nage apaop’ Integrated Training System Aerodynamic and Geometric Definitions Chord line The chord line of an aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge. It is normally used as a reference line when measuring the angular position of the wing related to the airflow. Leading Edge Trailing Edge Max Thickness. ‘Chord Length Figure 2.8 — A typical aerofoil Mean Camber line A line which joins the leading edge to the trailing edge such that it is equidistant from the upper surface and lower surface of the aerofoil, If it is curved the aerofoil is described as cambered. Thickness/Chord Ratio and Fineness Ratio This is the ratio of the maximum thickness of the cross section to the chord, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Usually, the Fineness Ratio is the inverse of the Thickness/Chord Ratio (i.e. the ratio of the chord to the thickness). Angle of Attack The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of the relative airflow. Wash Out A decrease in wing angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. itis usually incorporated to improve stability. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2413 Laan ne TIS integrated Training System hie casor © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System wy | so & Wash In An increase in angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. It is rarely incorporated because it decreases the stability of the wing F jeep Angle at 14 Chord Line 1/4 Chord ul Figure 2.9 - Wing planform geometry Root chord Tip Chord Wing Area The area enclosed by the wing outline and extending through the fuselage to the centreline. Mean Chord (Geometric) The wing area divided by the span Taper Ratio The ratio of the root chord to tip chord. Aspect Ratio The ratio of the wing span to the mean chord, or alternatively span’ to wing area. Wing Loading The weight of the aircraft divided by the wing area. Sweep Angle The angle between the lateral axis and the % chord line (may be referred to as the leading edge). Dihedral The upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. ‘Dihedral Angle Figure 2.10 - Dihedral angle 244 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training Systom © Copyright 2011ap’ Integrated Training System i Designed Anhedral (or Cathedral) The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. ‘Anhedral Angle Figure 2.11 — Anhedral angle Axes and Flight Controls (Primary Controls) (a) Elevators The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the tailplane and controls the pitching moment about the lateral axis. A backward movement of the control column moves the elevator up and causes the aircraft nose to pitch up. Figure 2.12 — The Elevator controls rotation about the Lateral Axis (pitching) — Longitudinal Control Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 215 TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System g (b) Ailerons The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edges of the wings or mainplanes and controls the rolling motion about the longitudinal axis. If the control column is moved to the right the right aileron moves up and the left aileron down, causing a roll to the right. Figure 2.13 — The Ailerons control rotation about the Longitudinal Axis (roll) — Lateral Control (c) Rudder The rudder is attached to the rear edge of the fin and causes the aircraft to yaw about the normal axis. Movement of the right rudder pedal forward moves the rudder to the right causing the aircraft to yaw to the right about the normal axis. Figure 2.14 — The Rudder controls rotation about the Normal Axis (yaw) ~ Directional Control 2-16 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System © Copyrigt 2011A / Integrated Training System cay ree 3 " See HS Alternative Forms of Control (a) Stabilator or All-Moving Tail Sometimes used in place of separate elevator control Figure 2.15 - The Stabilator (b) Spoilers May be used instead of or in addition lo ailerons. When the spoiler is operated it causes a loss of lift on the side it is raised, thus causing a roll to that side. Movement of the control column to the right causes the right spoiler to rise but the left spoiler to remain retracted. oT. Figure 2.16 ~ The Spoilers Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 217 eras TTS mtegates Tring Sytem ese SeaIntegrated Training System dn association at Intentionally Blank 2-18 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011fa ) Integrated Training System 7 ston mit Drag Introduction Itis convenient to study the subject of drag under two distinct headings: Profile Drag or ‘Zero Lift Drag’ Induced Drag or ‘Lift Dependent Drag Profile Drag Profile Drag is named Parasite Drag in the USA, where it means the same. Elsewhere, the term Parasite Drag is reserved to denote the drag on an helicopter fuselage, in order to differentiate it from the Profile Drag on the rotating blades. However, in this latter differentiation of the use of the terms, their cause is identical, and is described below. Profile drag is made up of three components: (a) Skin Friction Drag (b) Form or Pressure Drag (c) Interference Drag. (a) _ Skin Friction and Boundary Layer Consider a flat smooth surface over which an airstream is flowing. What may seem to be a smooth surface to an observer, will, toa molecule of air, seem a very rough one. Air is a viscous medium, and any surface subjected to a moving airstream will inevitably have, through viscous adhesion, a minutely thin layer of air at its surface which has zero relative velocity. Succeeding layers adjacent to the surface will, through the same viscous action, be subject to retardation, but to a lesser degree with increasing distance (albeit a very small one) from the surtace. A point is therefore reached where the airflow will be unaffected, and its velocity will be that of the ‘free stream’ airflow. This layer of air from the surface where there is zero velocity, to the point where there is no retardation, is referred to as the ‘Boundary Layer’ and is normally defined as the region in which the velocity of flow is less than 99% of the free stream value. The boundary layer exists in two forms: (a) Laminar Flow, and (b) Turbulent Flow. Physical laws dictate that at some point along a surface which is subject to a moving airstream, the flow will change from laminar to turbulent. This point is of importance in the study of drag, the significant feature being that the drag is greater in the turbulent layer than in the laminar. The main variables which dictate the change from the laminar state to the turbulent are: (a) Velocity of flow, (b) Viscosity of the fluid, or air, (c) Size of the object. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-19 om TTS integrated Training System age? dine hore ‘© Copyngnt 2011Designed in Integrated Training System oy Generally speaking, the transition point (that point at which the laminar flow turns turbulent) for an aerofoil section will be at the point of maximum section depth where the velocity of flow is greatest (refer to Venturi effect). As can be clearly seen, it pays to maintain laminar boundary layer flow as long as possible over an aerofoil section in order to reduce drag, and to keep the surface as smooth as possible One method of ensuring a greater percentage of laminar flow is to maintain an increasing depth of section as far back from the leading edge as possible, thereby locating the point of maximum velocity farther aft. This results in a wing section known as a laminar flow wing; a description which is, of course, only partially true; Figure 2.17 indicates non-laminar and laminar sections. 1 ! oO Conventional Section Laminar Flow Section Figure 2.17 — Non-laminar and laminar aerofoil sections Figure 2.18 shows some important features of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, these being: (i) The depth of the laminar layer typically given as 0.07in. (ii) The depth of the turbulent layer typically given as 0.7in. (ii) The velocity gradients of the two layers being different leads to the greater shearing or friction effect occurring in the turbulent layer. Distance from Surface 0.7in Distance from Transition Surface .7in Point Velocity Profile Turbulent ( 1 t 1 1 1 1 Tt ‘ Laminar Sub-Layer 1 t Figure 2.18 ~ The Boundary Layer in the transition from laminar to turbulent flow 2-20 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS inegrated Tianing System ooeneeeceet Sconyagnt sort ee a seeIntegrated Training System o on wth We os, (b) Form or Pressure Drag When an object is placed in a viscous fluid, such as air, which is moving relative to the object, it will experience a resistance owing to the formation of vortices which create turbulent as opposed to streamlined fiow. lt we regard a flat plate at right angles to an airflow as being an extreme case, the kinetic energy of the airstream is largely brought to rest and converted to pressure energy: Figure 2.19 also shows the point 'S’ which is referred to as the stagnation point. The pressure brought to rest, is referred to as the ‘Dynamic Pressure’; it is of considerable importance, and is the pressure experienced by any object when a moving airstream is brought to rest: it is quite distinct from static pressure. The formula for dynamic pressure is ¥2 pV’ where p = air density and V is velocity. It may be seen from Figure 2.19, that the flow behind the plate is composed of vortices, and since these have low pressure in the centre, we now have high pressure in front and low behind the plate: this results in a drag force in the direction of the moving airstream. Turbulent Wake => TRE TF SS S Oy 3 —||82 a8? TW) 3 57 a2 Se Figure 2.19 - Turbulent wakes behind a flat plate and a sphere (c) Reduction of drag with streamlining It is clear from the extreme case of the flat plate at right angles to the airflow, that it represents the maximum generation of vortices and turbulence; in other words, maximum resistance or drag. The production of vortices require the expenditure of energy in order to generate them, and this of course, is wasteful. By substituting a cylindrical section for the plate, we produce a less abrupt change in the path which the airflow is trying to follow. In this case, fewer vortices, are generated: there is less difference in pressure from the front to the rear of the shape, and a degree of ‘streamlining’ has been achieved Taken a step further, reference to Figure 2.20 will show a more streamlined shape as in a symmetrical aerofoil section. This shape allows the airflow a much more gradual passage from the front of the section to the rear than in the case of the cylinder. The end result therefore, of streamlining, is to produce much less vortex generation, reduced turbulence, and greatly reduced drag Figure 2.20 - Streamlining Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-21 ‘romety re stoma ‘TTS integrated Training System Smee ‘copy 20Integrated Training System Although by careful streamlining considerable reductions in the form drag are achieved there is a limit to extension of the method. The ‘fineness ratio’ of an aerofoil section is a measure of its streamlining, and is defined as the chord to thickness length ratio. Figure 2.21 shows a section of conventional ratio, but if this ratio is too great, the resulting very thin section leads to structural difficulties. Length Thickness Figure 2.21 — Length and thickness of an aerofoil (d) Interference drag On a complete aircraft, the total drag is greater than the sum of the values for the individual Parts of the aircraft, This additional drag is the result of flow interference’ in such areas as wing/fuselage, wing/nacelle junctions, and in fact any areas where such junctions exist This interference leads to modifications of boundary layers (discussed later) and creates greater pressure differences between fore and aft areas on the surfaces concerned, this in tun leading to greater total drag. This drag can be reduced in value by careful fairing or the addition of fillets in the areas concerned. (e) The Drag Formula tis found by experience that, within certain limitations of flow velocity, the resistance of an object in a moving airstream is proportional to: (i) The shape of the object and frontal area (ii) The square of velocity (iii) ‘The density of the fluid As a basic formula this is written as Drag pV’S_ or Drag = KpV°S In the case of the flat plate, clearly, not all the air is being brought to rest by the plate, as some of it is seen to be flowing round the edges. This means that the full conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy is not realized. For this reason, the value of ‘K’ in the second formula will vary according to the shape of the object and its associated system of vortices: the value of ‘K’ is found by experiment, and is called the Coefficient of Drag (Cp). The importance of the unit of dynamic pressure has already been emphasized and the above basic formula is now modified by its inclusion. The new formula therefore, becomes: 2-22 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System opvoresty te stat ©Copyright 2011 nage Zale chaIntegrated Training System Designed in 20 ts Drag = Co ¥ppv’S where Cp is the ‘coefficient of drag’, and S the wing area. The unit of dynamic pressure % pV?, is very often written simply as ‘q’ because of its frequent use. As a point of interest, the value of Cp in the basic formula is about 0.6 for a flat plate. Other values of the drag coefficient that are of interest are: A cylindrical section 0.47 A streamlined section 0.04 A pitot tube has a value of unity. To conclude, the combined drag due to skin friction, form drag and interference drag under the heading of ‘Profile drag’, increases in the manner shown below. The subject of Induced Drag or ‘lift dependent drag’ is discussed in the chapter on Lift. Figure 2.22 — Drag increases with IAS exponentially (square law) Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-23 eee “TS intagratea Tanng System Seomtcne cane ‘© Copynghi 2011Integrated Training System Induced Drag Introduction Pressure distribution over the upper and lower surfaces of the wing was examined in the previous chapter. As high pressure exists underneath the wing and low pressure on top of the wing, the one place where these Pressures will attempt to equalize is around the wing tip. The high pressure underneath the wing moves upwards towards the low pressure on the upper surface and in doing so assumes a rotary motion. This rotary motion spirals back from the wing tip, moving in an anticlockwise direction from the right-hand wing tip as viewed from behind and in a clockwise direction from the left-hand wing tip. Energy is required to produce this rotational vortex from each wing tip and this energy can come only from thrust. The vortices therefore create drag and this drag is called induced drag. Figure 2.23 — Photograph showing the wing-tip vortex phenomenon Drift effect The larger the lift being produced by the wing, the bigger the pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces. The larger the pressure difference the stronger the vortex produced and it can therefore be said that induced drag is proportional to lift. In ‘Straight and level flight lift ‘must equal weight, so if weight is increased then lift must be increased and therefore induced drag will be larger. The same is also true for a tum where lift must be increased, producing more induced drag although the gravitational weight has not been changed. Vortices are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.24. Figure 2.24 — Wing tip vortices 2-24 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TS Integrated Training System esr te sae © Copyright 2011 ‘ceege etme outerpy’ Integrated Training System Giese in ascent sv66p10.0071 Downwash The effect of the vortex is to deflect the air downwards as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing, in other words producing downwash. As the maximum strength of this movement is close to the vortex, as one moves from the wing tip towards the fuselage the downwash steadily decreases. Thus for a given strength of vortex, the larger the wing span the less will be the effect of this downwash velocity. The angular deflection of the airflow will depend on the speed. For a given downwash velocity the deflection angle will be greater at low speeds than at high speeds, as shown in Figure 2.25. Figure 2.25 — Downwash angles affected by airspeed The total reaction force of a wing is at right angles, not to the initial direction of the airflow, but to the resultant between the original direction and the final direction. It will be readily seen that the more the final flow is deflected downwards — in other words the bigger the downwash — the more the total reaction is tilted rearwards, and this is clearly illustrated in Figure 2.26. The actual usable lift in level flight has to be perpendicular. This leaves a small rearward component of the total reaction force and this is induced drag. From Figure 2.26 it will be seen that the larger the lift component the bigger will be the rearward component D,, induced drag, Induced drag is in fact proportional to lft-squared. ttt Drag 1 Initial Flow ~ Final Flow (Downwash) Figure 2.26 — Induced drag increases with lift exponentially (square law) Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-25 TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System oy Span Effect The wing span of the aircraft has a marked effect on the amount of induced drag. The strength of the vortex diminishes from the wing tip towards the fuselage and therefore the downwash created by it also diminishes. For a given strength of tip vortex, therefore, the longer the wing span the lower will be the average downwash and the lower the induced drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer span and short tip chord produces weaker vortex than a wing with a short span and long tip chord and will therefore give less induced drag. In other words, the higher the aspect ratio, the lower the induced drag. Summary of Effects ‘The amount of induced drag created by a wing depends upon the amount of downwash and we ‘saw from previously that the slower the speed the bigger the angular deflection downwards of the air. This therefore means that the induced drag is largest at low Speeds and decreases as the speed increases. We can say from this that induced drag varies inversely as the square of the speed or, induced drag is proportional to speed" To summarize the effects of induced drag, then: Induced drag increases with an increase in weight. Induced drag decreases with wing span, that is, high aspect ratio reduces induced drag Speed increases, induced drag decreases. Several deductions can be made from this summary. It becomes apparent that gliders and sailplanes having very long, narrow wings - wings with a high aspect ratio - and normally flying at very low speeds when induced drag is at its highest, therefore benefit from high aspect ratio wings to reduce this drag to a minimum. Conversely, large jet transport aircraft do not usually have high aspect ratio wings and, in addition, are usually of very high weight. From this it is apparent that at low speed they will have very high induced drag. Key Points To Note Induced Drag is proportional to Lift. Induced Drag is inversely proportional to Speed. Induced Drag is greatest toward the wing tip. Induced Drag is less with greater wing aspect ratio. A High Aspect Ratio Wing has a long span and a short chord. The amount of lift generated by the wing upper surface is greatest towards the wing root. The airflow over the upper surface of the wing in flight tends to flow towards the root. In flight, the angle of attack at which the largest amount of lift is generated for the smallest amount of drag is at approximately 4° Thi s is known as the optimum angle of attack. It can be said that from an angle of attack of zero up to 4°the Lift/Drag ratio increases. Above 4°it decreases. At zero angle of attack a cambered aerofoil produces some lift and some drag. At zero angle of attack a symmetrical wing produces no lift but some drag. On a wing in flight, 2/8 of the lift is produced by the upper surface and the remainder by the lower surface. 2:26 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training Systom sovemedy te aso © Copyright 2011 ‘ong lth capaIntegrated Training System Total Drag Introduction in preceding sections it has been shown that the aircraft is subjected to two types of drag, profile drag and induced drag. Profile drag increases with speed and is proportional to the square of the speed, and induced drag decreases with speed and is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. These two curves of profile and induced drag are shown against speed in Figure 2.27, The two curves can he amalgamated to give the total drag curve of the aircraft The lowest point on this total drag curve gives the speed at which the total drag is a minimum This speed is called the minimum drag speed, Va. For a constant weight and in straight and level flight the Vins will be a constant indicated airspeed for all altitudes. It would be reasonable to assume that one would be better off flying the aircraft at Vins because the drag is least at this speed. In practice however, aircraft are not normally operated at this speed because the overall efficiency, especially that of the engine, may be better at a higher speed Drag Stalling Speed Speed —$<$=$__—_——»> Figure 2.27 — Drag curves Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-27 go TTS Integrated Training System Sage 2 hs crap ‘© Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Ad Itis of some importance when handling an aircraft to know if the speed is stable. By this itis meant that if for some reason the speed increases, perhaps due to temporary turbulence, does the speed tend to decay back to its original value or not? The answer to this question can be found by examining the total drag curve which is shown in Figure 2.28. DRAG Figure 2.28 - Total Drag curve Consider an aircraft flying at speed X. In straight and level flight thrust = drag so the thrust required is indicated by the horizontal line T}. If for some reason the speed increases from X to Y, the thrust remaining unchanged, the drag now exceeds the thrust so the speed will drop back to its original value at X. If, on the other hand, the speed decays to point Z, thrust is now greater than drag and the speed will automatically return to its original value at X. It should be noted that the two speeds quoted here are above Ving. On the other side of the curve with the aircraft flying at speed A the thrust level is now T,. If the speed now reduces to B the dag becomes higher than the thrust and the speed will continue to decay. If, conversely, the speed increases to point C, the thrust becomes higher than the drag and the speed will continue to increase. These second examples are speeds below Ving. This simple ilustration makes clear why at speeds higher than Vng the speed tends to be stable and at speeds below Vna the speed is not stable. This speed instability below Via is most marked on jet transport aircraft. The great weight of some of the larger types of such aircraft today produces very high induced drag values and makes handling on the approach somewhat difficult, Considerable anticipation is required to either increase or decrease speed, the whole thing being aggravated to the slow response of jet engines. It would be fair to say that this type of aircraft requires more precise handling on the approach than the piston-engined aircraft and is less forgiving of imprecise handling, In the section on induced drag it was shown that if weight is increased then induced drag also increases. The minimum drag speed occurs at the point where the curve for profile drag crosses the curve for induced drag. As was seen from the first diagram, at this speed the value of the 2-28 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System sovemadoy henner © Copyrign 2011 eopage? me onCw Integrated Training System Designed in atsscciabon wth the 1683 om induced drag is the same as that of profile drag. In other words profile drag equals induced drag and total drag is double the value of either one. Figure 2.29 illustrates the fact that an increase in aircraft weight will raise the speed at which Ving OCCUFS. DRAG Figure 2.29 - Drag increases with aircraft weight It was shown in the previous chapter that the effect of an increase in aspect ratio is to decrease induced drag. From this it follows that aircraft with high aspect ratios will have a lower Vm than aircraft with low aspect ratios. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-29 percdty ho snert ‘TS Integrated Training System Soups cece ‘© Copynght 2011Integrated Training System ae cr ad Wave Drag Ithas been shown that drag is the same at any altitude for a given IAS but an aircraft climbing at this constant IAS has a steadily increasing Mach number. When this Mach number reaches a certain value the drag starts to increase because of compressibility effects. This drag is known as wave drag and its effect on the total drag curve is illustrated in Figure 2.30 SPEED ——>— Figure 2.30 - Total Drag curves — with and without compressibility effect (Wave drag) 2-30 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011a ) Integrated Training System waned in th Summary: Check list From the previous paragraphs the following has been established: an increase in angle of attack will produce an increase in lift brought about by the velocity of the airflow over the upper surface of the wing being increased. An increase in the angle of attack will cause: The Centre of Pressure to move forward. The Transition Point to move forward. The Separation Point to move forward. The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the undersurface of the wing. The Centre of Pressure will reach its farthest forward point at just below the stalling angle. Induced Drag is directly related to lift because as the angle of attack is increased the induced drag will increase, Due to the greater pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, the tip vortex (the basic origin of induced drag) will become intensified. For a given speed the greater the angle of attack, the greater the induced drag. It is important to realize that although induced drag increases with increased lift when increasing angle of attack, the increase in lift will always be much greater than drag up to and including the stalling angle Remember the stalling angle is the angle above which a given aerofoil will stall Induced Drag is influenced by the aspect ratio of the wing, the higher the aspect ratio for a given wing area the less the induced drag produced. Induced drag is always greatest towards the wing tip where the tip vortex is generated by air flowing from the underside of the wing to the upper surface, where it then flows aft and down behind the wing and tends to converge behind the aircraft. It can also be said the flow on the upper surface of the wing tends to flow aft and towards the wing root, and on the undersurface of the wing, aft and towards the wing tip, as a direct result of the influence of the vortex at the wing tip. The flow towards the root and tip on the upper and lower surfaces cause numerous vortices to form at the trailing edge of the wing The greater the chord length at the wing tip the more intense the tip vortex becomes and so the greater the induced drag. Hence a high aspect ratio wing with a long span and a short chord will produce less induced drag than a low aspect ratio wing with a short span and a long chord, The Lift/Drag ratio of an aerofoil increases rapidly up to approximately 3°to 4°at which angles, the lift is some 24 times the drag, The ratio then falls progressively until at the stalling angle, approximately 15°, the lift may only be 10 or 12 times as great as the drag. Above the stalling angle the ratio falls still further until an angle of attack of 90°is reached when lift will be zero. The best all round angle of attack is 3°to 4°wher e the Lift/Drag ratio is greatest, and this angle of attack is also known as the optimum angle of attack. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 231 towenenty ne sa TTS Integrated Training System Seoume2a oe ape ‘© Copyaght 2011Designed n assaciation with Integrated Training System py Itis also important to note that a cambered aerofoil, even at zero angle of attack will produce ‘some lift and some drag. Even at some negative angles of attack a cambered aerofoil will Produce some lift and drag. But remember, a symmetrical aerofoil at zero angle of attack will produce no lift but some drag. To obtain a good understanding of aerodynamics it is important to interrelate the various points that are made at each stage and to avoid considering them as separate entities 2-32 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS integrated Training System every stone © Copyngnt 2011 oe |Integrated Training System wth Introduction It has been shown that if a streamlined body is placed in a moving airstream it produces drag, a force in the direction of the airflow. It should be noted that the streamlined body we were examining was symmetrical in shape. This drag force was the total force produced by the streamlined body. if we now incline the streamlined body at a small angle to the airflow the total force is now no longer in the direction of the airflow and this is illustrated in Figure 2.31. The total force can now be resolved into two forces, drag, and the one at right angles to it, lft. Resultant III Angle of 2" Attack Figure 2.31 — Resultant of Lift and Drag The diagram may give the impression that the lift and drag forces are approximately equal, but it has only been drawn this way for the sake of clarity. An aerofoil section in fact, produces lift many times greater than the value of drag it also produces. Bemnoull’s theorem indicated that there will be a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing; this reduction provides approximately two thirds of the lift produced by a wing. The general pressure distribution over the surfaces of a wing at a small angle of attack is illustrated in Figure 2.32. Module 8.2 Aerodynamics 2-33 ee eee “5 megiate TaningSysem seeaee te ‘Sonya 2081