BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

o In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity) exists not only at the
species level but at all levels of biological organization ranging from
macromolecules within cells to biomes.
o Biodiversity can be defined as the combined diversity at all the levels of
biological organization.
o Various types/components of biodiversity are-
o Genetic diversity - A single species might show high diversity at the genetic
level over its distributional range. Example- The genetic variation of the
medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria in terms of the potency and concentration
of the active chemical reserpine that the plant produces.
India has more than 50,000 genetically different strains of rice, and 1,000
varieties of mango.
o Species diversity - The diversity at the species level. For example, the Western
Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
o Ecological diversity - Diversity at the ecosystem level. For example- India, for
instance with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries,
and alpine meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian
country like Norway.
o It has taken millions of years of evolution, to accumulate this rich diversity in
nature, but we could lose all that wealth in less than two centuries if the present
rates of species losses continue.
o Biodiversity and its conservation are now vital environmental issues of
international concern as more and more people around the world begin to realise
the critical importance of biodiversity for our survival and well- being on this
planet.
NUMBER OF SPECIES ON EARTH AND IN INDIA
o According to IUCN (International union for conservation of nature - 2004)
the total number of plant and animal species described so far is slightly more
than 1.5 million.
o Robert May places the global species diversity at about 7 million.
o It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for prokaryotes.
o More than 70 per cent of all the species recorded are animals, while plants
including algae, fungi, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms comprise no more than 22 per cent of the total.
 Among animals, insects are the most species-rich taxonomic group, making up
more than 70 per cent of the total. That means, out of every 10 animals on this
planet, 7 are insects.
The number of fungi species in the world is more than the combined total of the
species of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
o India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share of the global
species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent and that is how makes India is one
of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
o Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India.
o If we accept May’s global estimates, only 22 per cent of the total species have
been recorded so far.
o Nature’s biological library is burning even before we catalogued the titles of all
the books stocked there.
PATTERNS OF BIODIVERSITY: -
Latitudinal gradients-
The diversity of plants and animals is not uniform throughout the world but
shows a rather uneven distribution.
o Species diversity decreases as we move away from the equator towards the
poles.
o Tropics harbour more species than temperate or polar areas.
o Colombia located near the equator has nearly 1,400 species of birds while New
York at 41° N has 105 species and Greenland at 71° N only 56 species. India,
with much of its land area in the tropical latitudes, has more than 1,200 species
of birds.
o The largely tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America has the greatest
biodiversity on earth- it is home to more than 40,000 species of plants, 3,000 of
fishes, 1,300 of birds, 427 of mammals, 427 of amphibians, 378 of reptiles and
of more than 1,25,000 invertebrates.
Tropics have greatest biodiversity because-
a) Unlike temperate regions subjected to frequent glaciations in the past, tropical
latitudes have remained relatively undisturbed for millions of years.
b) Tropical environments are less seasonal and more constant and predictable which
promote niche specialization and lead to a greater species diversity.
c) There is more solar energy available in the tropics, which contributes to higher
productivity thus contributing indirectly to greater diversity.
 Species-Area relationships: -
o Alexander von Humboldt observed that within a region species richness
increased with increasing explored area, but only up to a limit.
o The relation between species richness and area for a wide variety of taxa such as
angiosperm plants, birds, bats, freshwater fishes turns out to be a rectangular
hyperbola.
o On a logarithmic scale, the relationship is a straight line described by the
equation log S = log C + Z log A where, S= Species richness A= Area Z = slope
of the line (regression coefficient).
o The species-area relationships among very large areas like the entire continents,
the slope of the line is much steeper (Z values in the range of 0.6 to 1.2).
For example, for frugivorous (fruit-eating) birds and mammals in the tropical
forests of different continents, the slope is found to be 1.15.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SPECIES DIVERSITY TO THE ECOSYSTEM
o For many decades ecologists believed that communities with more species,
generally, tend to be more stable than those with less species.
A stable community should not show too much variation in productivity from year
to year, it must be either resistant or resilient to occasional disturbances (natural or
man-made), and it must also be resistant to invasions by alien species.
o David Tilman found that plots with more species showed less year-to-year
variation in total biomass and increased diversity contributed to higher
productivity.
o Rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health but imperative for the
very survival of the human race on this planet.
o According to the rivet popper hypothesis, used by ecologist Paul Ehrlich, in an
airplane (ecosystem) all parts are joined together using thousands of rivets
(species).
o If every passenger travelling in airplane starts popping a rivet to take home
(causing a species to become extinct), it may not affect flight safety (proper
functioning of the ecosystem) initially, but as more and more rivets are removed,
the plane becomes dangerously weak over a period of time.
o Loss of rivets on the wings is more serious threat to flight safety than loss of a
few rivets on the seats or windows inside the plane.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY: -
The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly and the accusing
finger is clearly pointing to human activities.
o The colonization of tropical Pacific Islands by humans is said to have led to the
extinction of more than 2,000 species of native bird.
o The IUCN Red List (2004) documents the extinction of 784 species (including
338 vertebrates, 359 invertebrates and 87 plants) in the last 500 years.
o Some examples of recent extinctions include the dodo (Mauritius), quagga
(Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller’s Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies
(Bali, Javan, Caspian) of tiger.
o More than 15,500 species world-wide are facing the threat of extinction.
Presently, 12 per cent of all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32
per cent of all amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in
the world face the threat of extinction.
o The last twenty years alone have witnessed the disappearance of 27 species.
Loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to: -
o Decline in plant production
o Lowered resistance to environmental perturbations such as drought
o Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity,
water use, and pest and disease cycles.
CAUSE OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS: -
Habitat loss and fragmentation
o Tropical rain forests covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface,
these rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent.
o The Amazon rain forest called as the ‘lungs of the planet’ harboring probably
millions of species is being cut and cleared for cultivating soya beans or for
conversion to grasslands for raising beef cattle.
o When large habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human
activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain animals with
migratory habits are badly affected, leading to population declines.
Over exploitation
Humans have always depended on nature for food and shelter, but when ‘need’
turns to ‘greed’, it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.
o Many species extinctions in the last 500 years were due to over exploitation by
humans. For example- Steller’s sea cow, passenger pigeon, many marine fishes.
Alien species invasions
o When alien species are introduced these cause decline or extinction of
indigenous species.
 Example- the Nile perch introduced into Lake Victoria in east Africa led eventually
to the extinction of an ecologically unique assemblage of more than 200 species of
cichlid fish in the lake.
o Introduction of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture purposes is
posing a threat to the indigenous catfishes in our rivers.
Co-extinctions
o When a species becomes extinct, the plant and animal species associated with it
in an obligatory way also become extinct.
o Example - When a host fish species becomes extinct, its unique assemblage of
parasites also meets the same fate.
o In plant-pollinator mutualism extinction of one invariably leads to the extinction
of the other.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
o Reasons of conserving biodiversity is grouped into three categories
Narrowly utilitarian
Broadly utilitarian
Ethical.
Narrowly utilitarian-
Humans derive countless direct economic benefits from nature such as cereals,
pulses, fruits, firewood, fiber, construction material, industrial products like
tannins, lubricants, dyes, resins, and perfumes.
More than 25 per cent of the drugs currently sold in the market worldwide are
derived from plants and 25,000species of plants contribute to the traditional
medicines used by native peoples around the world. Nobody knows how many
more medicinally useful plants there are in tropical rain forests waiting to be
explored.
Broadly utilitarian-
o Biodiversity plays a major role in many ecosystem services that nature provides.
o Amazon forest is estimated to produce, through photosynthesis, 20 per cent of
the total oxygen in the earth’s atmosphere
o Bees, bumblebees, birds and bats pollinate the flowers without which plants
cannot give us fruits or seeds.
o The ethical argument for conserving biodiversity relates to what we owe to
millions of plant, animal and microbe species with whom we share this planet.
WAYS TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY: -
o Biodiversity can be conserved by In Situ and Ex Situ conservation.
o The process of protecting biodiversity at all levels by conserving and protecting
the whole ecosystem is called in situ conservation.
o The process in which endangered and threatened animals are saved by taking
urgent measures is called ex situ conservation.
o Biodiversity hotspots are the regions with very high levels of species richness
and high degree of endemism.
o Three hotspots – Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Indo-Burma and Himalaya –
cover high biodiversity regions.
o Biodiversity-rich regions are legally protected as biosphere reserves, national
parks and sanctuaries.
o India now has 14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 wildlife
sanctuaries.
o Sacred groves are the forests in which tracts of forest were set aside, and all the
trees and wildlife within were venerated and given total protection. Examples-
Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan.
o In ex-situ conservation, threatened animals and plants are taken out from their
natural habitat and placed in special setting where they can be protected and
given special care. Examples- Zoological parks, botanical gardens and wildlife
safari park.
o Gametes of threatened species can be preserved in viable and fertile condition
for long periods using cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilized in
vitro, and plants can be propagated using tissue culture methods.