PART

Air Conditioning

1. Psychrometric of Air Conditioning

 Introduction
• The psychrometry is that branch of engineering science which deals with the study of moist air
• It also includes the study of behaviour of dry air and water vapour mixture under various sets of conditions.
• The properties of moist air are called psychrometric
Psychrometric Terms
1. Dry air. The pure dry air is a mixture of a number of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon,
helium etc.
The molecular mass of dry air is taken as 28.966 and the gas constant of air (Ra) is equal to 0.287 kJ/kg K or 287 J/kg K.
2. Moist air. It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour presented in the air depends upon the absolute
pressure and temperature of the mixture.
3. Saturated air. It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused the maximum amount of water vapour into it.

4. Degree of saturation. It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of dry air to the mass of water vapour in the
same mass of dry air when it is saturated at the same temperature.
5. Humidity. It is the mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air. It is also called specific humidity or humidity ratio
6. Dry bulb temperature. The actual temperature t of moist air.

7. Dew point temperature. It is the temperature of air, when the moisture (water vapour) present in it begins to condense or
saturation temperature
Cont. ..
8. Dew point depression. It is the difference between the dry bulb temperature and de point temperature of air.

9. Degree of Saturation The ratio of the actual specific humidity to the specific humidity s of saturated air at temperature T

• Enthalpy of Moist Air

The enthalpy of moist air h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and associated water vapour

where

• In air-conditioning processes we are concerned with the changes in enthalpy Δh, which is independent of the
reference point selected.

Example 5.1: Calculate, (i) relative humidity, (ii) humidity ratio, (iii) dew point temperature, (iv) density
and (v) enthalpy of atmospheric air when the DBT is 35°C, WBT is 23°C and the barometer reads 750 mm
Hg.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Psychrometric charts provide a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air, various
air conditioning processes, and air conditioning cycles.

All data essential for the complete thermodynamic and

psychrometric analysis of air-conditioning processes can be
summarised in a psychrometric chart

The chart which is most commonly used is the ω – t chart

The chart is normally constructed for a standard
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or 1.01325 bar,
corresponding to the pressure at the mean sea level

Example For a sample of air having 22°C DBT,

relative humidity 30 per cent at barometric
pressure of 760 mm of Hg, calculate : I. Vapour
pressure, 2. Humidity ratio, 3. Vapour density,
and 4. Enthalpy.
Psychrometric Processes
An air-conditioning process describes the change in thermodynamic properties of moist air
between the initial and final stages of conditioning as well as the corresponding energy and mass
transfers between the moist air and a medium.

• The psychrometric chart also serves as a valuable aid in visualizing the air-
conditioning processes
psychrometric processes involved in air conditioning
1. Sensible heating,
sensible
2. Sensible cooling,
sensible
3. Humidification and dehumidification,
4. Cooling and adiabatic humidification,
5. Cooling and humidification by water injection,
6. Heating and humidification,
7. Humidification by steam injection,
8. Adiabatic chemical dehumidification,
9. Adiabatic mixing of air streams.
Sensible Heating
• The heating of air, without any change in its specific humidity
The amount of heat added during sensible heating

The term (cpa + W cps) is called humid specific heat (𝐶𝑝𝑚 ) and its value is
taken as 1.022 kJ /kg K.

Psychrometric process and

Psychrometric chart.
Example
1. A quantity of air having a volume of 300 m3 at 30 °C dry bulb temperature and 25 °C wet bulb
temperature is heated to 40 °C dry bulb temperature. Estimate the amount of heat added, final
relative humidity and wet bulb temperature. The air pressure is 1.013 25 bar.

2. The air enters a duct at 10° C and 80% RH at the rate of 150m3/min and is heated to 30° C without
adding or removing any moisture. The pressure remains constant at 1 atmosphere. Determine the
relative humidity of air at exit from the duct and the rate of heat transfer.
Sensible Cooling
The amount of heat rejected during sensible cooling

Efficiency of heating and cooling coils

The term (1 - BPF) is known as efficiency of coil or contact factor.

Humidification and Dehumidification

humidification Dehumidification

where ℎ𝑓𝑔 is the latent heat of vaporization

at dry bulb temperature (𝑡𝑑1 ).
Methods of Humidification and Dehumidification
1. Direct method; n this method, the water is
sprayed in a highly atomized state into the
room to be air-conditioned.

• Indirect method. In this method, the water is

introduced into the air in the air-conditioning
plant, with the help of an air-washer. This
conditioned air is then supplied to the room to
be air-conditioned.

air-washer
Cooling and Humidification by Water Injection (Evaporative Cooling)
• Evaporative cooling is based on principle: As water evaporates, the latent
heat of vaporization is absorbed from the water body and the surrounding
air. As a result, both the water and the air are cooled during the process.

• The evaporative cooling process is essentially identical to the adiabatic

saturation process since the heat transfer between the airstream and the
ω2
surroundings is usually negligible. Therefore, the evaporative cooling
process follows a line of constant wet-bulb temperature on the ω1

psychrometric chart.
The mass and enthalpy balances give

where h𝑓 is the enthalpy of liquid water. (m𝑣 )

m𝑣 = Mass of water supplied
m𝑎 = Mass of dry air
Evaporative cooling.
Heating and Humidification by Steam Injection
The steam is normally injected into the air in order to increase its specific humidity

the mass and energy balance

Cooling and Dehumidification &Heating and Humidification
Total Heat Process

𝑄𝑆 = 𝑚𝑎 (ℎ𝐵 – ℎ𝐴 )
• sensible heat load
= 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑃 (𝑡𝑑𝑐 – 𝑡𝐴 )
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝐶 – ℎ𝐵
sensible heat load = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑤𝐶 – 𝑤𝐵
Adding the above we obtain an expression for total heat load as
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑆 + 𝑄𝐿
= 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝐶 – ℎ𝐴

= 𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑝 (𝑡𝐶 – 𝑡𝐴) + ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑤𝐶 – 𝑤𝐴

Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is termed as the sensible
heat factor.
example
1. 200 m3 of air per min. is passed through the adiabatic humidifier. The condition of air at inlet is 40° C dry bulb temperature
and 15% relative humidity and the outlet condition is 25 °C dry bulb temperature and 20 °C wet bulb temperature. Find the
dew point temperature and the amount of water vapour added to the air per minute.

2. A drying room is to be maintained at 32°C and 30% RH. The sensible heat gain to the room is 150 000 kJ/h. The moisture
to be evaporated from the objects during drying is 18 kg/h. If there is no direct heat source to provide for evaporation in the
room, calculate the state and rate of supply air at 15 °C dry bulb temperature.

3. The atmospheric air at 40 °C dry bulb temperature and 18° C wet bulb temperature is flowing at the rate of 100 m3 /min
through the space. Water at 18 °C is injected into the air stream at the rate of 48 kg/h.· Determine the specific humidity and
enthalpy of the leaving air. Also determine the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and relative humidity of the
leaving air.

4. The atmospheric air at 25 °C dry bulb temperature and 12 °C wet bulb temperature is flowing at the rate of 100 m3 /min
through the duct. The dry saturated steam at 100 °C is injected into the air steam at the rate of 72 kg per hour. Calculate the
specific humidity and enthalpy of the leaving air. Also determine the dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature and
relative humidity of the leaving air.
Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams
• When two quantities of air having different enthalpies and different
specific humidity's are mixed, the final condition of the air mixture
depends upon the masses involved, and on the enthalpy and specific
humidity of each of the constituent masses which enter the mixture

The mass and energy balances for the adiabatic mixing of two airstreams

Temperature of the mixture

example

1. 30 𝑚3 /min of a stream of moist air at 15°C DBT and 13°C WBT are mixed with 12 m3/min of
a second stream at 25°C DBT and 18°C WBT. Barometric pressure is one standard
atmosphere. Determine the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of the resulting mixture.

2. A stream of moist air at 2°C dry bulb and 80 per cent relative humidity mixes with another
stream of moist air at 30°C dry bulb and 10°C dew point in the-ratio by mass of one part of
the first to two parts of the second. Calculate the temperature and specific humidity of the air
after mixing.

3. 800 𝑚3 /min of recirculated air at 22 °C DBT and 10° C dew point temperature is to be mixed
with 300 𝑚3 /min of fresh air at 30 °C DBT and 50% RH. Determine the enthalpy, specific
volume, humidity ratio and dew point temperature of the mixture
Comfort conditions

• Human comfort is that condition of mind, which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment.
• A human body feels comfortable when the heat produced by metabolism of human body is equal to the sum of the
heat dissipated to the surroundings and the heat stored in human body by raising the temperature of body tissues
Cont. ..
• The heat loss by convection (Qc ) from the body to the surroundings is given by

When 𝑄𝐸 , 𝑄𝑅 and 𝑄𝐶 are high and positive and (𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝑅 + 𝑄𝐶 ) is greater than (𝑄𝑀 - W ), then the heat stored
in the body (𝑄𝑆 ) will be negative i.e. the body temperature falls down.

The human body feels comfortable when there is no change in the body temperature, i.e. when the heat stored in the body 𝑄𝑆 is
zero. Any variation in the body temperature acts as a stress to the brain which ultimately results in either perspiration or
shivering.
Humans generally feel comfortable between temperatures of 22 °C to 27 °C and a relative humidity of 40% to 60%.

human comfort zone on a psychrometric chart

Factors Affecting Human Comfort
• The important Factors In designing of air conditioning system are
1. Effective temperature,
2. Heat production and regulation in human body,
3. Heat and moisture losses from the human body,
4. Moisture content of air,
5. Quality and quantity of air.
6. Air motion,
7. Hot and cold surfaces, and
8. Air stratification
Effective Temperature
• The degree of warmth or cold felt
by a human body depends mainly
on the following three factors:
• 1. Dry bulb temperature, 2.
Relative humidity, and 3. Air
velocity.
• In order to evaluate the combined
effect of these factors, the term
effective temperature is employed.
• It is defined as that index which
correlates the combined effects of
air temperature, relative humidity
and air velocity on the human
body.
• It is presented by the comfort
chart,
Heat production and regulation in human body
• The human body acts like a heat engine which gets its energy from the combustion of food within the body
• The rate of heat production depends upon the individual's health, his physical activity and his environment
Quality and Quantity of Air
• The air in an occupied space should, at all times, be free from toxic, unhealthful or disagreeable fumes such as
carbon dioxide
• It should also be free from dust and odour. In order to obtain these conditions, enough clean outside air must
always be supplied to an occupied space to counteract or adequately dilute the sources of contamination
Air Motion
• The air motion which includes the distribution of air is very important to maintain uniform temperature in the
conditioned space.
• The air velocity in the occupied zone should not exceed 8 to 12 m / min.
• The proper and perfect distribution of air in the air-conditioned space, down flow should be preferred instead of
up flow.
Cold and Hot Surfaces The cold or hot objects in a conditioned space may cause discomfort to the occupants
Air Stratification
• The movement of the air to produce the temperature gradient from floor to ceiling is termed as air stratification.
• In order to achieve comfortable conditions in the occupied space, the air conditioning system must be designed to reduce
the air stratification to a minimum.
Air Conditioning Systems
• deals with the study of conditioning of air i.e. supplying and maintaining desirable internal
atmospheric conditions for human comfort, industrial purposes, food processing, storage of food and
other materials; irrespective of external conditions.

• It provides heating and cooling from its central plant or rooftop units. It also controls and maintains the
temperature, humidity, air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and pressure differential in a space
within predetermined limits for the comfort and health of the occupants of the conditioned space or for the
purpose of product processing.

INDOOR DESIGN CONDITIONS

 The indoor design parameters to be maintained in an air conditioned space are specified in the design
document and become the targets to be achieved during operation.
Cont. ..
Indoor design parameters are shown below and grouped as follows:

1. Basic design parameters

• Indoor air temperature and air movements • maintenance of any desired temperature
• decreasing or increasing of moisture contents of air in
• Indoor relative humidity order to produce comfortable and healthy conditions.

2. Indoor air quality

• Air contaminants proper filtration, cleaning and purification of air is
• Outdoor ventilation rate provided essential to keep it free from dust and other
• Air cleanliness for processing impurities

3. Specific design parameters

• Sound level
• Pressure differential between the space and surroundings
Equipment's Used in an Air Conditioning System

1. Circulation fan. The main function of this fan is to move air to and from the room.

2. Air conditioning unit. It is a unit which consists of cooling and dehumidifying processes for summer air
conditioning or heating and humidification processes for winter air conditioning.

3. Supply duct. It directs the conditioned air from the circulating fan to the space to be air conditioned at
proper point.

4. Supply outlets. These are grills which distribute the conditioned air evenly in the room.

5. Return outlets. These are the openings in a room surface which allow the room air to enter the return duct.

6. Filters. The main function of the filters is to remove dust, dirt and other harmful bacteria from the air.
Classification of Air Conditioning Systems

• The inside design conditions depend on the particular air-conditioning application

1. According to the purpose

(a) Comfort air conditioning system, and
(b) Industrial air conditioning system.
2. According to season of the year
(a) Winter air conditioning system,
(b) Summer air conditioning system, and
(c) Year-round air conditioning system
3. According to the arrangement of equipment
(a) Unitary air conditioning system, and
(b) Central air conditioning system.
 .

Load Calculations
Load Calculations
• The total heat required to be removed from or added to the space in order to bring it at the desired temperature
by the air conditioning and refrigeration equipment is known as cooling/heating load.

• Heating and cooling loads are the rates of energy input (heating) or removal (cooling) required to maintain an
indoor environment at a desired temperature and humidity condition.

• The purpose of a load estimation is to determine the size of the air conditioning and refrigeration equipment
that is required to maintain inside design conditions during periods of maximum outside temperatures.

• The two main components of a cooling load imposed on an air conditioning plant operating during hot weather
are
1. Sensible heat gain.
2. Latent heat gain.
 The total heat load to be removed by the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment is the sum of sensible
and latent heat loads
Cont. ..

• Source of Load usually can be classified into four

External : Walls, roof, windows, partitions, ceiling, and floor
Internal : Lights, people (occupancy), appliances, and equipment
Infiltration : Air leakage and moisture migration
System: Outside air, duct leakage and heat gain, reheat, fan and pump energy, and energy recovery
External Cooling Loads.
• These loads are formed because of heat gains in the conditioned space from external sources
through the building envelope or building shell and the partition walls. Sources of external
loads include the following cooling loads:

1. Heat gain entering from the exterior walls and roofs

2. Solar heat gain transmitted through the fenestrations

3. Conductive heat gain coming through the fenestrations

4. Heat gain entering from the partition walls and interior doors

5. Infiltration of outdoor air into the conditioned space

Conduction Heat Gain through the walls, glass, doors, windows

Where Qw1 = heat transfer through walls

A1 = area of the wall
ΔT = change in temperature
Solar heat gain through the walls

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 𝑥 𝐶𝐿𝑇𝐷𝑐 • Where; - CLTDc - corrected cooling load temperature difference

A - Area of the wall
The corrected cooling load temperature difference is obtained as follows
CLTDc = (CLTD+LM)× 𝑘+ (25.5-TR) + (To-29)
Where; - CLTD- cooling load temperature difference
LM - latitude and month correction
𝐾 - Color adjustment factor

heat gain inside the conditioned space through glass

𝑄𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

Solar Heat Gain through Glass

𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
Heat Gain due to Infiltration
• The infiltration air is the air that enters a conditioned space through window cracks and opening of doors
There are two methods for calculation of the quantity of air infiltrated
 Air change method and
 Crack method

Infiltration (crack), 𝑄𝑖 = (𝐻𝑥𝐿𝑥𝑊𝑥𝐺)/60 𝑚3 /min

Where H - height of the room
L - length of the room
W - width of the room
G - number air changes per
Door infiltration
The values given in the following table for the door infiltration
Heat Gain due to Ventilation
• The ventilation (i.e. supply of outside air) is provided to the conditioned space in order to minimize odour, concentration of
smoke, carbon dioxide and other undesirable gases so that freshness of air could be maintained.
• The outside air adds sensible as well as latent heat

 Outside air sensible heat

𝑂𝐴𝑆𝐻 = 20.43 × 𝑄𝑚(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖)

 Outside air latent heat (OALH)

𝑂𝐴𝐿𝐻 = 50 × 𝑄𝑚 (𝑊𝑜 − 𝑊𝑖)
Where
Qm = volumetric flow of outside air entering the building
𝑄𝑚 = 𝑁 × 𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟/ 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛
To= outside design condition in our location
Ti = room design condition for our design
Wo = specific humidity kg/kg outside air
Wi = specific humidity kg/kg inside air
INTERNAL HEAT GAIN
• Internal heat gains from people, lights, motors, appliances, and equipment can contribute the majority of the cooling load
in a modern building.

Internal Heat Gain due to Occupants (people)

Humans emit both sensible and latent heat to the room in different state of activities.

Sensible heat gain due to people (occupants)

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 × 𝑆𝐻𝐺 × 𝐶𝐿𝐹
Where: - SHG- sensible heat gain
CLF – cooling load factor for people ( from 0.95 -1)

Latent heat gain due to occupants (QL)

𝑄𝐿 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 × 𝐿𝐻𝐺
Where: – LHG –latent heat gain
Internal heat gain due to light Other products and function that emit heat to the space
• Cooling load due to heat gain from light is  ELECTRIC MOTORS
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙 × 𝐹𝑠𝑎
 Cooking Appliances
Where 𝑄𝐿 –heat gain due to light
W – Total light wattage  Hospital and Laboratory Equipment

𝐹𝑢𝑙 – light use factor  Office Equipment

Fsa - lighting special allowance factor ( 0.95 - 1.0)  Any other
TOTAL HEAT GAIN TO THE ROOM
Calculated using
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 ) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
The mass flow rate of air required to cool the total load
𝑄𝑠 Where 𝑄𝑠 = total sensible heat of the room, W
𝑚𝑎 = 𝐶𝑝𝑎 = specific heat of moist air =1.0246𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝑘
𝐶𝑝𝑎 (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑥 )
𝑇𝑖𝑛 = design indoor condition temperature, 0c
𝑇𝑥 = air temperature at the out let of cooling coil, 0c

specific humidity of supply air can be calculated from the latent heat balance

𝑄𝐿 Where - QL = total latent heat of the room

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑖 –
𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑝𝑤 ma = mass flow rate of air
Wi = specific humidity of room air
Ws = specific humidity of supply air
Cpw = latent heat of evaporation

For cooling and humidification to take place the surface temperature of cooling coil should be less than the dry bulb
temperature of the air and greater than the wet bulb temperature of air.
Design and selection of Air conditioning
equipment's

•.
Design and selection of Air conditioning
equipment's

• Heating/Cooling coils

 Coils are indirect-contact heat exchangers that transfer heat between air and another medium for the
purpose of heating, cooling, dehumidifying, or doing a combination thereof
 Chilled water and refrigerants used to cool and dehumidify moist air are called coolants.
 In a coil, water and refrigerant flow inside the tubes, and air flows over the outside surface of the tubes
and fins.
Types of Coils
Coils can be classified into four categories according to the medium used

Water Cooling Coil. A water cooling coil uses chilled water as the coolant inside the tubes.
• The chilled water cools or cools and dehumidifies the moist air that flows over the external surface of the
tubes and fins,

• Direct-Expansion (DX) Coil. In a direct-expansion coil, the refrigerant (usually HCFC-22, HFC-134a,
HFC-404A, HFC-410A, HFC-407A, or HFC-407C) is evaporated and expanded directly inside the tubes
to cool and dehumidify the air flowing over it,

Water Heating Coil. Hot water, is used as the heating medium in a water heating coil

Steam Heating Coil. Steam heating coils use the latent heat of condensation released by steam inside the
tubes to heat outside and recirculating air
Cont. ..
• Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in a Sensible heating/Cooling Process

where
ሶ volume flow rate of conditioned air, cfm [m/ (60 s)]
𝑉𝑎 =
𝜌𝑎 - air density, (kg/𝑚3 )
𝑇𝑎𝑒 , 𝑇𝑎𝑙 - temperature of conditioning air entering and leaving sensible cooling coil, (°C)
𝐶𝑝𝑎 , 𝐶𝑝𝑤 specific heat of moist air and water, (J /kg°C)
𝐴𝑜 total outside surface area of coil, ft2 (m2)
𝑈𝑜 overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside surface area of coil, (W/m2 °C)
Fs coil core surface area parameter
Aa face area of coil, (m2)
Nr number of rows in coil
Tm log-mean temperature difference, (°C)
mass flow rate of chilled water, [kg/ (60 s)]
Twl, Twe temperature of chilled water leaving and entering coil, (°C)
HUMIDIFICATION AND HUMIDIFIERS
Humidifiers
• A humidifier adds moisture to the air. Humidifiers may
1. inject steam directly into air or add heat and evaporate steam from water supplied to the
conditioned space;
2. atomize or spray liquid water, so that water evaporates and is added to the air; or
3. force air to flow over a wetted element so that as water evaporates, it is added to the air as vapor
Humidifying load 𝑚ℎ𝑢 is the amount of water vapor required to be added to the air by a humidifier so as to maintain
a predetermined space relative humidity
SELECTION OF HUMIDIFIERS AND DESIGN

• The following factors should be considered in selecting a humidifier:

 Energy consumption and operating cost
 Quality of humidification. Humidified air should be clean and free of odor, bacteria,
particulate matter, and water droplets to prevent microbial growth due to wetted surfaces
 Humidifying capacity
 Capacity control or a modulation control
 Equipment noise.
 Initial cost.
 Maintenance. This includes the amount and cost of required maintenance work for the
humidifiers.
 Space occupied. This is the volume occupied by the humidifier per unit humidifying
capacity.
ncl
AIR CLEANING, RATING, AND ASSESSMENTS
Air Filtration

• Air cleaning is the process of removing airborne particles present in the air.

• It can be classified into two categories: air filtration and industrial air cleaning.

• Air filtration involves the removal of airborne particles present in outdoor air as well as recirculated air from a given space.

• Most airborne particles removed by air filtration are smaller than 1 µm, and the concentration of these particulates in the
conditioned airstream is often less than 2 mg /m3
• Industrial air cleaning mainly involves the removal of dust and gaseous contaminants from the industrial manufacturing
processes, and it provides pollution control to the exhaust gas and flue gas.

The rating and assessment of air filters are mainly based on the following characteristics

Efficiency is the primary rating index. he efficiency of a specific filter is affected by the size of the dust particles, dust-
holding capacity 𝑚𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡 , or loading, in gr / ft2 (g/m2) and the test methods
Cont. ..
• Pressure drop. Total pressure drop of an air filter pt, in in. WC (Pa), can be calculated as

At the rated volume flow rate, the pressure drop of a clean air filter when it first starts to collect dust particles is called the
initial pressure drop.
The pressure drop of an air filter which is about to be replaced or cleaned is called its final pressure drop.
Service life. The operating period between the initial and final pressure drop is called the service life of an air filter.

Filtration Mechanism

• Inertial impaction. A sudden change in direction causes a collision between the dust particles, and fibrous media.
• Straining. If the filter spaces are smaller than the size of the dust particles, the particles are trapped.
• Diffusion. For very fine dust particles, Brownian movement causes the particles to settle.
• Interception. Dust particles may follow the airstream, contact the fibrous media, and remain there.
• Electrostatic effects. Particles and the filter medium are charged to collect the dust in the airstream
Classification of Air Filters
Coarse Air Filters
• Coarse air filters are often used to remove coarse dusts (5 to 80 µm) such as standing dust on surfaces, pollen, and textile
fibers.
• They are generally panel filters of MERV 1, 2, 3 and 4 with weight arrestance efficiencies between 65 and 75 percent.
• The dimensions of the framework of these filters are often 20-in. (500-mm) width by 20-in. (500-mm) height, or 24-in. (600
mm) width by 24-in. (600-mm) height. The depth of the filter may vary from to 4 in. (13 to 100 mm).

Filter media for coarse filters are divided into three categories:
 Viscous and reusable. Some examples are corrugated wire mesh and screen strips. They are usually coated with oil, which
acts as an adhesive, to increase their dust removal ability. Detergents may be used to wash off the dust when the filter media
are to be cleaned and reused.
 Dry and reusable. Certain materials such as synthetic fibers (nylon, terylene) and polyurethane foam can be cleaned or
washed if reuse is required.
 Dry and disposable. Synthetic and cellulose fibers, and bonded glass fiber mats with most of the glass fibers greater than 10
m in diameter belong to this category. The air filter is discarded as soon as the final pressure drop is reached.

 The face velocity of panel filters usually lies between 300 and 600 fpm (1.5 and 3 m/ s). The minimum final pressure drop is
0.3 in. WC (75 Pa).
 Coarse air filters are widely used in window air conditioners and residential small packaged units.
Cont. ..
• Low-Efficiency Air Filters

• Low-efficiency air filters including MERV 5, 6, 7 and 8 are often used to remove dusts between 3 and 10 µm, such as
spores, molds, hairspray, cement, and other solid particles

• In low-efficiency air filters, natural and synthetic fibers including glass fibers, viscous corrugated wire mesh, bonded glass
fibers, and electrostatically discharged fibers or fabrics called electret have been used as filter media.

• Most low-efficiency filters have a face velocity of 500 fpm (2.5 m / s) to match the face velocity of the coil in AHUs or
PUs.

• Low-efficiency air filters have a final minimum pressure drop of 0.06 in. WC (150 Pa). Low efficiency

• filters are widely used in packaged units and air-handling units in commercial and institutional

• buildings, industrial workplaces, and more demanding residential applications.

Cont.
Medium-Efficiency Air Filters
• Medium-efficiency air filters including MERV 9, 10, 11 and 12 are used to remove dusts of size 1 to 3 µm such as welding
fumes, Legionella bacteria and coal dusts.

• They are often bag and box filters with pleated mat to extend surface area, and are made of synthetic fibers including bonded
glass fibers of diameters from <1 µm to several micrometers.

• A minimum final pressure drop of 1 in. WC (250 Pa).

• Medium-efficiency air filters are used in demanding commercial building and industrial applications
High-Efficiency Air Filters
High-efficiency air filters including MERV 13, 14, 15, and 16 are used to remove particles of 0.3 to 1 m such as bacteria,
viruses, cooking oil fumes, tobacco smoke, and other smoke.
The filter media are often made of glass fibers of sub micrometer and micrometer diameter. They are often in the form of a
pleated mat in a cartridge
The air velocity flowing through the filter media is lower, and the minimum final pressure drops across the filter media are 1.4
in. WC (350 Pa).
High-efficiency filters are widely used in air systems for hospitals, high-demand commercial buildings, and precision
manufacturing workshops.
SELECTION OF AIR FILTERS
• During the selection of air filters, electronic air cleaners, and activated carbon filters to remove air contaminants for
the health and comfort of the occupants in indoor conditioned space, the following requirements and arrangements
should be carefully considered:

 Characteristics of the air contaminants, the size of the particles, and the concentration of dust particles or
irritating vapors to be removed must be identified.
 The degree of air cleanliness required in the conditioned space must be specified, especially the design criteria
for clean spaces or clean rooms.
 The minimum efficiency of the air filter at specific particle sizes and loadings must be specified.
 The initial, average, and final pressure drops during the operating period, which affect the energy consumption
and service life of the filter and the air system, must be determined.
 Service life of the air filter influences the installation cost, the pressure drop, and the efficiency of the air filter
Ducts
• The duct systems convey the conditioned air from the air conditioning equipment to the proper air distribution points or air
supply outlets in the room

• The objective of duct design is to size the duct so as to minimize the pressure drop through the duct, while keeping the size
(and cost) of the ductwork to a minimum.

• Proper duct design requires a knowledge of the factors that effect pressure drop and velocity in the duct.

Duct Material
 The ducts are usually made from galvanized
iron sheet metal, aluminum sheet metal or black
steel. The most commonly used duct material in
air conditioning systems is galvanized sheet
metal, because the zinc coating of this metal
prevents rusting and avoids the cost of painting.
Duct System Pressure
• three types of pressures involved in a duct system

1. Static pressure is the pressure applied by the air to the walls perpendicular on the airstream. It corresponds to the sum
of all pressure drops of the ducts system and its components.

2. Dynamic pressure is the kinetic energy of the air that passes through the fan.. This dynamic pressure is directly
dependent on the airspeed (c)

3. Total pressure. The total pressure is the algebraic sum of the static pressure and dynamic or velocity pressure
𝑃𝑇 = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure
𝑃𝑇 ≡ 𝑃𝑠 + 𝑃𝑣
If the velocity of air (V) flowing through the duct is in ml s, then velocity pressure in the duct,
Flow through a Duct
• consider now the flow of air between two sections 1 and 2 of an insulated duct
 mass balance between the two sections

 Assuming constant density of air, we have for the volume flow rate

 energy balance, assuming frictionless flow and no pressure drop

account for the drop in static and total pressures

where ∆𝑃𝐿 represents the total pressure drop or loss between the two sections

 When the duct 1 branches into two ducts 2 and 3

 we can express pf as a function of 𝑄𝑣 instead of C
Pressure Losses in Ducts
• The drop in static pressure of air takes place due to two factors:

1) Duct friction (friction loss), and

in terms of C and 𝑄𝑣 , by eliminating D,
2) Change of direction and/or velocity (dynamic loss.).
FRICTION LOSS IN DUCTS
Frictional losses are usually expressed by means
of D’ Arcy’s formula or the Fanning equation.
where ∆pf = frictional pressure drop
𝐻𝑓 = friction head or loss in meters of air
ρ= Density of air
f = Friction factor friction factor, for smooth ducts
for a circular duct is, therefore, written as L = Length of duct For laminar flow, the friction factor,
C = Mean duct velocity ( V)
𝐷𝑚 = Hydraulic mean diameter
Cross−sectional area 𝐴
= =
Perimeter 𝑃 For turbulent flow, the friction factor
ks = Absolute roughness of the duct wall in meters.
The friction factor ( f) for rough pipes or ducts ,
Values of absolute viscosity and density of air at different temperatures.
Equivalent Diameter of a Circular Duct for a Rectangular Duct
• In order to find the equivalent diameter of a circular duct for a rectangular duct for the same pressure loss per unit length, we
shall consider the following two cases

1. When the quantity of air passing through the rectangular and circular ducts is same
• pressure loss due to friction, Since the pressure loss, friction factor, length, density and quantity
of air for the circular and rectangular ducts is same, therefore from
equations
Cont. ..
2. When the velocity of air passing through the rectangular and circular ducts is same

Since the pressure loss, velocity of air, friction factor, density and length for the circular and rectangular ducts is same,
therefore from equations

where a/b is known as aspect ratio

Dynamic Losses in Ducts
• The dynamic losses are caused due to the change in direction or magnitude of velocity of the fluid in the duct.
• The change in the direction of velocity occurs at bends and elbows.
• The dynamic losses in ducts are caused by the following:
i. Changes in direction, i.e., due to elbows, bends, etc.
ii. Changes in area or velocity, (i.e.due to enlargement, contraction, suction and discharge openings, dampers, etc.)

the dynamic pressure loss pd

Where; C - is normally the downstream velocity.
K - a dynamic loss coefficient

The losses in elbows, fittings, etc., are also expressed in terms of an equivalent length Le of the duct, so that
Pressure Loss due to Enlargement in Area and Static Regain
• When the area of a duct changes, the velocity of air flowing through the duct changes
• The increase in static pressure as a result of the conversion from velocity pressure is termed as static regain

The loss of pressure takes place due to the eddies formed at the suddenly
enlarged section
Pressure Loss due to Contraction In Area

Since the pressure loss due to sudden contraction is equal to the pressure loss due to sudden enlargement from section 1-1 to
section 2-2, therefore pressure loss due to sudden contraction,
A few general rules are stated below which should be followed in the design of ducts.

i. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to economies on power, material and space.
ii. Sudden changes in direction should be avoided. When bends are essential, turning vanes should be used to
minimize the pressure loss.
iii. Air velocities in ducts should be within permissible limits to minimize noise.
iv. Diverging sections should be made gradual. The angle of divergence should not exceed 20°.
v. Rectangular ducts should be made as nearly square as possible. This will ensure minimum duct surface, and
hence cost, for the same air-carrying capacity. An aspect ratio of less than 4 : 1 should be maintained.
vi. Ducts should be made of smooth materials such as galvanized iron (GI) or aluminum sheet metals. Whenever
other materials are used, allowance should be made for the roughness of the material.
vii. Dampers should be provided in each branch outlet for balancing the system.
viii. Avoid duct obstructions.
 Fans
• A fan is the prime mover of an air system or ventilation system. It moves the air and provides continuous airflow so that
the conditioned air, space air, exhaust air, or outdoor air can be transported from one location to another through air ducts
or other air passages.

• The air feed into a fan is called induced draft while the air exhaust from a fan is called forced draft.
Types of Fans
1. Centrifugal or radial flow fans, the air enters the impeller axially and is discharged radially from the impeller,.
2. Axial flow fans the air flows parallel to the axis of impeller,
Centrifugal or radial flow fans
The centrifugal fans are widely used for duct air conditioning system, because they can efficiently move large or small
quantities of air over a greater range of operating pressures.
The centrifugal force created by the rotating impeller moves the air outward along the blade channels.
Axial Flow Fans
The axial flow fans are divided into the following three groups :
1. Propeller fan. A propeller type of axial flow fan consists of propeller or disc type wheel which operates within a mounting ring
2. Tube axial fan. A tube axial fan, consists of a propeller wheel housed in a simple cylinder.
These fans are easily installed in round ducts. They are more efficient than propeller fans.
3. Vane axial fan. A vane axial fan combines a tube axial fan wheel mounted in a cylinder with a set of air guide vanes, This fan
eliminates spiral flow of the discharge air and reduces the turbulence of flow. The efficiency of operation and the pressure
characteristics are better than those of tube axial fan.
FAN CHARACTERISTICS
• The required fan work can be calculated by knowing the flow rate and fan total pressure

Qv = volume flow rate

• A fan performance curve is a graph of a fan's volume rate plotted against pressure, power, or efficiency.

Performance curves for a Performance curves for a centrifugal

centrifugal fan with backward fan with forward curved blades
curved blades
 Performance curves for an axial flow air foil-type fan
Performance curves for a centrifugal fan with
radial blades
FAN SELECTION
• Selection of a fan for a given type of air system or mechanical ventilating system actually is done in two stages: selection of
fan type and determination of fan size. During selection, the following factors should be considered:
 Pressure-volume flow operating characteristics. Selecting a fan to
Conditions Clarified and Factors Considered provide the required volume flow rate and total pressure loss for an air
system or a ventilating system is of prime importance
Before the selection, the following conditions must  Fan capacity modulation. A variable-air-volume system operates at a
reduced volume flow rate during part-load operation. Effective and
be clarified:
economical fan capacity modulation is an important factor that affects
 Setting (in a commercial building to handle clean the operation of an air system.
air at room temperature, or an industrial setting to  Fan efficiency. Fan efficiency is closely related to the energy
handle dirty air) consumption of an air system. Fans should be selected so that they can
 Special requirements (such as high-temperature operate at high efficiency during as much of their operation time as
operation or spark-resistant construction) possible.
 Function (supply fan or a return fan in an air-  Sound power level. Fans are the major source of noise in an air
handling unit, or supply or exhaust fan in a system. Usually, the higher the fan total efficiency, the lower the sound
ventilating system) power level of the selected fan. A fan with a low sound power level
 Characteristics of the air system (constant volume and sound power level at high frequencies is preferable. High-
or variable air volume) frequency sound is more easily attenuated than low-frequency sound.
 Room NC curve  Airflow direction. In many applications, a straight-through or in-line
 Approximate annual operating hours flow occupies less space and simplifies layout.
 Unit cost of energy at the specific location  Initial cost. The initial cost of the fan modulation device, sound
. attenuator(s), and space occupied by a particular type of fan, in
addition to the cost of the fan itself, should be considered