Nature and Principle of

UNIT 8 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT* Human Development

Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Stages of Development
8.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
8.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
8.3 Let Us Sum Up
8.4 Glossary
8.5 Unit End Questions
8.6 Answers to Self Assessment Questions (SAQ)
8.7 References and Suggested Readings
8.8 References for Images

8.0 INTRODUCTION
From the moment the human child is first conceived, to the day the individual
dies, they keep changing constantly and developing. While some of the changes
humans undergo are as a result of chance incidents and personal choices, the
vast majority of life changes and stages the human passes through are due to
certain common biological and psychological factors partly inherited and partly
environmental and are shared by all people.
Life span development deals with important common developmental stages that
human beings pass through: birth, infancy, adolescence, adulthood, old age and
finally death. As the humans grow up from stage to stage they learn to make use
of their body parts, learn how to express themselves and communicate with others,
how to form relationship with others, how to care for others, how to love and
how to work. In this unit we will discuss two prominent theories of human
development namely, Sigmund Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and
Erikson’s theory of development.

8.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Articulate the importance of stage in human development;
Know the Freud’s contribution in understanding developmental process; and
Understand the eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of developmental
process.

8.2 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

A number of psychologists endorse the view that human development takes place
in stages which can be characterised by qualitative differences in behavior. Piaget
and Erikson are two most prominent names who supported the stage model of
* Contributed by Dr. Mamta Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Punjabi University,
Patiala & Dr. Arti Singh (IGNOU) (Adapted from BPC- 002, Block 1) 113
Developmental Processes human development. In this section we will see how cognitive and psychosocial
development takes place throughout one’s life according to both of these theorists.

8.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory

Sigmund Freud, physician by profession, was the major contributor of
psychoanalytic theory. He developed his theory while doing clinical practice
with patients. “Unconscious mental processes” is central to his theory. It refers
to those desires, needs and motivations for which we are not aware. Further,
according to Freud, darker aspect of human behaviour such as aggression and
sexual desires also plays important role in our personality.
In order to explain how our psyche (mind) works, Freud proposed;
A topographic model of the psyche (explains how our mind is organised)
A structural model of our personality
Psychosocial Stages of Development

A topographic model of the psyche

In the view of Sigmund Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels;
conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

According to him, our conscious mind is that part which deals with the current
information. That is, all the thoughts, feelings and actions of which you are aware
at the very moment are part of conscious mind. Preconscious mind deals with all
those information for which you are not currently aware but can become only if
you pay attention. The last level of mind is unconscious. This part of mind stores
those socially unacceptable needs, desires, motivations and feelings for which
you are unaware of. According to him, this unconscious part of mind plays vital
role in influencing our actions.

A structural model of personality

Freud proposed that our personality consist of three elements; id, ego and
superego. Before explaining in details, it is important to mention here that id,
ego and superego are just concepts and they do not have any physical or
physiological basis.

Id: This part of personality operates unconsciously. It deals with basic instincts,
biological needs and aggressive impulses. It is the most primitive part of human
personality present since birth. From id other parts of the personality (ego and
superego) develop. It works on pleasure principle-tendency to avoid pain and
seek pleasure. The aim of the id is to gratify one’s need immediately without
considering the moral values of the society and individual. Eros and Thanatos
are the two driving forces of Id. Eros was the God of love in Greek mythology.
According to Freud, in context of id, Eros is the life force. It is responsible for
our life instinct and survival, which includes sexual desire, reproduction desire
and pain avoidance. The counterpart of Eros is Thanatos-the death force or
instinct. It is responsible for violence, aggression and hate like negative feelings.
The aim of Thanatos is to balance the drive of Eros by driving us towards death
and destruction. When personality is dominated by id, then individual tend to
become more impulsive, such people will do what they want irrespective time,
place and situation, just like a kid.
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Ego: Suppose a 10-year-old child wants to eat a scoop of ice-cream kept in the Stages of Development
refrigerator. But he knows that eating ice-cream without seeking permission from
parents will be punished. The part of the personality responsible for this reality
check is known as Ego. So, ego works on reality principle-delaying id’s
gratification need will be delayed until an appropriate and more realistic situation
is not found. This part of personality emerges from id and its main objective is to
strike a balance between id’s impulsive needs and reality of this world. It is the
decision making component of our psyche and works on logic only. In the words
of Freud, “ego is that part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence
of the external world” (Freud, 1923). If ego would not be able to resolve the
conflict between impulsive demands of the id and realistic demands of this world,
then it would lead to the development of anxiety and stress. To ward off this
anxiety, individual will be motivated to use unconscious defense mechanisms
(we will talk about this in later section).

Superego: It is the moral master or moral guru of our personality. Let us continue
the same example referred in the last section. Whether that 10-year-old kid will
ask permission from his parents or not for eating a scoop of ice-cream depends
on the development of his superego. Since, seeking permission is morally correct
behaviour; it will indicate the presence of superego in the child. Role of the
superego is to internalise the moral and ethical value of the society through the
process of socialisation. It controls the impulsive urges of the id and pursue ego
to choose morally appropriate behaviour instead of only realistic behaviour. This
part of our psyche develops between the ages of three to five years. Further,
according Freud, our superego consists of two systems: (i) conscience and (ii)
ideal self. The conscience’s role is to punish or reward ego, through the feeling
of pride or guilt, depending on its behaviour. For example, if ego gives in id’s
demand and breaks the moral code of conduct, superego will make you feel
guilty about your behaviour. The second system, the ideal self-idealised picture
of your own self, also do the job of making you feel guilty or pride, depending
on your behaviour.

Fig.8.1: Diagram of Freud’s Psyche Theory

Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structural-Iceberg.svg

Ego Defence Mechanisms

One of the roles of ego is to protect the person from anxiety and stress. So when
the anxiety and stress from the forbidden desires and motives become
overwhelming, we tend to use some psychological strategies, known as ego
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Developmental Processes defence mechanisms. According to Freud, the sole aim of employing these ego
defence mechanisms is to protect our psyche from anxiety. A brief description of
eight important defence mechanisms has been described below:

Table 8.1: A Summary of Ego-defence Mechanisms

Mechanism Description
Repression Excluding from conscious awareness impulses or memories
that are too frightening or painful.
Rationalization Assigning logical or socially desirable motives to what we
do so that we seem to have acted rationally.
Reaction formation Concealing a motive from ourselves by giving strong
expression to the opposite motive.
Projection Assigning our own undesirable qualities to others in
exaggerated amounts.
Intellectualization Attempting to gain detachment from a stressful situation by
dealing with it in abstract, intellectual terms.
Denial Denying that an unpleasant reality exists.
Displacement Directing a motive that cannot be gratified inone form into
another channel.
Source: Atkinson & Hilgard (2009), pp. 469

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud proposed a five stage model of development of personality. According to
him, core aspects of one’s personality developed by the age of five and remain
unchanged throughout. Further, he stated that to move from one stage to another,
a child needs to resolve conflicts of each stage successfully. Unless, it will lead
to fixation- a continuation of an early mode of satisfaction in later life (The
Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology, 2009). For example, individual fixated at
oral stage may have drinking or smoking habits. In the following section, we
will talk about five stages of psychosexual development in brief:

Stage I: Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)

Mouth is the source of pleasure during this stage. Children completely depend
on their caregivers especially mother. They drive pleasure and understand the
world around them through sucking and swallowing. Over gratification or under
gratification may lead to the fixation at this early oral stage resulting into the
development of over eating behaviour, drinking or smoking in adulthood. Freud
called these people as oral-incorporative or oral-ingestive. Later during this stage,
children experience pleasure from chewing and biting. Unable to resolve the
psychological conflict of this stage may develop the habit of nail biting and
object chewing in adulthood. Freud further pointed out that these people are
more critical and sarcastic in nature. He referred such people as oral-aggressive
or oral-sadistic.

Stage II: Anal Stage (18 months to three years)

During this stage, children face the demand of their society for the first time; to
control and delay the expulsion of urine and faeces. Children experience pleasure
in this stage from their bowel and bladder movement. Freud believed that too
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harsh or too lenient toilet training may cause fixation at this stage. Resulting into Stages of Development
either being messy, lesser self-control but generous (called as anal expulsive
characters by Freud) or being tidy, orderly but mean (called as anal retentive
characters by Freud).

Stage III: Phallic Stage (three to five years)

Genitals become the erogenous region during this stage. Children knowingly or
unknowingly touch their genitals for pleasure. During this stage, they understand
the difference between males and females. Freud proposed that male child
experience Oedipus complex-which involves sexual feeling towards their mother,
feeling of rivalry for the father, as well as a threat of getting punished by the
father for having a desire for mother. The counterpart of Oedipus complex is
Electra complex-experienced by female child. It involves the sexual attraction
for father, feeling of rivalry for mother and a threat of getting punished by the
mother for having this feeling towards father. Successful resolution of this
complex develops mature sexual identity. According to Freud, by the end of this
stage personality is formed completely.

Stage IV: Latency Stage (six to twelve years)

The sexual energy during this stage is channelised towards educational, sports
and social activities. This leads to no or little interest for the opposite gender.

Stage V: Genital Stage (thirteen years to adulthood)

The sexual energy returns again in this stage. Successful completion of previous
stages will help in developing a mature intimate relationship with the opposite
sex. Whereas, unresolved issues of previous psychosexual stages will start
exhibiting during adulthood; leading to difficulty in establishing healthy intimate
relationship with the opposite sex.

Self Assessment Questions (SAQ I)

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Mouth is the source of pleasure during phallic stage. ( )
2) Freud proposed a five stage model of development of personality. ( )
3) Ego has no role in protecting the person from anxiety and stress. ( )
4) Ego works on reality principle-delaying id’s gratification need will be
delayed until an appropriate and more realistic situation is not found. ( )
5) In the view of Sigmund Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels;
conscious, preconscious and unconscious. ( )

8.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson was a psychoanalytic like Freud, but differs from Freud in regard to
psycho sexual development. This means that he accepts Freud’s ideas as basically
correct. Erikson was much more culture-oriented than Freud and his theory is
labeled Psychosocial instead of Psychosexual.
The epigenetic principle
Development functions by the epigenetic principle which means that our
personality develops through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after another 117
Developmental Processes only. In his theory he proposed that this unfolding of personality takes place in
eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success,
or lack of success, in all the previous stages.

Psychosocial virtues or strengths (positive outcomes)

Each stage involves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature
and has a certain optimal time as well. If a stage is managed well, we carry with
us certain virtue or psychosocial strength that will help us through the rest of the
stages of our lives.

Psychosocial maladaptations and malignancies (negative outcomes)

If a child is able to pass successful through the different stages and development,
one can expect a positive healthy person. However if the person faces more
failure than success, his personality will be unhealthy. Maladaptations’ and
‘Malignancies’ represent the negative outcomes arising from an unhelpful
experience through each of the crisis stages. If we do not manage the task well,
we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, which will endanger all
our future development. A malignancy involves too little of the positive and too
much of the negative aspect such as a person who does not trust at all whereas
maladaptation involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative,
such as a person who trusts too much.

The Eight stages of development

Erik Erikson explained eight stages of development through which a healthy
developing person would pass. These are:

1) Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

In this stage, the role of caregiver is most important. If the behaviour and
care provided to the child by the primary caregiver is consistent, predictable
and reliable then the child will develop a sense of trust. This sense of trust
will be carried over by the child throughout his life and make him perceive
this world as secure place and other people trustworthy who will always
there to help him. On the other hand, inability of parents or primary caregiver
in providing secure environment and consistent love then it will lead to
mistrust. According to Erikson, successful completion of this stage will
develop the virtue of hope in the growing child.

2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

The second stage is the anal-muscular stage of early childhood. This is an
important period of “hold and let go”. As children gain control over
eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their
surroundings. If parents and caregivers encourage self-sufficient behaviour,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy that is a sense of being able to handle
many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon,
refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable, children may
instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems. If
a child gets proper, positive balance of autonomy the person will develop
the virtue of willpower, or else, the maladaptive tendency of impulsivity
and the malignant tendency of compulsion will develop. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of will.
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3) Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years) Stages of Development

During this stage a child start exerting his assertive abilities. He learns to
take initiatives- “a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on
responsibilities, feeling purposeful and learning new skills” (Tandon, 2002).
Play is central to this stage. It gives a child to take initiative and have a
control over his or her surroundings. If parents encourage and support
children’s activities and imagination, then it will make child confident of
his abilities. This will help the child in leading others in future and taking
decision on its own. On the other hand, if the child’s initiative is criticised
and controlled by parents then it will develop a sense of guilt. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.

4) Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)

At this stage, the child learns to develop various skills such as, reading,
writing, doing math etc. Peer group and teachers plays vital role during this
stage. If the child’s initiative is accepted, encouraged and reinforced then he
or she will feel competent and confident i.e., industrious. While, on the
other hand if the child is continuously criticized and ridiculed of his initiatives
then it will make him feel inferior of his abilities. The right balance of
industry and inferiority will develops the virtue called competency. If the
child experiences failure then he may develop maladaptive tendency of
narrow virtuosity and the malignant tendency of inertia.

5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)

The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence,
from about 12-18 years. “This is the crossroad between childhood and
maturity” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The goal of this stage is to develop social
identity and occupational identity. During this stage children have become
more independent and try to become part of the society by developing their
social and occupational identity. If society provides clear guideline and rites
of passage then it will help the adolescent in achieve clear role identity. If
failed to negotiate this stage, the individual may develop maladaptive
tendency of fanaticism and the malignant tendency of repudiation. Further,
success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity.

6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)

This stage takes place in young adulthood i.e. between 18 years to 40 years.
In this stage, individual tries to establish stronger friendship and to have an
intimate relationship with other individuals. Failure to develop an intimate
relationship with another person may lead to loneliness, alienation, social
withdrawal, and maladaptive behaviour. Success in this stage will develop
the virtue of love.

7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)

Generativity vs. stagnation is the seventh stage of Erikson’s theory. This
stage occurs during the middle adulthood i.e., from 35 years to 65 years.
The healthy aim of this stage is to develop an extension of love and care for
future generation. During this stage an individual tries to become productive
for work and for his or her society by raising family and kids and being
sensitive for their needs and requirements. These standards of generativity
are defined and shaped by one’s culture. On the other hand, if an individual 119
Developmental Processes is unable to be productive w.r.t. work and society, it will lead to stagnation
and self-indulgence. Success in this stage will develop the virtue of care.

8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)

This is the last stage and according to Erikson this is a stage of review in
which the older adult looks back at one’s life and review it as a whole. If the
older adult perceives his life consist of meaning and happy experience then
it will lead to integrity- feeling at peace with oneself and world. Whereas,
on the other hand if the older adult perceive his life full of disappointments,
unaccomplished goals and negative experiences then it will develop despair
which will lead to the feeling of depression and hopelessness. Success in
this stage will develop the virtue of wisdom.

Table 8.2: Stage wise summary of Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Stage (age) Psychoso Significan- Psychosoci- Psychoso- Maladaptations
cialcrisis trelations almodalities cialvirtues &
malignancies

I (0-1) – trust vs Mother to get, to give in hope, faith Sensory

infant mistrust return distortion –
withdrawal

II (2-3) – autonomy vs Parents to hold on, tolet will,deter- Impulsivity

toddler shame go mination compulsion
anddoubt

III (3-6) – initiative vs Family to go after, purpose, ruthlessness

preschooler guilt toplay courage –inhibition

IV (7-12 or industry vs neighbor- to complete,to competence Narrow

so) –school- inferiority hoodand make virtuosity –
age child school thingstogether inertia

V (12-18 or ego-identity peer groups, to be oneself,to fidelity, fanaticism —

so) – vs role models share oneself loyalty repudiation
adolescence roleconfusion

VI (the intimacy vs partners, to lose andfind love promiscuity

20’s) – isolation friends oneselfin a –exclusivity
young adult another

VII (late generativity household, care to make overextension

20’s to 50’s) vs workmates be,to take –rejectivity
–middle selfabsorption careof
adult
mankind to be, wisdom presumption
VIII(50’s integrity vs
or”my kind” throughhaving –despair
and beyond) despair
–old adult been,to face
notbeing

Source: Chart adapted from Erikson’s 1959 Identity and the Life Cycle: Psychological Issues
vol.1, #1)

8.3 LET US SUM UP

We started this unit with the concept of stage model of development. To understand
the stage model in more depth, we covered two theories namely, Sigmund Freud’s
theory and Erik Erikson’s theory of development. According to Freud’s theory
our development takes place in five stages whereas according to Erik Erikson
120 our developmental process consists of eight stages.
 Stages of Development
Self Assessment Questions (SAQ II)
Fill in the blanks:
1) In ................................... stage, the role of caregiver is most important.
2) .......................................... is a stage of review in which the older adult
looks back at one’s life and review it as a whole.
3) ......................................... principle means that our personality develops
through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after another only.
4) If we do not manage the task well, we may develop ................. and
...............................................................
5) Each stage involves certain .............................................. tasks that are
psychosocial in nature.

8.4 GLOSSARY
Id : That part of personality which operates
unconsciously. It deals with basic instincts,
biological needs and aggressive impulses
Pleasure Principle : Tendency to avoid pain and seek pleasure.
Projection : Assigning our own undesirable qualities to others
in exaggerated amounts
Oedipus complex : It involves sexual feeling of male child towards
his mother, feeling of rivalry for the father, as well
as a threat of getting punished by the father for
having a desire for mother.
Electra complex : It is the counterpart of Oedipus complex. It is
experienced by female child. It involves the sexual
attraction for father, feeling of rivalry for mother
and a threat of getting punished by the mother for
having this feeling towards father.
Epigenetic principle : This principle states that our personality develops
through a predetermined order i.e., one stage after
another only.

8.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What do you mean of stage w.r.t. development? What is the basic assumption
of stage theorists?
2) Explain psycho-sexual stages of Freud’s theory.
3) What is epigenetic principle of Erikson’s theory? Write any five stages of
your choice from his theory.

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Developmental Processes
8.6 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT
QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assessment Questions I
1) False
2) True
3) False
4) True
5) True

Self Assessment Questions II

1) Ego Integrity vs. Despair
2) Trust Vs Mistrust
3) Epigenetic
4) Maladaptations and malignancies
5) Developmental

8.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Bjorklund D. (1997). In search of a meta-theory for cognitive development. Child
Development 68(1), 144–148.
Dixon R.A. and Lerner R.M. (1999). History and systems in developmental
psychology. Developmental Psychology: An Advanced Textbook (ed. M.H.
Bornstein and M.E. Lamb), 4th edn., pp. 1–46. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Geary D.C. and Bjorklund D.F. (2000). Evolutionary developmental psychology.
Child Development 71(1), 57–65.
Lerner R.M. (1998). Theories of human development: contemporary perspectives.
Handbook of Child Psychology. Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human
Development (ed. R.M. Lerner), 5th edn., pp. 1–24. New York: Wiley.
Lerner R.M., Fisher C.B., and Weinberg R.A. (2000). Toward a science for and
of the people: promoting civil society through the application of developmental
science. Child Development 71(1) 11–20.
Lewis M.D. (2000). The promise of dynamic systems approaches for an integrated
account of human development. Child Development 71(1), 36–43.
Nelson C.A. and Bloom F.E. (1997). Child Development and Neuroscience. Child
Development 68(5), 970–987.
Pellegrini A.D. and Bjorklund D.F. (1998). Applied Child Study: A Developmental
Approach, 3rd edn., 243 pp. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbuam.
Tandon, R. K. (2002). Child Psychology. APH Publishing Corporation.

8.8 REFERENCES FOR IMAGES

Diagram of Freud’s psyche theory. Retrieved October 31, 2018, from https://
122 commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structural-Iceberg.svg