CALL

Introduction:
Computer-assisted language Learning (CALL) is an approach to teaching
and learning in which the computer and computer-based resources
such as the Internet are used to present, reinforce and assess material
to be learned. It usually includes a substantial interactive element. It
also includes the search for and the investigation of applications in
language teaching and learning. Except for self-study software, CALL is
meant to supplement face-to-face language instruction, not replace it.
Levy (1997) described CALL as a field that covers
“the search for and study of applications of the computer in language
teaching and learning” and this definition still applies.
Most simply, it means using chip-based technology to support language
teaching and learning in some way. This definition applies to all
languages, skill areas, and content.
Educators regularly introduce new terms to describe CALL,
demonstrating that they are still exploring its boundaries and clarifying
its components. Labels include computer-enhanced language
learning (CELL), the more general technology-enhanced language
learning (TELL), and specific applications such as computer-based
language testing (CBLT) and computer-supported reading
instruction (CRI). There are other ways to look at CALL, too. It began as
software run on mainframe computers to provide learners with drills
and other language practice. Since then, CALL has come to include
many different technologies: laptop computers, personal digital
assistants (PDAs), digital audio recorders, wireless Internet access, local
area networking, virtual environments, and more. It has expanded from
using individual drill software to using the Internet and even virtual
reality as a medium to support native and nonnative speaker
interaction.
Some authors have attempted to explain CALL by dividing its processes
and software packages into categories. For example,
 some have described CALL according to students do (fill in the
blanks, tutorials, word processing, virtual or augmented reality),
 some according to the language skills that it addresses (listening
software, reading software),
 others by where it is used (home, office, school, lab), and
 yet others by the philosophy that underlies its use (e.g.,
Warschauer, 1996, categorized it as behaviorist, communicative,
or integrative).
The Intense School, which focuses on computer and information
technology, summarizes it simply as “the use of electronic
devices/computers to provide educational instruction and to learn.”
More broadly, CAL includes the use of electronics such as CD and MP3
players (or record players in the 1960s), DVD players, tablets,
smartphones and television. These tools can help better illustrate a
point the teacher is trying to make or heighten engagement among
students.
CAL also includes online courses and supplemental course materials
used in colleges, homeschooling and distance learning. Basically, any
type of technology that can be used to learn most likely falls beneath
the CAL umbrella.
History
CALL’s origins and development trace back to the 1960’s and since has
consisted of a symbiotic relationship between the development of
technology and pedagogy. Its development can be divided into three
phases:
 Behavioristic CALL
 Communicative CALL
 Integrative /explorative CALL
Behavioristic CALL
It is defined by the dominant behavioristic theories of learning
of Skinner as well as the technological limitations of computers from
the 1960’s to the early 1980’s. Up to the late 1970’s, CALL was confined
to universities where programs were developed on big mainframe
computers, like the PLATO project, initiated at the University of
Illinois in 1960. Because repeated exposure to material was considered
to be beneficial or even essential, computers were considered ideal for
this aspect of learning as the machines did not get bored or impatient
with learners and the computer could present material to the student
as his/her own pace and even adapt the drills to the level of the
student. Hence, CALL programs of this era presented a stimulus to
which the learner provided a response. At first, both could be done only
through text. The computer would analyze errors and give feedback.
More sophisticated programs would react to students’ mistakes by
branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs
and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, to a large part
behavioristic approaches to language learning have been rejected and
the increasing sophistication of computer technology has lead CALL to
other possibilities.
Communicative CALL
Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach that
became prominent in the late 1970’s and 1980’s. In the communicative
approach, the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the
language, teaching grammar implicitly. It also allowed for originality
and flexibility in student output of language. It also correlates with the
arrival of the PC, making computing much widely available resulting in a
boom in the development of software for language learning. The first
CALL software in this phase still provided skill practice but not in a drill
format, for example, paced reading, text reconstruction and language
games but computer remained the tutor. In this phase, however,
computers provided context for students to use the language, such as
asking for directions to a place. It also allowed for programs not
designed for language learning, such as Sim City, Sleuth and Where in
the World in Carmen Sandiego? to be used for language learning.
However, criticisms of this approach include using the computer in an
ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal rather than the
central aims of language teaching. It will usually taught skills such as
reading and listening in a compartmentalized way, even if not in a drill
fashion.
Integrative/Exploratative CALL
Starting from the 1990’s, tries to address these criticisms by integrating
the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction
and coherence. It also coincides with the development of multimedia
technology (providing text, graphics, sound and animation) as well as
computer-mediated communication. CALL in this period saw a
definitive shift of use of computer for drill and tutorial purposes
(computer as a finite authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium
for extending education beyond the classroom and reorganizing
instruction. Multimedia CALL started with interactive laser videodiscs
such as “Montevidisco. These programs later were transferred to CD-
ROMs.
In multimedia programs, listening is combined with seeing, just like in
the real world. Students also control the pace and the path of the
interaction. Interaction is in the foreground but many CALL programs
also provide links to explanations simultaneously. An example of this is
Dustin’s simulation of a foreign student’s arrival to the U.S. Programs
like this led also to what is called exploratative CALL. More recent
research in CALL has favored a learner-centered exploratative
approach, where students are encouraged to try different possible
solutions to a problem, for example the use of concordance programs
in the language classroom. This approach is also described as data-
driven learning.
Applications of CALL for Language Learning
While the use of CALL can be useful in any classroom, it’s especially
beneficial in language learning contexts.
In fact, it’s so effective that it gets its own acronym! CALL (Computer-
assisted Language Learning) is quickly becoming a preferred teaching
tool among foreign language instructors.
Here are some examples of how CALL can help students learn
languages:
Visual Learning: Using the internet, you can easily search for pictures of
fruits, animals or colors so your students see what you mean and have
an image to associate with the word you’re describing. You can also use
a program like FluentU to demonstrate how words or grammar are
used by native speakers. FluentU showcases videos where languages
are used naturally, complete with interactive subtitles your students
can use to look up the meaning of a word, example sentences, tips on
how to use it, etc.
Listening Practice: Listening practice is a vital part of learning any
language. CALL helps with this by allowing you to, say, play interactive
audio designed for English learners. Not only will your students listen to
the language being used naturally, but they’ll also pick up on
pronunciation. They can then emulate the speakers and find their own
voice in their new tongue.
Tests: Using CALL technology, you can create your own test and have
your students use the class computers to take it. You can also find exam
materials on the internet and use those in your lessons. And with
programs like Duolingo, Memrise and Brainscape, there’s only a tiny
time gap between teaching and testing, since students get near-
instantaneous feedback from these.
Games: Games are perhaps one of the best ways to use CALL in the
classroom. Language students (especially young ones) love playing
computer games or doing puzzles in their target language. To them, it
doesn’t feel like learning—it feels like having fun. They won’t even
realize they’re getting smarter as they try to get to the next level or
solve a tough crossword!
Online Courses: CALL can include online courses. These courses can be
taken on one’s own time at home, possibly as a part of a full college
course load. They can also be taken as a supplement to a classroom-
based language course. There are hundreds of free and paid language
courses online, and many of them can be extremely effective.
Communication with Native Speakers: One of the most important
contributions technology has to language learning is that it has given
learners access to native speakers. Technologies
like italki and Skype allow language learners to work with native
speakers, tutors or teachers half a world away.
Technologies used in CALL instruction
The technologies used in CALL instruction generally fall into two
categories, software and Internet-based activities.
Software
Software used in a CALL environment can be designed specifically for
foreign/second language learning or adapted for this purpose. Most
language textbook publishers offer educational software of some sort,
whether it is meant to support a paper textbook or to stand alone for
self-study.
Most programs designed for language learning are tutorials. These
generally are drill programs that consist of a brief introduction plus a
series of questions to which the learner responds and then the
computer gives some kind of feedback. With these kinds of programs,
the material to be learned may already be programmed in by the
publisher, which is more common, or may allow the instructor to
program in the material to be learned.
Programs not designed specifically for language learning can be
adapted for this purpose. Generally, these are task-based activities
where the stated goal is something other than language learning;
however, using the target language is essential for getting the task
done. For example, with Facemaker, students create different faces by
using words in the language to command the computer. Role-playing
games, where the user creates and controls a character in a fantasy
realm, can be used in this manner as well.
Authoring programs allow an instructor to program part or all of the
content to be learned and program part or all of how the content is to
be learned. Some examples of these programs include Cloze
master, Choice master and Multitester. With these, the format is pre-
programmed and the instructor puts in the material. General authoring
programs like Macromedia Director can be used to make an entire
course; however, most teachers do not have the time or the technical
ability to make use of such programs.
Internet-based
The World Wide Web was launched in 1992 reaching the general public
by 1993, opening up new possibilities in CALL.
Internet activities vary considerably, from online versions of software
(where the learner interacts with a networked computer), to computer-
mediated communication (where the learner interacts with other
people via the computer), to applications that combine these two
elements.
Nowadays, web sites that cater to foreign-language learners, especially
those learning English, are so numerous and varied that it can be very
difficult to determine where to begin. There are even meta-sites
dedicated to trying to give a starting point such as Dave’s ESL Café and
LLRC Recommended Sources. Many of these websites are based on the
drill-exercise format but some also include games such as Hangman.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has been around in one

form or another since the 1960’s but only became widely available to
the general public since the early 199’s. CMC comes in two forms:
asynchronous (such as email and forums) and synchronous (such as
text and voice chat). With these, learners can communicate in the
target language with other real speakers cheaply, 24 hours a day.
Learners can communicate one-on-one or one to many as well as share
audio and video files. Because of all this, CMC has had the most impact
on language teaching.
Internet applications which combine interaction with another computer
as well as another person or people both derived from role playing
games (RPGs), which are activities where participants become part of a
story where they work together and/or work against each other. RPGs
were originally played on paper with pencils and dice but since the
1990s nearly all RPGs have been computer-based, with the computer
acting as a player and/or referee. RPG scenarios can be as simple as
Crimson Room’s goal of escaping from a locked room, but more often
the scenario is a quest or journey, where players become a fantasy
character and must use their skills to obtain treasure and experience.
Some popular online RPGs include: Fairyland, Runescape and the
simply-titled Quest .In chat rooms, the purpose is basically just to talk,
so usually all participants see is a blank screen with words on it. RPG
programs, however, participants appear on the screen (usually as
simple animated figures) and interact with landscapes and objects as
well as text they, the computer or other participants wrote.
Participation in an RPG mimics many real-world communicative
situations, such as buying and selling as well as a few not-so-real ones
such as casting spells.
While most RPG’s online nowadays simulate the video game
experience, RPG’s first went online in the forms of MUDs (Multi-user
Dungeons) and MOOs (Multi-user Dungeon, Object-oriented). MUDs
are purely textual environments, forcing the participant to imagine the
visual components and MOOs have some visual elements, however
very simple and not animated. MOOs have been converted education
into the virtual classroom and office space where teachers and students
can interact one-on-one or all together as a class in realime.
Types of CALL Programs

Drill and Practice Programs:

These programs focus on repetitive exercises to reinforce specific
language skills or grammar rules.
Example: Duolingo, Rosetta Stone, or Quizlet.
Simulations and Role-Playing Programs:
These programs immerse learners in simulated real-life scenarios,
encouraging them to use language in context.
Example: Virtual Reality (VR) language learning apps, simulation games.
Language Games:
Games make language learning enjoyable and engaging through
interactive challenges and competitions.
Example: Language learning apps with gamified elements, such as
WordBrewery or FluentU.
Communication and Collaboration Tools:
Platforms that facilitate communication and collaboration between
learners, allowing them to practice language with each other.
Example: Tandem, HelloTalk, or online language exchange platforms.
Grammar and Vocabulary Builders:
Programs specifically designed to help learners improve their grammar
and expand their vocabulary.
Example: Grammarly, Anki, or Memrise.
Mobile Apps:
Language learning applications designed for mobile devices, allowing
learners to practice on the go.
Example: Duolingo, Rosetta Stone, or Drops.
Speech Recognition Software:
Programs that analyze and provide feedback on learners' pronunciation
and spoken language.
Example: Speech recognition features in language learning apps like
Pimsleur.
Content Creation Tools:
Platforms that enable learners to create and share content in the target
language, fostering language production.
Example: Blogging platforms, podcasting tools, or video creation apps.
Adaptive Learning Systems:
Programs that adjust content and difficulty based on individual
learners' progress and performance.
Example: Adaptive language learning platforms like Babbel or Knewton.
Generic software Word, PowerPoint, Excel, etc.
CALL- specific software CD/DVDs & web-based language learning
software/programs
Web-based generic learning programs/materials Online dictionaries,
news/magazines, blog, wiki
Computer-mediated communication programs Online chat, email,
discussion, etc.

Roles of Computers in Language learning

Interactive Learning: Computers enable interactive and engaging
language learning experiences through multimedia content, interactive
exercises, and simulations. Learners can actively participate in lessons
and practice language skills in a dynamic environment.
Language Software and Applications: Language learning software and
applications provide learners with structured lessons, vocabulary drills,
grammar explanations, and interactive exercises. Examples include
Duolingo, Rosetta Stone, and Babbel.
Online Language Courses: Computers facilitate access to online
language courses, allowing learners to enroll in virtual classes,
participate in discussions, and complete assignments remotely.
Platforms like Coursera, edX, and Khan Academy offer language
courses.
Digital Language Labs: Digital language laboratories provide a
controlled environment for language practice. Learners can engage in
listening and speaking exercises, receive immediate feedback, and
practice pronunciation using specialized software.
Communication Tools: Computers enable learners to communicate
with native speakers or other learners worldwide through email, chat,
video conferencing, and language exchange platforms. This fosters
authentic language use and cultural exchange.
Grammar and Spell Checkers: Language learners can benefit from
grammar and spell checkers in word processors and writing
applications. These tools help learners identify and correct errors in
their written assignments.
Online Dictionaries and Resources: Computers provide access to vast
online language resources, including dictionaries, thesauruses, and
language reference materials. Online platforms like Linguee and
WordReference support learners in understanding and using
vocabulary.
Language Learning Games: Gamified language learning apps and
computer games make the learning process enjoyable. These games
often incorporate language challenges, vocabulary quizzes, and
interactive scenarios.
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Emerging
technologies like VR and AR enhance language learning by creating
immersive environments. Learners can experience simulated real-life
scenarios, practice conversations, and explore cultural contexts.
Adaptive Learning Systems: Computers can personalize language
learning experiences through adaptive learning systems. These systems
analyze learners' performance and adjust the difficulty level and
content to meet individual needs.
Language Assessment and Testing: Computers facilitate language
assessment through online tests, quizzes, and exams. Automated
grading systems streamline the evaluation process and provide quick
feedback to learners.
Content Creation and Collaboration: Computers empower learners to
create and share content in the target language, such as blogs,
podcasts, or videos. Collaborative platforms enable group projects and
discussions, fostering a sense of community among learners.
Role changes for teachers and students
Teachers
Although the integration of CALL into a foreign language program can
lead to great anxiety among language teachers, researchers
consistently claim that CALL changes, sometimes radically, the role of
the teacher but does not eliminate the need for a teacher altogether.
Instead of handing down knowledge to students and being the center
of students’ attention, teachers become guides as they construct the
activities students are to do and help them as students complete the
assigned tasks. In other words, instead of being directly involved in
students’ constructions of the language, the teacher interacts with
students primarily to facilitate difficulties in using the target language
(grammar, vocabulary, etc.) as use the language to interact with the
computer and/or other people.
Elimination of a strong teacher presence has been shown to lead to
larger quantity and better quality of communication such as more
fluidity, more use of complex sentences and more sharing of students’
personal selves. However, teacher presence is still very important to
students when doing CALL activities. Teachers should be familiar
enough with the resources to be used to anticipate technical problems
and limitations. Students need the reassuring and motivating presence
of a teacher in CALL environments. Not only are they needed during the
initial learning curve, they are needed to conduct review sessions to
reinforce what was learned. Encouraging students to participate and
offering praise are deemed important by students. Most students
report preferring to do work in a lab with a teacher’s or tutor’s
presence rather than completely on their own.
Students
Students, too, need to adjust their expectations of their participation in
the class in order to use CALL effectively. Rather than passively
absorbing information, learners must negotiate meaning and assimilate
new information through interaction and collaboration with someone
other than the teacher, be that person a classmate or someone outside
of the classroom entirely. Learners must also learn to interpret new
information and experiences on their own terms. However, because the
use of technology redistributes teachers’ and classmates’ attentions,
less-able students can become more active participants in the class
because class interaction is not limited to that directed by the teacher.
Moreover more shy students can feel free in their own students'-
centered environment. This will raise their self-esteem and their
knowledge will be improving. If students are performing collaborative
project they will do their best to perform it within set time limits.

Advantages of Computer-assisted Language Learning

Caters to the Individual
With CAL, each student can go at their own pace and study in their own
time. Computer lessons or games normally adapt to the individual
based on their own progress, not on a set standard, so each student is
able to have a more personalized experience. Also, differences in
learning styles, language skills desired, pacing and learning schedules
can be easily accommodated.
For example, students can create a free account on major language
learning sites like Busuu and Babbel. They can decide how much time
they want to put in and when they want to access these apps. There
are also no classmates, group lectures or choruses of students
repeating after the teacher.
Promotes Active Interaction and Use of Target Language
It’s fine to sit in class, repeat words and make verb charts. However,
true learning comes when that knowledge is used in a real situation (or,
at least, something close to or replicates a real situation). Students who
actively use the language they’re trying to learn are more likely to
remember certain words or phrases.
The advantage computers have over human teachers is that they need
input to run. That means they’re inherently interactive. Interactive
means that when you click or tap on something, the computer
responds. There’s enough flexibility built into the technology so that
what happens in the lesson is largely up to the student.
Lets Students See Their Progress
CALL can be used even when classes are out and in the teacher’s
absence. Language learning technology in its present form is student-
initiated and student-centered, giving all the time and room in the
world for students to practice. Language practice can be done in the
privacy of one’s room and at a moment’s notice.
Also, every time students solve a puzzle or get to the next level in a
game or online course, they feel as if they’re doing well, which keeps
them engaged in the lessons. The computer or app will automatically
generate results for them, which can motivate them to keep going and
help them zero in on areas of improvement.
Interesting and Engaging
A bored student isn’t a good one. While there are students who don’t
mind hour-long lectures, others may require more stimulation to stay
involved and actively learning. CAL is perfect for this because it offers
many ways for each student to engage and stay interested in the topic
at hand.
For example, applications like Language Nut support four language
skills—listening, reading, writing, speaking—and has an immersive
interface. With it, students can sing songs, play games, listen to stories
and remember vocabulary.
Flexible Learning; free from Time and Place
Flexibility in time and place of computer-using highlights the
importance of flexible learning; learning anywhere, anytime, anyhow,
and anything by connecting the Internet or using computer programs.
Learners are given a chance to study, review and practice the materials
as much as they need through various sources and presentation types
without time and place constraints. If they miss a class, they can keep
up with the course through electronic resources.
An Opportunity for Native Language Input
The software and/or the Internet is helpful to learn native-like foreign
language, as students are exposed to more appropriate input rather
than their non-native teacher’s unconfident(pronunciation and)
language use. They can access and be exposed to various authentic
language materials 24 hours a day.
Error Analysis and Feedback
By giving instant feedback, computers help students with their mistakes
at the very first correct stage without causing frustration. This is an
important principle in learning, because when the feedback on the
performance is delayed, student’s receptivity and interest also declines.
A delay in negative feedback may strengthen student’s misconception
without their discovery of the error. In consideration of habit formation
of the behaviorist approach, such computer programs provide
maximum benefit of repetition and drills, besides reinforcement. In
addition, computers can analyze specific mistakes and react in a
different way from the usual teacher; it can lead each and every
student to make self-correction and understand the principle behind
the correct answer .On the other hand, the teacher can make a good
use of these programs to assess student’s learning progress. By getting
the necessary information from the language learning programs,
teachers can offer feedback tailored to student’s needs pace and
proficiency.

Disadvantages of Computer-assisted Language Learning

Despite CALL’s widespread use, the application has its drawbacks to be
noticed. Some are listed below;
Inefficiency of Current CALL Programs and Testing
Present software of CALL provides service with reading, listening, and
writing skills. Also with limited functions, some speaking programs have
been developed recently. However, they cannot function to understand
student’s spoken output and evaluate it both for correctness and for
appropriateness. Diagnosing problems with pronunciation, syntax, or
usage and intelligently deciding among options are some basic
expected functions which current computer technology cannot offer. In
other words, with limited artificial intelligence, computers cannot deal
with various, ever-chancing language learning situations, and learner’s
unexpected learning problems which teachers immediately handle.
Health Concerns
For some people, it is difficult to sit in front of a screen and read
electronic texts for a while. Some even may develop exhausted and
irritating eye-problems, which slow their reading skill down.
Expensive
Cost is perhaps the biggest barrier to using CAL in the classroom.
Computers, electronic devices and software are expensive. As such,
having a computer for each student is just not a realistic goal for some
classrooms.
One way to get around this is to let the students use their own
computers or smartphones for their language lessons. However, not all
of them have access to these devices. They may also not be
comfortable with the idea of using the same devices they use to ping
friends about the next weekend getaway to study the intricacies
of Spanish conjugation.
Difficult for Teachers to Implement
Any time electronics become involved in something, it gets more
complicated (at least initially). Some teachers may have to learn how to
use computers or smartphones themselves before they can have their
students use them, and that training can take up a lot of precious time.
Aside from learning the hardware, you also have to learn how to work
the software. You must not only check what features it has, but also
check if there are any bugs (defects) that might get in the way of your
students making the most of that software.
Activities May Not Always Fit the Teacher’s Goals
When using third-party programs, videos or lessons, it can be hard to
find one that exactly fits your needs or teaching style.
There are going to be times when an online quiz doesn’t have the exact
words you want to test for. It may be that the video you’re watching
doesn’t use every part of speech you need to highlight. Teachers have
to find a way to integrate CAL into their lessons without letting it
dictate the material to be learned, and sometimes finding that balance
can be tough.
Also, you have to double-check the material presented by the CALL
technology before you use it in the classroom. The last thing you want
is an awkward situation where you have to correct an inaccurate fact in
a language app, leading students to wonder why you let them use it in
the first place.
Isolation Among Students
Imagine a classroom full of students, each at their own computer, not
looking at each other and only interacting with the computer in front of
them. Socializing is an important part of language use, and humans
learn new things about language from interacting with each other. In
other words, students need other students to help them learn, and CAL
can get in the way of this.
Still, CAL can be an incredible teaching resource when integrated into
the classroom. By using it to supplement your curriculum rather
than dictate it, CAL can transform the ways students learn languages—
or anything else, for that matter.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) represents
a dynamic and transformative force within the field of linguistics. As
technology continues to advance, CALL programs and applications have
become integral tools in language education, offering a wide range of
benefits to both learners and educators.
CALL provides a platform for interactive and engaging language learning
experiences, incorporating multimedia elements, interactive exercises,
and simulations. The diverse types of CALL programs cater to various
learning styles and preferences, making language learning more
accessible and enjoyable.
Furthermore, the adaptability and personalization features of CALL
contribute to a tailored learning experience. Learners can receive
immediate feedback, access a wealth of online resources, and engage
in real-time progress tracking. These aspects enhance the efficiency and
effectiveness of language acquisition.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge that while CALL plays a pivotal
role, it is most effective when integrated into a broader language
learning curriculum. Balancing technology-based learning with human
interaction, cultural context, and varied instructional methods ensures
a well-rounded language education.
As CALL continues to evolve, incorporating emerging technologies such
as virtual reality and artificial intelligence, the future holds even more
exciting possibilities for language learners. The key lies in leveraging
these advancements thoughtfully, always keeping the learner's
experience and educational objectives at the forefront. In this way,
Computer-Assisted Language Learning remains a dynamic and
invaluable tool in the realm of linguistics, contributing to the ongoing
evolution of language education.
References
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 Beauvois, M. H. (1992)
 Dhaif, H. A. (1989)
 Levy (1997)
 (Kilickaya, 2007).
 (Decker, 1976)
 (Jung, 2005)
 (Lai & Kritsonis, 2006)
 (Warschauer, 2004 cited in Lai & Kritsonis, 2006)
 (Hartoyo, 2006)