Chapter 3 : COORDINATION AND RESPOND 3.
1 Coordination and Response
1. Living organisms need to react to stimuli for the following reasons a) The survival the organisms b) Protection c) Photosynthesis A stimulus is a change in the environment, be it inside or outside the body , which can be detected by the body. Response is an action carried out by the body towards stimulus.
nervous system-function:receives information,processes and sends information to other body systems in order to produce a correct reaction
central nervous system(CNS) brain spinal chord peripheral nervous system(PNS) cranium nerves (from brain). Spinal nerves (from nerves)
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External stimuli Stimuli Internal stimuli
Light, sound, smell, taste, temperature, pressure, touch. Sugar level in the blood, blood osmotic pressure, body temperature.
Detected by the sense organs. Detected by the hypothalamus and the thalamus.
3.2 The Role of the Human Nervous System Organisation of the nervous system
The brain and its main function 1. The brain is the major organ of the nervous system. 2. It coordinates and is a control centre for receiving, analyzing, integrating and storing informationand giving out instruction. 3. Cerebrum a) Structure i. Has largest area. ii. Has 2 hemispheres. iii. Surface of the cortex is folded. b) Function i. Controls mental activities ii. Controls senses iii. Muscle movements
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Cerebellum a) Structure i. It is posterior to the cerebrum. ii. Has 2 hemispheres iii. Has a folded surface b) Function i. Coordinates the movement of muscles ii. Maintains balance Medulla oblongata a) Structure i. Connected to the spinal cord. b) Function i. Controls involuntary action such as heartbeat, rate of respiration, peristalsis, and breathing process. Thalamus a) Structure i. Located below the celebrum. b) Function i. Relays information from outside of the body to the cerebrum to the effectors. Hypothalamus a) Structure i. Located at the ventral part of the thalamus (below the cerebrum). b) Function i. Involved in homeostatic mechanisms in the body, such as regulation of the body temperature & regulation of the osmotic pressure of the blood.
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Contains white matter on the outside which consists of nerve fibres. Grey matter is located in an area shaped like the letter H on the inside & consists of cell bodies of neurones. Spinal nerves branch out from the spinal cord through the gaps between 2 adjacent vertebrae. Spinal nerves connect parts of the body as well as muscles to the spinal cord. The main functions of the spinal cord are as follows : Sends impulses from the peripheral nervous system to the brain & vice versa. Control centre for spinal reflex actions.
The neurones
Part Cell body Dendrites Axon Myelin sheath Function Sends impulses to the axon. They are fine fibres branching from the cell body. Transmits impulses from the cell body to the end of the neurone. Increases the speed of the transmission of impulses. Acts as an insulator. Protects the axon from injury. Provides nutrients to the axon. Acts as an insulator that prevents the entry of other impulses. Impulses jump from one node to another to increase the speed of transmission.
Node of Ranvier
The functions of the parts of a neurone.
Type Afferent neurone (sensory neurone) Efferent neurone (motor neurone) Interneurone
Function Carries nerve impulses from the receptor to the central nervous system.
Carries impulses away from the central nervous system to the effectors to produce a response. Carries impulses from the afferent neurone to the efferent neurone. A nerve impulses may be transmitted through a series of interneurones before it reaches the efferent neurone.
The spinal cord 1. 2. It is located inside the vertebral column. Connected to the brain via the medulla oblongata.
The function of different types of neurons.
The transmission pathway of information
Voluntary actions and involuntary actions
Detection of a stimulus by a receptor and the conversation of this information into an electrical signal. > receptors generally consists of afferent neurone fibres that are strategically located, > each type of receptor is sensitive to only one type of stimulus. > this stimulus that is converted into an electrical signal by a receptor is known as an impulses.
types of nerve reaction
involuntary actions
voluntary actions
impulses are transmitted from the receptors to the central nervous system via neurones & subsequently transferred to interneurones or efferent neurones across synapses.
involve movement of skeletal muscles
involve movement of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
involve movement of skeletal muscles
the brain receives the information. the brain makes a decision.
Control centres: medulla oblongata and hypothalamus. Example: Peristalsis in the alimentary canal. Stimulated by the presence of food particles. Pressure receptors send the information to the control centres in the medulla oblongata and the hypothalamus. Information is produced here and transmitted to the smooth wall of the alimentary canal. This rhythmic contraction of the smooth muscles is called peristalsis. Control centre: cerebrum. Example: A cyclist needs to move his legs and balance himself. The person is aware of his action. Receptors in the ear send information to the cerebellum and then to the cerebrum. Information is transmitted through the motor neurons to the effector.
> the brain sends information down the spinal cord via the efferent neurones. > the information is sent to the muscles to produce the required response.
Reflex actions. Examples: Knee jerk. The rapid withdrawal of the hand from a hot object.
The transmission of information across synapses 1. Synapses are narrow gaps between the terminal axon of a neurone and the dendrites, the axon or the cell body of another neurone. One neurone may be connected to hundreds of other neurons via synapses. It ensures that impulses are transmitted in one direction only. Role of synapse: a) An impulse is transmitted across a synapse from one neurone to another or from an efferent neurone to the effector. b) This enables the production of complex reactions.
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Reflex actions 1. Definition a) Automatic and rapid responses towards stimuli. b) They do not require conscious thought. An example is the knee-jerk.
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Hormones will increase, decrease or change the activity as the target organs.
The need for hormones in human 1. Hormones are needed for processes involved in reproduction, such as control of gametogenosis, fertilization, secondary sexual characteristics, pregnancy, birth, etc. They are also required for processes involved in growth, maturation and regeneration. They are needed for processes involved in metabolism and homeostasis such as the control of nutrient levels and ion levels, body temperature, water content, etc. They are needed for processes involved in adapting to external threats such as infections, emotional stress, hunger, and extreme temperatures. Nervous system It consists of network of neurons. Message is in the form of an electrical impulse. Impulses are transmitted along axons and dendrons. The response takes a shorter time. The effect is shortlived. One impulse will cause a response from only one organ.
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The knee-jerk reflex 2. Description : 1. When the tendon at the base of the patella is tapped, the quadriceps muscle contracts. 2. The stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle are stimulated and the stimulus is converted into an impulses. 3. The impulse is sent through the afferent neurone towards the spinal cord via the dorsal. 4. The impulse is transferred across the synapse to the efferent neurone. 5. The efferent neurone carries the impulse via the ventral root towards the effector. 6. The quadriceps muscles and the knee jerks.
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Endocrine system
stimulus
reaction
receptor
effector
afferent neurone
efferent neurone
3.3 The role of hormones in humans. 1. The endocrine system is the system of ductless glands that produce chemical substances called hormones. 2. Hormones are chemical substances that are secreted by the endocrine glands in small amounts and are carried to other parts of the body to bring specific effects. 3. Hormones are secreted directly into the blood circulatory system and carried around the body. Organs that are able to receive the chemical stimuli are called target organs.
It consists of ductless endocrine glands. Message is in the form of a chemical substance-hormone. Hormones are carried by the blood to target organs. The response takes a longer time to occur. The effect is longlived. One hormone produces a response from various organs.
The human endocrine system Gland Anterior pituitary gland Hormone secreted Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Function Stimulates the development of the Graafian follicle and the development of sperm in the seminiferous tubules (testes). Causes the release of the ovum from the ovary and causes the development of the follicle into the corpus luteum. Stimulates the secretion of sexual hormones by the testes and the ovaries. Controls the secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex. Controls the growth processes in the body. Stimulates the growth of the mammary glands during pregnancy. Stimulates the production of milk from the mammary glands. Stimulates the contraction of
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Adrenal medulla
Adrenaline
Adrenal cortex
Aldosterone
Androgen
Adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH)
Cortisol
Ovary
Oestrogen
Posterior pituitary gland
Groeth hormone (GH)
Prolactin
Progesterone
Oxytoxin
the muscles of the uterus walls during labour. Controls the blood pressure by absorbing water from the tubules in the kidneys. Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete the thyroxine hormone. Prepares the body to respond to emergency situation. Controls the salt and water balance in the blood. Controls the maturation of the sexual organs and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. Regulates nutrient content. Controls the development of the secondary sexual characteristics of the female. Causes the thickening of the uterine lining. Maintains the thickening of the uterine lining during pregnancy, inhibits
Testis
Testosterone
Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
Insulin
Glucagon
Thyroid gland
Thyroxine
ovulation, stimulates the enlargement of the mammary glands during pregnancy. Causes the maturation of the testis and thus enabling the production of sperm. Stimulates the male secondary sexual characteristics. Stimulates the conversation of glucose to glycogen. Stimulates the conversation of glucogen to glycose. Controls the metabolic rate and normal physical and mental development.
mellitus. Oestrogen The female reproductive system is not fully developed;absen ce of the menstrual cycle. Miscarriage of the fetus/baby. Affects the physical & sexual maturation of the male.
the blood, coma, death. Results in more prominent feminine characteristics.
Progester one Testostero ne
The uterus fails to contract during labour. Results in more prominent masculine characteristics. Results in earlier maturation.
Hormonal imbalance and related diseases Hormone Thyroxine Under secretion Causes cretinism. Causes myxoedema in adults. Hypothyroid ism. Over secretion Increases the metabolic rate of a person. Increased heart rate. Protruding eyeballs. Hyperthyroidis m. Increased muscle development.
Aldostero ne & cortisol
Insulin
Lack of aldosterone & cortisol results in Addisons disease. Diabetes
Lack of glucose in
3.4 Homeostasis in humans 1. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining the balance of the physical & chemical factors of the internal environment of an organism. 2. The internal environment is the environment surrounding the cells, i.e. the tissue fluid that bathes the cells. 3. The following are the physical & chemical factors in the internal environment. a) Physical factors: temperature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure. b) Chemical factors: pH, mineral concentration, sugar. 4. The internal environment is maintained at an optimum level so that the metabolic activities of the cells can proceed efficiently. This is because all chemical reaction in the live cells are controlled by enzymes that are sensitive to changes in the environment. 5. A drastic change in the internal environment can cause the organism to die if it is not corrected within a short time frames because physiological processes can proceed if the internal environment fluctuates only within a narrow range.
The excretory system 1. The kidneys consist of millions of tubules known as nephrons which are the functional units of the kidneys. The main functions of the nephrons are excretion & homeostasis. These functions are carried out in two main processes, i.e. ultrafiltration & reabsorption. Each nephron consists of the Bowmans capsule, the glomerulus, & the uriniferous tubule. The uriniferous tubule consists of three tubules which are the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle & the distal convoluted tubule. Both the proximal convoluted tubule & the distal convoluted tubule are found in the cortex while the loop of Henle is found in the medulla. The distal convoluted tubule is connected to the collecting duct which eventually drains the filtrate which contains 96% water, 2% sodium & potassium salts, into the pelvis. The function of the kidneys is to remove nitrogenous waste products such as urea & dangerous substances in the blood such as drugs, alcohol & toxins. The kidneys also maintain the pH of the blood.
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