processes

Review
Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relief Valves for High-Pressure
Thermal–Hydraulic Systems
Palash K. Bhowmik * and Piyush Sabharwall

Irradiation Experiment and Thermal Hydraulics Analysis Department, Idaho National Laboratory, 1955 Fremont
Avenue, Idaho Falls, ID 83415-2209, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This study covers the critical concerns related to the sizing, selection, installation, mainte-
nance, and testing of pressure safety valves (PSVs). The aim is to ensure the safety of pressurized
systems, hydrostatic transmission systems, and hydraulic plants, including process plants, thermal
power plants, and nuclear reactor systems. PSVs are devices that ensure the safety and reliability
of pressurized vessels, lines, and systems during overpressure events. The task of selecting which
PSV features are of greatest value for a specific purpose is complex—especially in the design of a
high-pressure experimental thermal–hydraulic facility for hydrostatic and transient testing of the
reactor system—when the systems are in the design and development phases and require qualifi-
cation and demonstration to prove that they have reached a given level of technological readiness.
The present study highlights the required steps for users to follow the associated rules, guidelines,
and recommendations. As a part of this research, case studies are presented to help readers better
understand the applicable strategy and standards. A discussion and a review of PSV performance
degradation and failure are summarized to provide a better understanding of varied process applica-
tions and conditions, including fluid flow dynamics, boundary-layer formation and pressure drops,
gas bubble formation and collapse, geometric configurations, inlet/outlet piping, abrupt pressure
fluctuations, and acoustic resonance. Moreover, this study discusses the servicing and testing of PSVs
in a multiphase pressurized system. Overall, it provides a basic overview of how PSVs ensure the
safety of pressurized systems, supported by case studies and industrial practices.

Keywords: pressurized system; pressure vessel; pressure relief valve; safety

Citation: Bhowmik, P.K.; Sabharwall,

P. Sizing and Selection of Pressure
Relief Valves for High-Pressure 1. Introduction
Thermal–Hydraulic Systems. Processes A pressure safety valve (PSV) or pressure relief valve (PRV) protects a pressurized
2024, 12, 21. https://doi.org/ system or vessel during an overpressure scenario [1]. The term ‘overpressure event’ refers
10.3390/pr12010021
to any condition that causes the pressure of a vessel or system to exceed its specified
Received: 12 October 2023 design pressure or maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) [2–4]. Several codes
Revised: 30 November 2023 and standards are written to control the design and application of PSVs and PRVs [5–9]. In
Accepted: 14 December 2023 order to maximize reliability, PSV/PRV designs should be as simple as possible [10]. In
Published: 21 December 2023 the event of an overpressure situation, the valve must open at a predetermined pressure,
allow flow at a rated capacity, and then close when the system pressure has returned to an
acceptable level [11,12]. Various process fluids—including air, water, and other potential
corrosive media—must be compatible with PSVs/PRVs [13] A consistent, smooth, and
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
stable operation is also required for various fluids and fluid phases [14]. Differences exist
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
in the operating principles behind PRVs and PSVs as follows:
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and (a) PRVs gradually open as the fluid pressure further exceeds the setpoint pressure
conditions of the Creative Commons whereas PSVs pop open once the setpoint pressure value is reached.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// (b) During operation, PRVs remain partially open, whereas PSVs cycle between being
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ fully open and fully closed.
4.0/).

Processes 2024, 12, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12010021 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2024, 12, 21 2 of 19

(c) Last, PRVs are installed to prevent unnecessary opening of PSVs during pressure
transients.
Overpressure protection begins with determining the setting pressure, back pressure,
allowable overpressure, and relieving capacity [15]. It is possible to determine operating
pressures and allowable overpressures based on the operating pressures of the system.
Calculating the required relieving capacity, dynamic behavior, model development, mea-
surements, and instability mechanisms is a challenging task [16,17]. The PSV/PRV must
relieve sufficient fluid to keep the system within a desired pressure range. It is important to
evaluate all causes of overpressure [1,18] (that might occur in the system due to the failure
of a pump, control system, or stop valve; a fire; or an uncontrolled chemical reaction. The
maximum capacity required is determined based on the worst case combination of these
factors [2–4].
This study discusses the critical issues in sizing and selecting PSVs/PRVs for typical
process safety applications. It also covers how valves compensate for overpressure load
disturbances and maintain the safety of the equipment and the system. An overview of
valve sizing, selection, manufacturing, testing, installation, and maintenance is presented
for thermal–hydraulic system-level experimentations for pressurized systems (e.g., pres-
surized water reactor) and applications. Appropriate sizing and selection of PSVs/PRVs
enhances the safety of pressurized systems, which scope matches the process safety and
environmental protection (PSEP) for process plants, oil refining plants, power generation
plants, and other related industrial applications. The applicability of this study covers
various topics, including risk assessment, technical safety, modeling, reaction hazards, and
inherent safety [19,20]. The accurate sizing and selection of PSVs are pivotal for designing
a thermal–hydraulic experimental facility to ensure the safety of systems, components, and
environments. For example, developing a nuclear reactor system requires integrated and
separate effect testing facilities to investigate system performances and obtain experimental
data for the transient behaviors of the reactor. Pressurized water reactor operating pressures
are about 15–16 megapascals (MPa), requiring several PSVs to provide system safety due
to overpressure conditions to prevent system failure (i.e., leaks/breaks [21–23]). Generally,
the thermal–hydraulic experimental facilities for water-cooled reactors are designed for
two-phase flow to mimic reactor system loss-of-coolant accident scenarios [24]. Experimen-
tal two-phase (i.e., steam–water mixture) pressurized flow and break flow increase system
pressure oscillation, cause vibration, and degrade their performance [25]. In addition,
lessons learned from the control and combined valve studies are supportive [12] of the need
to appropriately size and select PSVs. The success of the experimental program depends on
successful operation and testing of the facility in which adequate overpressure protection
devices (i.e., PSVs or PRVs) are essential.
This study contributes to PSEP by providing guidelines and recommendations for PSV
sizing, selection, installation, maintenance, and testing, which is essential for preventing
accidents, equipment damage, and environmental harm. By understanding the causes
of overpressure events and selecting appropriate PSVs, engineers and researchers can
minimize the risk of accidents and environmental harm in thermal power plants, nuclear
reactor systems, and process plants.
The main sections of the work are as follows: Section 1 introduces the importance and
scope of this study; Section 2 highlights industrial aspects and selected accident case studies,
terminologies, factors, and operational principles; Section 3 discusses sizing valves/orifices
and selecting valve types; and Section 4 presents the findings and conclusions.

2. Aspects Related to Industrial Processes and Case Studies

Overpressure protection studies relate to technical safety and loss prevention in in-
dustrial processes [26]. These studies emphasize the importance of PSVs in high-pressure
thermal–hydraulic systems and connect to various core topic areas of PSEP [27]. This
includes risk assessment, technical safety, modeling, reaction hazards, and inherent safety.
Overall, these studies are a suitable contribution to the field, addressing crucial aspects
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20

Processes 2024, 12, 21 3 of 19

Overall, these studies are a suitable contribution to the field, addressing crucial aspects of
thermal–hydraulic experimental facility development and safety system demonstration
[28,29].
of thermal–hydraulic experimental facility development and safety system demonstra-
tion [28,29].
2.1. PSV in High-Pressure Thermal–Hydraulic Experiments
2.1.Dynamic
PSV in High-Pressure
performanceThermal–Hydraulic
is vital for a PRV’sExperiments
function, with transient simulation being a
key method for its
Dynamic study. Notable
performance is vitalwork
for ahas beenfunction,
PRV’s conducted withbytransient
various research
simulation groups.
being a
Ankey
exemplary
method forPSVitsperformance
study. Notable testing
work setup
hasfor
been thermal–hydraulic
conducted by various systems is presented
research groups.
inAn
Figure 1. It is similar
exemplary to one usedtesting
PSV performance by Yang et al.for
setup [30] as per the ASME systems
thermal–hydraulic PTC 25 standards.
is presented
in Figure
The 1. It isfor
components similar to one used by
the experimental Yang et
system areal.marked
[30] as per the supercritical
as the ASME PTC 25 standards.
boiler (1),
The components
steam separator (2),for the valve
on-off experimental system
(3), storage vessel are(4),
marked
on-off as the (5),
valve supercritical boiler (1),
pressure measur-
steam
ing separator
system (2), on-off
(6), isolating valvevalve
(7),(3),
lift storage
testing vessel
device(4), (8),on-off valvePRV
measured (5), pressure measuring
(9), silencer (10),
system
quick (6), isolating
exhausting valve valve
(11),(7), lift testing
testing vesseldevice
(12), and(8), measured PRV (9),
control valves silencerSaturated
(13—17). (10), quick
exhausting
steam from avalve (11), testing
supercritical boiler vessel (12), and
is stored in acontrol valves (13–17).
high-pressure vessel, Saturated
and the PSV steamis from
at-
a supercritical boiler is stored in a high-pressure vessel, and the PSV
tached to a test vessel. Such test facilities are designed for specific purposes for testing and is attached to a test
vessel. Suchqualification.
performance test facilitiesFor
are example,
designedthe for test
specific purposes
facility describedfor testing
by Yangand performance
et al. [30] con-
qualification.
sidered For in
an increase example,
pressure theintest
both facility
vesselsdescribed
of up toby 90%Yang et al.
of the [30] expected
PRV’s considered setan
increasethen
pressure in pressure
a furtherin both vessels
increase until theof up
PRVtoactivated.
90% of thePRV PRV’slift,expected
test vesselset pressureand
pressure, then
a further increase until the PRV activated. PRV lift, test vessel
relevant PRV features require test data under prototypic conditions to evaluate perfor- pressure, and relevant
PRV features
mance require test
and qualification data
of the under prototypic
PRVs/PSVs, conditions
thus ensuring safetyto of
evaluate performance and
the system.
qualification of the PRVs/PSVs, thus ensuring safety of the system.

Figure 1. A high-temperature high-pressure PSV experimental setup.

Figure 1. A high-temperature high-pressure PSV experimental setup.
2.2. PSV in Industrial Process and Power Plants
2.2. PSV in Industrial
Although the Process and Power
representative Plantsfacility depicted in Figure 1 is simple, with few
testing
components involved, industrial process
Although the representative testing facility plants—including oil refining
depicted in Figure plants,
1 is simple, withthermal
few
power plants, and nuclear power plants—are much more intricate.
components involved, industrial process plants—including oil refining plants, thermal These plants are
equipped with numerous systems and subsystems categorized as high-,
power plants, and nuclear power plants—are much more intricate. These plants are medium-, and low-
pressure.with
equipped Theynumerous
require various
systems types
andand numberscategorized
subsystems of PSVs. In as
these settings,
high-, PSVs and
medium-, serve
as critical safety
low-pressure. Theycomponents, designed
require various typesto
andprevent overpressure
numbers of PSVs. Inscenarios and safeguard
these settings, PSVs
personnel, equipment, and the environment. The quantity of these valves
serve as critical safety components, designed to prevent overpressure scenarios and fluctuates based
on the specific industry, plant design, and operational capacity.
In oil refineries, the number of PRVs can vary significantly based on the refinery’s
complexity and processing capacity [6]. Small- to medium-sized refineries typically have
Processes 2024, 12, 21 4 of 19

between 100 and 500 PRVs. In contrast, larger refineries might incorporate anywhere from
500 to 2500 PRVs. Such variation arises from the plethora of processes in oil refining, from
crude oil distillation to advanced hydrocracking and reforming units, with each process
necessitating specific pressure controls.
Thermal power plants, which encompass coal, natural gas, or oil-fired plants, gen-
erally utilize fewer PRVs than oil refineries [2,3]. Smaller plants might be equipped with
50–200 PRVs, whereas larger facilities can have 200–1000 PRVs. The plant’s design, includ-
ing the number of turbines, boilers, and auxiliary systems, often determines this range.
Nuclear power plants introduce a different level of complexity due to diverse reactor
designs. For standard designs, like the pressurized water reactor (PWR) or the boiling water
reactor (BWR), the number can span from a few dozen to several hundred relief devices,
including safety valves (SVs), relief valves, and rupture discs [31]. The reactor’s design,
safety protocols, and myriad auxiliary and support systems influence these numbers.
Recently, small modular reactor (SMR) systems have emerged, where components such
as the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), steam generator, and pressurizer are designed to
be compact and integrated [21]. This approach minimizes pipe breaks and simplifies
transportation from the factory to the operational site. Yet despite their compactness, SMR
systems still need PSVs for overpressure protection. Indeed, their importance is accentuated
by the innovative and condensed system design.
PSVs are designed such that if the fluid (i.e., liquid or gas) pressure increases to the
point that it exceeds its setpoint pressure (i.e., the fluid pressure overcomes the spring
force)—the PSV will begin to open. In this regard, the maximum pressure is defined as
the amount of pressure needed to keep the PSV fully open throughout the fluid discharge.
Blowdown is defined as the difference between the setpoint pressure at which a PSV opens
and the pressure at which it closes. PSV operations should be as quick as possible, and
PSVs should be optimally sized to release enough fluid during postulated overpressure
conditions to return the system pressure back to normal and to automatically close once a
designated pressure (i.e., the PSV reseat pressure) is reached.
Above all, it is essential to understand the monumental significance of PSVs in en-
suring plant safety. The numbers provided are broad estimates based on industry norms
and may vary based on specific plant designs and other factors. However, the meticulous
sizing and calibration of PSVs are crucial for managing specific overpressure conditions,
preserving the stability of operations, and protecting expensive and sensitive equipment.

2.3. Case Studies: Plant-Level Accidents Due to PSV Failure

PSV performance degrades, causing the valve to fail to operate as designed. PSV
malfunctions or degraded operation can cascade into catastrophic failure of an overpres-
sured system. The major causes of PSV performance degradation are cavitation and wear.
The root cause can be a disruption in fluid flow distribution/dynamics; boundary-layer
formation [32] and pressure drops across valve flow regions [33,34]; gas bubble formation
and collapse [35,36]; variations in geometric configuration and the shape of components
such as the poppet of the valve (i.e., chamfered conical, blunt, or spherical) [37]; nozzle
tips [38]; inlet/outlet piping [39]; abrupt pressure fluctuations [40]; and acoustic resonance.
In addition, inlet/outlet piping, valve internal geometry, and type are related to
PSV performance and flow stability. Researchers have shown how spring-loaded PSV
performance and flow stability are impacted by (a) the inlet or upstream line, which creates
expansion waves [41]; (b) dynamic instabilities [42]; (c) flow-induced vibrations resulting
from vortex shedding at the base of the valve riser that amplifies the riser acoustics [43];
and (d) orifices in the inlet piping to improve valve stability [44].
There are several major plant-level accidents that have occurred—at high-pressure
industrial complexes, such as oil refining, thermal power, and nuclear power plants—due
to malfunctions or safety valve failure. These plants are equipped with numerous systems
and subsystems categorized as high-, medium-, and low-pressure. They require various
types and numbers of PSVs. A representative plant-level accident at the Three Mile Island
Processes 2024, 12, 21 5 of 19

(TMI) nuclear power plant, discussed below in more detail, is an example of an event that
forced the nuclear industry to improve their safety standards and regulations.
The TMI Nuclear Generating Station in Pennsylvania, USA, faced a significant ac-
cident on 28 March 1979, due to a combination of a malfunctioning safety relief valve,
misinterpretation of sensor data, and human error. A PRV in the plant’s Unit 2 reactor’s
primary coolant system failed to close properly, resulting in coolant leakage. This led to
a partial meltdown of the reactor’s core. While a small amount of radioactive gas was
released, there were no injuries or fatalities. The incident emphasized the importance of
regular maintenance, meticulous valve inspections, and comprehensive training and safety
procedures. It significantly influenced public opinion and brought about changes in the
regulatory approach to nuclear power.
A randomly selected number of plant-level accidents—as environmental issues came
to the fore in the 1980s and global warming issues in the 2000s—focused on fossil fuel
refining and chemical process, as presented in Table 1, identified similar root causes related
to PSV failure.

Table 1. List of process and petrochemical plant facility accidents related to valve failure or malfunc-
tioning [45,46].

Facility and Location Date Incident/Accident Description Key Root Causes

An overpressure event in an LPG storage
vessel during filling; the vessel cracked, A pressure gauge and a
Petrochemical factory, Texas
resulting in an LPG leak. The leaked LPG relief valve malfunctioned.
City, USA 30 May 1978
ignited, creating a massive fireball. The This led to an
[47]
explosion shattered the vessel and overpressure event.
damaged two adjacent vessels.
Petrochemical, Icmesa Explosion at a chemical process plant An overpressure event
Chemical Company at Seveso 10 July 1976 contaminated two square miles of crops occurred, and the PSV on a
[48] and vegetables. reactor vented as a result.
Explosion, resulting in 23 fatalities.
Primary causes of the accident included Incorrect connection of the
Phillips explosion, Pasadena,
the (a) absence of process hazard analysis actuating signal made the
Texas 23 October 1989
and human factor considerations and valve open when it should
[49]
(b) insufficient operating and have been closed.
isolation procedures.
The main cause of the incident was the
Petrochemical, Thunder Horse uncontrolled water flow due to Incorrect valve positioning
PDQ Tilting, Gulf of Mexico 11 July 2005 Hurricane Dennis. Water moved and operational mistakes
[49] uncontrollably between several triggered the event.
ballast tanks.
Petrochemical, T2 The main issue was traced
The cooling system malfunctioned. This
Laboratories Explosion in back to the poor design of
19 December 2007 led to an uncontrolled chemical reaction
Jacksonville, Florida the cooling and pressure
while producing a gasoline additive.
[49] relief systems.

These examples highlight the importance of regular maintenance, accurate sizing and
selection, and qualified inspection and testing of the system structure and components (e.g.,
PSVs/PRVs). Inadequate maintenance, flawed system designs, or human error can result in
system or component (e.g., valve) failure, leading to severe accidents that endanger life and
the environment. In petrochemical industries, many accidents stemming from valve failure
are related to overpressure events. A selection of plant-level accidents from process units
and petrochemical facilities is presented in Table 1. Based on system safety engineering
perspectives, accidents are caused by linear chains of failure events and can be explained
with respective accident causality and causality models to identify the chain of events and
the root causes [50].
Processes 2024, 12, 21 6 of 19

3. Terminology and Factors Related to PSV

There are several terms for pressure relief safety valves, such as PRVs, PSVs, relief
valves, and safety relief valves. Although these valve systems have some uniqueness,
for the simplicity of this study, we use only PSV and pressure safety/relief valves as the
general terminology [11,14,51,52]. The general descriptions of these valves are presented
briefly below:
• Pressure Relief Valves: PRVs are spring-loaded devices—characterized by a rapid
opening, often proportional to the pressure, due to overpressure—that open when
excess pressure is present and close when normal conditions have been restored.
• Relief Valves: Relief valves are pressure relief devices that are actuated by static
pressure at the inlet and raise gradually when the opening pressure is exceeded. This
device is primarily used for liquid service, and it contains a spring enclosure for closed
discharge systems.
• Safety Relief Valves: These valves are used for liquid or compressible fluids and
exhibit features like rapid opening, popping actions, or opening proportionally to the
increased pressure.
The design of a PSV differs. Based on the back pressure (i.e., releasing fluid in
another pressurized line/system), two types of PSV design are common, namely, the
(1) conventional and (2) balance bellows designs, as presented in Figure 2 [53]. The various
parts of a PSV are also shown in Figure 2. The major parts are the disc, lifting device, nozzle,
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
and seat. Other important parts of a PSV are the lock nut, adjusting screw, spring, spindle,
bonnet, guide, gasket, lock screw, and valve body.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.
Figure 2. PSV
PSV cutaway
cutaway view of (a)
view of (a) conventional
conventional and
and (b)
(b) balanced
balanced bellows
bellows designs
designs [53].
[53].

TableUnderstanding
2. Special designthe
PSVs/PRVs based
operational on the nozzle (i.e.,
characteristics full/semi) and
of PSVs/PRVs andbonnet (i.e.,
the associated termi-
open/close).
nology is essential to ensure facility operational safety. A few of the important operational
Special Design Features terms are discussed below: Applicability
• If Blowdown:
the process The
fluidpressure difference
has a high between
temperature andthe PSV’s/PRV’s popping
is non-hazardous, an open and reseating
bonnet is
Open Bonnet pressure, expressed as a percentage or pressure units.
generally used to prevent spring expansion.
Closed Bonnet If process fluid is hazardous, a closed bonnet is used.
Full-Nozzle This is suitable for high-pressure and corrosive fluid applications.
Semi-Nozzle This design offers only the replacement of the seat instead of a full inlet.
Bellows This is used when the back pressure of the process to PSVs is considered.
 Processes 2024, 12, 21 7 of 19

(a) (b)
• Popping pressure: The inlet static pressure causing the PSV/PRV disc to move faster
Figure 2. PSV cutaway view of (a) conventional and (b) balanced bellows designs [53].
in the opening direction, applicable to compressible fluids.
• Set
Table 2. pressure:
Special designThe pressure
PSVs/PRVs at which
based a PSV/PRV
on the nozzle starts and
(i.e., full/semi) relieving
bonnetfluid,
(i.e., displaying
opening,
open/close). popping, or start-to-leak characteristics.
• Reseating: The closing of a PSV/PRV after normal operating conditions is restored,
Special Design Features requiring pressure to drop belowApplicability
the set point.
If the process fluid has a high temperature
• Accumulation: The pressure increase over and is non-hazardous,
a PSV’s/PRV’s an openexpressed
set pressure, bonnet isas a
Open Bonnet
generally used A
percentage. to normal
preventaccumulation
spring expansion.
is 10% of the set pressure, 10% for compressible
Closed Bonnet fluids, 3%
If process forishigh-temperature
fluid hazardous, a closedfluid (steam),
bonnet and 16% for multiple PSVs.
is used.
Full-Nozzle This is suitable
The forPSVs
design of high-pressure
also differsand corrosive
based fluidand
on nozzle applications.
bonnet features—a full-nozzle
Semi-Nozzle orThis
semi-nozzle type,only
design offers as shown in Figure 3of
the replacement [54],
thewhich differsofbased
seat instead a fullon the “wetted” inlet.
inlet.
Bellows Generally,
This is used when the back pressure of the process to PSVs is considered. while closed-
open-bonnet designs are used for non-hazardous applications,
bonnet designs are preferred for hazardous ones. Table 2 presents the benefits of each
special design feature.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 3. Special designs of PSVs: (a) full-nozzle; (b) semi-nozzle; (c) closed-bonnet; and (d) open-
Figure 3. Special designs of PSVs: (a) full-nozzle; (b) semi-nozzle; (c) closed-bonnet; and (d) open-
bonnet designs [54].
bonnet designs [54].

It is important to understand PSV operation, the fluid flow area through the valve, as
Table 2. Special design PSVs/PRVs based on the nozzle (i.e., full/semi) and bonnet (i.e., open/close).
presented in Figure 4, and the terminology for the fluid flow areas [14]. Three flow areas
Special Design Features Applicability
If the process fluid has a high temperature and is non-hazardous, an open bonnet
Open Bonnet
is generally used to prevent spring expansion.
Closed Bonnet If process fluid is hazardous, a closed bonnet is used.
Full-Nozzle This is suitable for high-pressure and corrosive fluid applications.
Semi-Nozzle This design offers only the replacement of the seat instead of a full inlet.
Bellows This is used when the back pressure of the process to PSVs is considered.

It is important to understand PSV operation, the fluid flow area through the valve, as
presented in Figure 4, and the terminology for the fluid flow areas [14]. Three flow areas
are associated with PSV operation: (a) the flow area that corresponds to the cross-sectional
area between the inlet and the seat, (b) the curtain area, which is the cylindrical or conical
discharge opening, and (c) the discharge area through the valve.
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20

are associated with PSV operation: (a) the flow area that corresponds to the cross-sectional
Processes 2024, 12, 21 area between the inlet and the seat, (b) the curtain area, which is the cylindrical or conical
8 of 19
discharge opening, and (c) the discharge area through the valve.

(a) (b) (c)

(d)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. PSV
PSV (a,b) flow area
(a,b) flow area [14]
[14] (c)
(c)operational
operationalprocedure,
procedure,and
and(d)
(d)functional
functional curve
curve ofof spring-
spring-loaded
loaded PSV
PSV [53]. [53].

The
The valve
valvedisc
discstarts
startslifting
liftingin
inan
aninlet
inletoverpressure
overpressuresituation.
situation.However,
However,thetheoverpres-
overpres-
sure
sure must
must be
be higher than the
higher than the spring
spring loading
loadingto tokeep
keeplifting
liftingororholding,
holding,asasshown
shownininFigure
Figure4.
4.
AA shroud,
shroud, skirt,
skirt, oror hood
hood could
could bebe used
used around
around thethe disc
disc forfor a full
a full opening.
opening.
The
The selection
selection ofof PSVs/PRVs
PSVs/PRVsentails entailsthe
thefollowing
followingsteps
steps[14,55]:
[14,55]:
•• Considering process data and parameters: The
Considering process data and parameters: The process data process data and and
parameters are pre-
parameters are
requisites
prerequisites for selecting the valve type, orifice, and accessories. The requiredprocess
for selecting the valve type, orifice, and accessories. The required process
parameters
parameters are are the
the flow
flowrate,
rate,pressure,
pressure,temperature,
temperature,fluidfluidproperties
properties(such
(suchas asdensity,
density,
viscosity, Cp/Cv), and service conditions.
viscosity, Cp/Cv), and service conditions.
•• Orifice
Orifice and
and valve
valve selection:
selection: The Theselection
selectionof of the
the orifice
orifice size
size is
is based
based on
on the
the minimum
minimum
required
required flow rate using the valve capacity tables. Selection of the valve is
flow rate using the valve capacity tables. Selection of the valve is based
based on
on
the process temperature and pressure. Valve characteristics should be selected based
on the required process control parameters.
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Processes 2024, 12, 21 9 of 19

the process temperature and pressure. Valve characteristics should be selected based
on the required process control parameters.
• Options and accessories: Options and accessories like the rapture disc, rapture pin,
• Options and accessories: Options and accessories like the rapture disc, rapture pin,
and pilot-operated safety relief valve must be separately specified. In this study,
and pilot-operated safety relief valve must be separately specified. In this study, safety
safety relief valve sizing for vaporizing liquids (i.e., fire condition) is emphasized.
relief valve sizing for vaporizing liquids (i.e., fire condition) is emphasized.
4. Sizing
4. Sizing PSVs/PRVs
PSVs/PRVs for for Vaporizing
Vaporizing Liquids,
Liquids, Considering
Considering Fire Conditions
Fire Conditions
Several steps must be followed to estimate the required orifice
Several steps must be followed to estimate the required orifice area areafor
forPSVs/PRVs,
PSVs/PRVs,
as presented
as presented in
in Figure
Figure 5,
5, to
to ensure
ensure the
the safety
safety of
of the
the pressurized
pressurized system.
system. This
This calculation
calculation
method considers the facility and fluid fire possibilities for simulating the worst
method considers the facility and fluid fire possibilities for simulating the worst case case per
per
code recommended practice [5–8,14]:
code recommended practice [5–8,14]:

Figure 5. Flow chart of PSV selection and sizing.

•• Determine
Determine thethe total
total wetted surface area:
wetted surface area: Table
Table 33 presents
presents the
the calculation
calculation steps,
steps, includ-
includ-
ing the logic described in Figures 6 and 7, and the corresponding
ing the logic described in Figures 6 and 7, and the corresponding equations. equations.
•• Determine
Determine thethe total
total heat absorption and
heat absorption environmental safety
and environmental safety factors: The calculation
factors: The calculation
procedure
procedure and associated equations used to determine the total heat absorption and
and associated equations used to determine the total heat absorption and
environmental
environmental safety
safety factors
factors are
are presented
presented in in Table
Table 4.
4.
•• Determine
Determine thethe valve
valve orifice
orifice size: The minimum
size: The minimum area area required
required isis estimated,
estimated, and
and the the
size of the orifice is selected from the manufacturer’s valve capacity table.
size of the orifice is selected from the manufacturer’s valve capacity table. The steps The steps
for valve orifice size estimation and correction factors are presented in Table 5.
for valve orifice size estimation and correction factors are presented in Table 5.

area, A𝐴wet
wet [𝑓𝑡
f t ] [7].
 2
Table 3.
Table 3. Steps to determine
determine the
the wetted
wetted surface area, [7].

PV Geometry
PV Geometry WettedWetted
Surface 𝑨wetA[𝒇𝒕𝟐]ft2 
Area,Area,
Surface Parameters
Parameters
wet
Sphere 𝐴wet = 𝜋 ∗ 𝐸 ∗ 𝐷 𝐴 wet , Total wetted area, [𝑓𝑡
h i].
Sphere Awet = π ∗ Es ∗ D
𝜋∗𝐷∗𝐵 𝐷 𝐷 B, Awet , Total
Effective wetted
liquid area,
level ft2 . degrees.
angle,
H-cylinder with flat ends 𝐴wot = 𝐿 + Awot− = − 𝐸 sin (𝐵)
H-cylinder with flat ends 180  2  2  B, Effective
L, Vessel liquid level
end-to-end angle,
length, degrees.
[𝑓𝑡].
π ∗D∗B D D
H-cylinder with spherical L + (𝐿 −
− 𝐷) ∗
− 𝐵E sin( B) L, Vessel end-to-end length, [ f t].
180
𝐴wet = 𝜋 ∗ 𝐷 𝐸 + n
2 2
E, Effective liquid level, [𝑓𝑡].
E, Effective liquid level, [ f t].
ends 180 L− D)∗ B
o
H-cylinder with spherical ends A = π∗D E+ (
wet 180 𝐸 , Effective spherical liquid level, [𝑓𝑡].
Es , Effective spherical liquid level, [ f t].
If 𝐸 < 𝐿, then: 𝐴 =𝜋∗𝐷 +𝐸  𝐸 , Initial
E liquid
1 , Initial level,[𝑓𝑡].
level,
liquid [ f t ].
V-cylinder with flat ends If E < L, then : Awet = π ∗ D D 4 + E D, Vessel
V-cylinder with flat ends If 𝐸 < 𝐿, then: 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∗ 𝐷 +𝐸  D, diameter, [𝑓𝑡]..
Vessel diameter, [ f t ]
D K, Effective
If E < L, then : Awet = π ∗ D 2 + E K, Effective total total height of the liquid surface,
height of the liquid surface,
V-cylinder with spherical [ f t ].
V-cylinder with spherical ends 𝐴 =A𝜋 ∗ =𝐸 ∗π𝐷∗ E ∗ D [𝑓𝑡].K1 , Height of the liquid surface, feet.
ends wet

Effective
𝐾 , H,
Height
Vesselof the liquid
elevation, [ f t]surface,
. feet.
Effective liquidliquid
level level
 angle,
angle, degrees
degrees
B = cos−21 ∗1 𝐸
− 2D∗E H, F, Liquid
Vessel depth
elevation, in [𝑓𝑡].
the vessel, [ f t ] .
𝐵 = cos 1− F, Liquid depth in the vessel, [𝑓𝑡].
Note: H—horizontal, V—vertical.
𝐷
 Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Processes 2024, 12, 21 10 of 19

Note: H—horizontal, V—vertical.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Pressure vessel (a) selection (considering fire cases) and (b) an effective liquid-level logic
Figure 6. Pressure
diagram [5–8,14]. vessel (a) selection (considering fire cases) and (b) an effective liquid-level logic
diagram [5–8,14].
Processes 2024, 12, 21
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1111ofof 20
19

Figure 7. Logic diagram for: (a) back pressure Pb correction factor and (b) orifice selection.
Figure 7. Logic diagram for: (a) back pressure Pb correction factor and (b) orifice selection.
Processes 2024, 12, 21 12 of 19

Table 4. Steps to determine the total heat absorption, Q[ BTU/hr ], environmental factor, F, and rate
of vapor from liquid, W [lbs/hr ], for certain conditions (prompt firefighting and adequate drainage
options) [5,7].

Conditions (Prompt Firefighting and

Total Heat Absorption, Q[BTU/hr] Parameters
Adequate Drainage Options)
Q = 21, 000 ∗ F ∗ Awet 0.82
h i
Available Awet , total wetted area, ft2
h i
Q, total heat absorption, BTU
Not available Q = 34, 500 ∗ F ∗ Awet 0.82 hr
F, factor F based on vessel type
Vessel type Environmental factor, F (IC)
Bare vessel 1
IC,
 insulation
 conductance values,
0.3 (4), 0.15 (2), 0.075 (1), 0.05 (0.67), BTU
Insulated vessel, with IC value
0.0376 (0.5), 0.03 (0.4), 0.026 (0.33) hr∗ft2 ∗ F

Water application facilities, on bare vessels, F =1

Depressurizing and emptying facilities, F = 1
h i
Rate of vapor from liquid, W, [lbs/hr ] Hvap , latent heat, BTU
lb
Determine the fluid mass flow converted to gas from the liquid, h i
lbs
W = Q ∗ Hvap W, rate of vapor from liquid hr

Table 5. Steps to determine the minimum required relieving area, A in2 [5,7].
 

A, in2
 
Orifice Area Parameters
√
General W T ∗ Z√
A= Correction factors:
C ∗K ∗ P1 ∗Kb M
√
Kb , back pressure,
For gas or steam 1.3164∗W √ T∗Z KSH , for superheated steam,
(kg/hr) A=
C ∗K ∗ P1 ∗Kb M Kw , back pressure for liquids,
W Kv , viscosity (for water, Kv = 1),
A= 52.5∗K ∗ P1 ∗Kb ∗K
For steam (kg/hr) √SH ∗K N K p , for valves with uncertified, (for 10% o/v pr., K p = 0.6; for
∗VL
√∗ G
For liquid (m3 /h) A = K ∗K0.196 15% o/v, K p = 0.8; and for 25% o/v pr. K p = 1), and
1 w ∗ Kv ∗√ 1.1∗ P − Pb
For air (Nm3 /h) ∗ T
A = 1125V∗K ∗ P1 ∗Kb
K N , for Napier equation

h i
kg
Where A is the orifice area required, cm2 ; W and VL are the required capacity, hr ;
 

G is the density of gas to air or liquid compared to water; M is the molecular weight; Z is
the compressibility factor (if unknown, use Z = 1); T is the temperature, absolute; C is the
gas constant; k is the specific heat ratio, and k = C p /Cv (if unknown, use k = 1.001); K is the
flow factor (for gas/steam, K = 0.975; liquid, K1 = 0.701; as per API 520, liquid K2 = 0.62);
and P refers to pressure, namely, P1 is the relieving pressure, P is the set pressure, and Pb is
the back pressure.

4.1. Calculate the Correction Factors

The correction factors for proper sizing and selection of pressure relief safety valves
can be ensured by following the logic diagram below [5–8,11,14,55].

4.2. Selecting the Orifice Size and Valve Model

After calculating the required discharge area, select the next larger orifice size from
Table 6. Using the manufacturer’s valve orifice selection table and the valve operating
curve with respect to the relieving temperature, select the valve model. Considering the
back pressure, select either the conventional or balance bellows valve type. For multiple
valve selection, use 16% instead of 10% accumulation. Other features, like the rupture
disc, rupture pin, pilot-operated safety relief valve, and multiple valve type or valve
accumulation value, may be selected considering the specific service condition.
Processes 2024, 12, 21 13 of 19

Table 6. PSV orifice area according to API 526 in cm2 .

Orifice Area D E F G H J K L
Area (cm2 ) 0.71 1.26 1.98 3.24 5.06 8.3 11.86 18.41
Orifice Area M N P Q R T V W
Area (cm2 ) 23.2 28 41.2 71.2 103 168 271 406

4.3. Case Studies: PSV Selection

The sizing and selection of PSVs for the atmospheric distillation column for the
petroleum oil refining process of Eastern Refinery Ltd., Chittagong, is considered a case
study [11]. The design and operating data for the safety valve of the original PSVs and
estimated PSV orifice size are presented in Table 7.

Table 7. Calculation for sizing and selection of PSV.

Relevant Calculation Parameters

P1 = set Pr. + over Pr. + atm. Pr. Gas, relieving fluid
Relieving pressure (absolute) P1 = 3.2 + (3.2 × 16%) + 1.013 Bar W = 50,000 kg/hr, required relieving capacity
= 4.725 Bar (each valve)
So, over pressure= 16% of set Pr M = 94 kg/k. Mole, molecular weight
Required number of PSVs is 3 From Figure 8, back pressure Z = 1, compressibility factor (If unknown, use Z = 1)
correction factor, Kb = 1 T = 473 K, relieving temperature (absolute)
√ C = 344, gas constant (specific heat ratio, k = 1.27)
Orifice area for gas or steam 1.3164∗W √ T∗Z
(kg/h) A= = 93.1665 cm2 K = 0.975, flow factor (for gas and steam, K = 0.975)
C ∗K ∗ P1 ∗Kb M
P = 3.2 bar, set pressure
Next higher orifice size from Table 6, A′ = 103 cm2 Pb = 0, back pressure
Use three PSVs for the application
Modified valve flow rate A’/A × W = 55,277.4 kg/hr
Using the Serasin-RSBD valve manufacturer, we select the valve model for the R orifice, with an orifice size of 103 cm2 , a relieving
temperature of 473K, and a set pressure of 3.2 bar as follows: The preliminary valve model: P68R1 6RB 150 lb; Dimensions: A (239.7),
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20
B (241.3); Inlet/outlet DN (6 in. × 150 lb/8 in. × 150 lb), Weight (215 kg), Valve type (conventional type because there is no back
pressure).The final valve model is determined as P68R1 330
Note: Pr.—pressure.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. Cont.
Processes 2024, 12, 21 14 of 19

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure8.8.
Figure Correction
Correction factors
factors for for (a–c)
(a–c) backback pressure
pressure andviscosity.
and (d) (d) viscosity.
(a): 𝐾(a): Kb , constant
, constant back pr., valve
back pr.,
without
valve bellows.
without bellows. Kb𝐾
(b):(b): , balanced
, balancedbellows
bellows valve only,gas
valve only, gas&&steam
steam at at
10%10% (c): (c): Kw ,
overpressure.
overpressure.
𝐾variable back
, variable pr.,
back pr.,balanced
balancedbellows
bellows valve on liquid
valve on liquidservice
serviceonly. (d):𝐾 K, vviscosity
only.(d): , viscosity correction factor.
correction
factor.
5. Testing and Servicing Procedures
5. Testing and Servicing
Pre-installation Procedures
and post-service testing of PSVs/PRVs are required in the presence of
professionals/safety
Pre-installation andinspectors.
post-serviceThe general
testing and recommended
of PSVs/PRVs are requiredprocedure for PSV/PRV
in the presence of
disassembly, servicing,
professionals/safety reassembly,
inspectors. and testing
The general are discussed,
and recommended as follows.
procedure for PSV/PRV
disassembly, servicing, reassembly, and testing are discussed, as follows.
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
5.1. Procedure for PSV Disassembly 15 of 20
5.1. Procedure for PSV Disassembly
The recommended procedure to dismantle PSVs, as presented in Figure 9 [51], for
The recommended
servicing, if required by procedure
the PSVto dismantle
test PSVs, as presented
results/preventive in Figure
maintenance, 9 [51],
is as for
follows:
servicing,
• • StepStep if required
1: Remove
1: Remove by the
the valve PSV
cap,
the test
note the
valve results/preventive
length
cap, noteof the maintenance,
the adjusting
length ofscrews, is as follows:
loosen the lock-
the adjusting screws, loosen the
nut,locknut,
and adjust theadjust
and screw to remove
the screwthetobonnet,
remove spring, and spring
the bonnet, washers.
spring, and spring washers.
• Step 2: Remove the spindle, ball, disc, and bellow. Loosen and unscrew the adjusting
• Step 2: Remove the spindle, ball, disc, and bellow. Loosen and unscrew the adjusting
ring. Invert the valve body and dismantle the nozzle using drift.
Thering.
valveInvert thecorresponding
parts and valve body and dismantle
part numbers are the nozzle
shown using
in Figure 9. drift.
The valve parts and corresponding part numbers are shown in Figure 9.

Figure
Figure 9. SERASIN
9. SERASIN RSBD RSBD PSV
PSV with withconfiguration.
internal internal configuration.

5.2. Procedure for Servicing and Reassembly

Lapping the nozzle and disc seat surfaces can solve PSV leaks. However, lap opera-
tion requires skill and experience; otherwise, irreparable damage may occur. Lapping can
be performed by hand or by machine without any pressure. This process requires several
grade pastes to remove marks and create a uniform polish. Disc and nozzle lapping
should be performed independently. New gaskets and clean bolts should be used for PSV
 Processes 2024, 12, 21 15 of 19

5.2. Procedure for Servicing and Reassembly

Lapping the nozzle and disc seat surfaces can solve PSV leaks. However, lap operation
requires skill and experience; otherwise, irreparable damage may occur. Lapping can be
performed by hand or by machine without any pressure. This process requires several grade
pastes to remove marks and create a uniform polish. Disc and nozzle lapping should be
performed independently. New gaskets and clean bolts should be used for PSV reassembly.
All parts must be lubricated before assembly, and the reassemble must be checked to ensure
no moving parts. The steps in assembly are the opposite steps of disassembly.

5.3. Procedure for PSV Testing and Servicing

PSV testing requires a test bench that consists of an inlet pressure regulator, needle
Processes 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20
valve, inlet pressure indicator, and release valve, as shown in Figure 10, the design of which
is similar to other test benches [56]. The outlet nozzle of the PSV should be attached to the
release line through a water pot to count bubbles or observe blowdown performance.

Figure 10. Schematics of PSV test bench setup.

Figure 10. Schematics of PSV test bench setup.
The steps in PSV testing and servicing are as follows:
• The steps
Step 1: in PSVthe
Open testing
PSV andfromservicing
the processareline
as follows:
with marking (e.g., inlet, outlet, blow line).
• StepPre-test
1: OpenthethePSV.
PSVIffrom the process line with
the first pre-test result is not marking (e.g., inlet,
satisfactory, test outlet,
again. blow line).
• Pre-test the PSV. If the first pre-test result is not satisfactory, test again.
Step 2: Disassemble the PSV, clean, and service. Lap the nozzle. Assemble the PSV.
• • StepStep
2: Disassemble the PSV, clean, and service. Lap the nozzle. Assemble the PSV.
3: Test the PSV:
• Step 3: Test the PSV:
# Gradually increase the inlet pressure in the test bench. Outlet (blow line of
o Gradually increase the inlet pressure in the test bench. Outlet (blow line of
PSV) pressure is measured by bubble formation in water. When static inlet
PSV) pressure is measured by bubble formation in water. When static inlet Pr. ≥
Pr. ≥ set Pr. => Pop action, PSV will operate. After the blow, PSV will stop
set Pr. => Pop action, PSV will operate. After the blow, PSV will stop within a
within a short time.
#short time.
If the operating pressure and set pressure differ, readjust the spring pres-
o If the operating
sure/tension.pressure and
If the set pressure
operating point differ,
is thereadjust
same in the springtest
several pres-
results and
sure/tension.
leakage is very low, the valve is ready for qualification testing. and leak-
If the operating point is the same in several test results
#age is Keep
very low, the valve
a record of theis ready for test,
pre-test, qualification testing.
set pressure, and operating pressure in
o Keep athe record
record book signed by the inspector. If theoperating
of the pre-test, test, set pressure, and pressure in degrades,
spring performance the
recordchanging
book signed by the inspector.
the spring is recommended. If the spring performance degrades,
#changing the spring
In general, caseis±recommended.
10% accumulation is considered. For special PSVs, consider-
o In general, case ±10% accumulation
ing the process and test condition is considered.
case, ±3% For or ±special PSVs, considering
16% accumulation is used.
#the process and test condition case, ±3% or ±16% accumulation
Because there is no option for giving back pressure, the bellows is used.type PSV has
o Because there is
to allow no option
higher for giving
leakages. back pressure,
This leakage the bellows
is compensated type
by the PSVpressure.
back has
#to allow higher leakages. This leakage is compensated
After testing, PSVs should be sealed with the proper tag. by the back pressure.
o After testing, PSVs should be sealed with the proper tag.
• Step 4: Seat tightness checking procedure:
o Make sure that the valve is properly installed and all connections are tight.
o Set the pressure at the valve inlet to the MAWP. Open the valve and allow it to
discharge until the pressure drops to the set pressure. Repeat this process three
to four times to ensure the valve has been fully exercised.
o After exercising the valve, reduce the pressure to 90% of the set pressure. Close
the outlet of the valve and measure the leakage rate for one minute.
o If the valve has a metal seat, compare the leakage rate with the values given in
Table 8 of API 527. The leakage rate should be within the desired value.
Processes 2024, 12, 21 16 of 19

• Step 4: Seat tightness checking procedure:

# Make sure that the valve is properly installed and all connections are tight.
# Set the pressure at the valve inlet to the MAWP. Open the valve and allow it to
discharge until the pressure drops to the set pressure. Repeat this process three
to four times to ensure the valve has been fully exercised.
# After exercising the valve, reduce the pressure to 90% of the set pressure. Close
the outlet of the valve and measure the leakage rate for one minute.
# If the valve has a metal seat, compare the leakage rate with the values given in
Table 8 of API 527. The leakage rate should be within the desired value.
# If the leakage rate is within the acceptable limits, the valve is considered to be
seat tight. Otherwise, the valve should be disassembled and inspected for any
damage or wear. The seat and disc should be replaced if necessary.
# Reassemble the valve and repeat the seat tightness test. Once the valve passes
the seat tightness test, it can be put back into service.

Table 8. Allowable leakage rate in bubble per minute as per API 527 [8].

Leakage Rate for Effective Orifice Size,

Set Pressure
A [in2 ] (F Orifice) (Bubbles/min)
PSI (G) Kg/cm2 (G) A <= 0.307 in2 A > 0.307 in2
15–1000 1–70 40 20
1500 105 60 30
2000 141 80 40
2500 176 100 50
3000 211 100 60
4000 281 100 80
5000 352 100 100
6000 422 100 100

6. Conclusions
Selecting a suitable PSV/PRV with an associated design feature is essential to ensure
the safety and uninterrupted operation of the process plant. Though the manufacturer
must always guarantee the final design, this study will significantly reduce the amount of
upfront engineering effort. This study covers the following research and engineering areas
of PSVs/PRVs and provides relevant guidance:
• Provides an overview of the PSV/PRV systems to support safety of the pressurized
system.
• Defines and discusses the basic terminology related to PSV/PRV design and operation.
• Addresses the special design features and their pros and cons for specific process
applications.
• Demonstrates standard procedures with associated equations and characteristic curves
to size and select the suitable PSV/PRV for specific applications.
• Identifies that the major causes of PSV performance degradation are cavitation and
wear, which are the root cause of disruption in fluid flow distribution/dynamics,
boundary-layer formation and pressure drops across valve flow regions, gas bub-
ble formation and collapse, variations in geometric configuration and the shape of
components and inlet/outlet piping, and acoustic resonance.
• Examines a case study to show the correctness of the presented procedure to select and
size a PSV/PRV with associated features that match with the original design model.
• Offers an outline of the servicing and testing of PSVs/PRVs, which is considered an
industry standard and driven by proven practice.
Processes 2024, 12, 21 17 of 19

Overall, this study provides standard calculation and selection procedures that are
based on a prescribed method. However, it is recommended to follow the manufacturer’s
detailed guidelines for a specific design case. This study aims to provide simple and
general guidelines for selecting the best suited PSVs/PRVs and ensuring their safe and
efficient operation.

Funding: This research was funded by United State (U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE) Advanced
Reactor Demonstration Project (ARDP) program office grant number ARDP-20-23819. Funding
Opportunity Number DE-FOA-0002271, Risk Reduction Pathway.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the U.S. DOE National Reactor Innovation
Center (NRIC) ARDP program office and Irradiation Experiment and Thermal Hydraulics Analysis
Department at Idaho National Laboratory (INL) for the encouragement and support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

API American Petroleum Institute

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ISO International Organization for Standardization
MAWP maximum allowable working pressure
MP megapascals
PSEP process safety and environmental protection
PSV pressure safety valve
PRV pressure relief valve
Variables and Greek symbols
A flow area, [m2 ]
Awet wetted surface area, [ft2 ]
B effective liquid level angle, degrees
C gas constant (Cp for constant pressure, and Cv for constant volume)
D vessel diameter [ft]
E effective liquid level [ft]
Es effective spherical liquid level [ft]
E1 initial liquid level [ft]
F liquid depth in vessel [ft]
F environmental factor
G density of a gas to air or liquid compared to water
H vessel elevation [ft]
H_vap latent heat, [Btu/lb]
IC insulation conductance values, [Btu/(hr.ft2 .F)]
K effective total height of liquid surface [ft]
K1 total height of liquid surface [ft]
K flow factor (for gas/steam, K = 0.975, for liquid, K1 = 0.70, for API 520, liquid, K2 , = 0.62)
K correction factor (Kb for constant back pressure and Kw for variable back pressure)
L vessel end-to-end length [ft]
M molecular weight
P1 relieving pressure (pr.) (abs) P1 = set pr. + over pr.+ 1.013
P set pressure
Pr pressure
Pb back pressure
Q total heat absorption [Btu/hr]
T relieving temperature, absolute
V required capacity, [Nm2 /hr]
VL required capacity, [m3 /hr]
W rate of vapor from liquid [lbs/hr]
Z compressibility factor, if unknown, use Z =1
k specific heat ratio, k = C p /Cv , if unknown, use k = 1.001
Subscript: b-back pressure, w-variable break pressure, and L-liquid
Processes 2024, 12, 21 18 of 19

References
1. Sotoodeh, K. The Design of Pressure Safety and Relief Valves for Overpressure Protection: Essential considerations. Trans. Indian
Natl. Acad. Eng. 2023, 8, 273–287. [CrossRef]
2. ASME. BPVC-VIII-1—Section VIII Division 1 Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels; American Society of Mechanical Engineers:
New York, NY, USA, 2022.
3. ASME BPVC. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC); Section I & VIII; American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): New
York, NY, USA, 2022.
4. ASME PTC-25; Performance Test Codes Standards Committee, Pressure Relief Devices. American Society of Mechanical Engineers:
New York, NY, USA, 2022.
5. API 520; Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices, Sixth Edition. American Petroleum Institute: Washing-
ton, DC, USA, 2022.
6. API STD 521; Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems. American Petroleum Institute (API): Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
7. API RP 520; Recommended Practice for the Design and Construction of Pressure Relieving Systems in Refineries, Sixth Edition.
American Petroleum Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
8. API 527; Seat Tightness of Pressure Relief Valves, Fourth Edition. American Petroleum Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
9. Crowl, D.A.; Tipler, S.A. Sizing pressure-relief devices. Chem. Eng. Prog. 2013, 109, 68–76.
10. Signoret, J.P.; Leroy, A. Reliability Assessment of Safety and Production Systems: Analysis, Modelling, Calculations and Case Studies;
Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2021.
11. Bhowmik, P.K. Sizing and selection of pressure relief safety valve. In Proceedings of the 6th International Mechanical Engineering
Conference & 14th Annual Paper Meet (6IMEC&14APM), Dhaka, Bangladesh, 28–29 September 2012.
12. Bhowmik, P.K.; Shamim, J.A.; Sabharwall, P. A review on the sizing and selection of control valves for thermal hydraulics for
reactor system applications. Prog. Nucl. Energy 2023, 164, 104887. [CrossRef]
13. Dempster, W.; Taggart, S.; Doyle, C. Limitations in the use of pressure scaling for safety relief valve design. In Pressure Vessels and
Piping Conference; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 51623, p. V03AT03A002.
14. Hellemans, M. The Safety Relief Valve Handbook: Design and Use of Process Safety Valves to ASME and International Codes and Standards;
Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2009.
15. Kerr, T.A.; Myers, D.B.; Piggott, B.D.; Vance, A.E. Solving Pressure Relief Valve and Piping Capacity Problems. 2018. Available online:
http://trimeric.com/assets/solving-pressure-relief-valve-and-piping-capacity-problems-rev-1.pdf (accessed on 1 October 2023).
16. Hős, C.; Bazsó, C.; Champneys, A. Model reduction of a direct spring-loaded pressure relief valve with upstream pipe. IMA J.
Appl. Math. 2014, 80, 1009–1024. [CrossRef]
17. Bhowmik, P.K.; Suh, K.Y. Flow mapping using 3D full-scale CFD simulation and hydrodynamic experiments of an ultra-
supercritical turbine’s combined valve for nuclear power plant. Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng. 2021, 12, 365–381. [CrossRef]
18. Beune, A. Analysis of High-Pressure Safety Valves. Ph.D. Thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands, 2009.
19. Moktadir, M.A.; Ali, S.M.; Kusi-Sarpong, S.; Shaikh, M.A.A. Assessing challenges for implementing Industry 4.0: Implications for
process safety and environmental protection. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2018, 117, 730–741. [CrossRef]
20. De Rademaeker, E.; Suter, G.; Pasman, H.J.; Fabiano, B. A review of the past, present and future of the European loss prevention
and safety promotion in the process industries. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 2014, 92, 280–291. [CrossRef]
21. Belles, R.J. Key reactor system components in integral pressurized water reactors (iPWRs). In Handbook of Small Modular Nuclear
Reactors; Woodhead Publishing: Sawston, UK, 2021; pp. 95–115.
22. Bhowmik, P.K. Nanofluid Operation and Valve Engineering of SUPER for Small Unit Passive Enclosed Reactor. Master’s Thesis,
Department of Nuclear Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2016.
23. Wang, M.; Qiu, S.; Su, G.; Tian, W. Research on the leak-rate characteristics of leak-before-break (LBB) in pressurized water reactor
(PWR). Appl. Therm. Eng. 2014, 62, 133–140. [CrossRef]
24. Bae, B.U.; Lee, J.B.; Park, Y.S.; Kim, J.; Kang, K.H. Experimental investigation on thermal hydraulic interaction of RCS (reactor
coolant system) and containment for intermediate break loss-of-coolant accident (IBLOCA) scenario in AT-LAS-CUBE test facility.
Prog. Nucl. Energy 2022, 146, 104156. [CrossRef]
25. Galbally, D.; García, G.; Hernando, J.; Sánchez, J.d.D.; Barral, M. Analysis of pressure oscillations and safety relief valve vibrations
in the main steam system of a Boiling Water Reactor. Nucl. Eng. Des. 2015, 293, 258–271. [CrossRef]
26. Oh, K.S.; Jeong, E.; Shim, W.S.; Baek, J.B. The Effectiveness of Pressure Safety Valves in Chemical Supply Systems to Prevent Fire,
Explosion, and Overpressure in the Korean Semiconductor Industry. Fire 2023, 6, 344. [CrossRef]
27. Schmidt, J. Sizing of safety valves for multi-purpose plants according to ISO 4126-10. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind. 2012, 25, 181–191.
[CrossRef]
28. Ade, N.; Liu, G.; Al-Douri, A.F.; El-Halwagi, M.M.; Mannan, M.S. Investigating the effect of inherent safety principles on system
reliability in process design. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 2018, 117, 100–110. [CrossRef]
29. Bhowmik, P.K.; Perez, C.E.E.; Fishler, J.D.; Prieto, S.A.B.; Reichow, I.D.; Johnson, J.T.; Sabharwall, P.; O’Brien, J.E. Integral and
Separate Effects Test Facilities To Support Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors: A Review. Prog. Nucl. Energy 2023, 160, 104697.
[CrossRef]
30. Yang, L.; Wang, Z.; Dempster, W.; Yu, X.; Tu, S.-T. Experiments and transient simulation on spring-loaded pressure relief valve
under high temperature and high pressure steam conditions. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind. 2017, 45, 133–146. [CrossRef]
Processes 2024, 12, 21 19 of 19

31. NUREG-0800; Standard Review Plan for the Review of Safety Analysis Reports for Nuclear Power Plants: LWR Edition (NUREG-
0800, Formerly issued as NUREG-75/087). U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC): Rockville, MD, USA, 2008.
32. Mengjie, Z.; Biao, H.; Zhongdong, Q.; Taotao, L.; Qin, W.; Hanzhe, Z.; Guoyu, W. Cavitating flow structures and corre-sponding
hydrodynamics of a transient pitching hydrofoil in different cavitation regimes. Int. J. Multiph. Flow 2020, 132, 103408. [CrossRef]
33. Ou, G.; Xu, J.; Li, W.; Chen, B. Investigation on cavitation flow in pressure relief valve with high pressure differentials for coal
liquefaction. Procedia Eng. 2015, 130, 125–134. [CrossRef]
34. Tandiono, T.; Kang, C.W.; Lu, X.; Turangan, C.K.; Tan, M.; Bin Osman, H.; Lim, F. An experimental study of gas nuclei-assisted
hydrodynamic cavitation for aquaculture water treatment. J. Vis. 2020, 23, 863–872. [CrossRef]
35. Soares, A.K.; Martins, N.M.C.; Covas, D.I.C. Transient vaporous cavitation in a horizontal copper pipe. J. Hydraul. Res. 2017, 55,
731–736. [CrossRef]
36. Rajasekar, J.; Kim, T.H.; Kim, H.D. Visualization of shock wave propagation due to underwater explosion. J. Vis. 2020, 23, 825–837.
[CrossRef]
37. Sharma, A.K.; Kumar, N.; Das, A.K. Cavitation analysis in a re-designed direct acting pressure relief valve through flow
visualization method. J. Vis. 2023, 26, 1299–1319. [CrossRef]
38. Yang, Q.; Aung, N.Z.; Li, S. Confirmation on the effectiveness of rectangle-shaped flapper in reducing cavitation in flapper–nozzle
pilot valve. Energy Convers. Manag. 2015, 98, 184–198. [CrossRef]
39. Han, M.; Liu, Y.; Wu, D.; Zhao, X.; Tan, H. A numerical investigation in characteristics of flow force under cavitation state inside
the water hydraulic poppet valves. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2017, 111, 1–16. [CrossRef]
40. Kang, J.; Tang, Y. Dynamic cavitation in soft solids under monotonically increasing pressure. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2021, 209, 106730.
[CrossRef]
41. Hős, C.J.; Champneys, A.R.; Paul, K.; McNeely, M. Dynamic behavior of direct spring loaded pressure relief valves in gas service:
Model development, measurements, and instability mechanisms. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 2014, 31, 70–81. [CrossRef]
42. Zheng, F.; Zong, C.; Zhang, C.; Song, X.; Qu, F.; Dempster, W. Dynamic Instability Analysis of a Spring-Loaded Pressure Safety
Valve Connected to a Pipe by Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Methods. J. Press. Vessel. Technol. 2021, 143, 041403.
[CrossRef]
43. Izuchi, H.; Swindell, R.; Mann, A. Combining Acoustic Induced Vibration and Flow Induced Vibration. In Pressure Vessels and
Piping Conference; American Society of Mechanical Engineers: New York, NY, USA, 2022; Volume 86168, p. V003T04A010.
44. Johnston, D.N.; Edge, K.A.; Brunelli, M. Impedance and Stability Characteristics of a Relief Valve. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 2002, 216,
371–382.
45. Khan, F.I.; Abbasi, S.A. Major accidents in process industries and an analysis of causes and consequences. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind.
1999, 12, 361–378. [CrossRef]
46. Abdolhamidzadeh, B.; Abbasi, T.; Rashtchian, D.; Abbasi, S. Domino effect in process-industry accidents—An inventory of past
events and identification of some patterns. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind. 2011, 24, 575–593. [CrossRef]
47. Chang, J.I.; Lin, C.C. A study of storage tank accidents. J. Loss Prev. Process Ind. 2006, 19, 51–59. [CrossRef]
48. Shareefdeen, Z.; Bhojwani, J. Hazardous waste accidents: From the past to the present. In Hazardous Waste Management: Advances
in Chemical and Industrial Waste Treatment and Technologies; Springer Nature: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2022; pp. 27–56.
49. Tamim, N.; Scott, S.; Zhu, W.; Koirala, Y.; Mannan, M.S. Roles of contractors in process safety. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind. 2017, 48,
358–366. [CrossRef]
50. Leveson, N. Safety III: A systems approach to safety and resilience. MIT Eng. Syst. Lab 2020, 16, 2021.
51. SERASIN RSBD, Sarasin RSBD Starflow Brochure, SRV-S-8-1012, Full-version, Trillium Flow Technologies 2020. Available
online: https://trilliumflow.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Sarasin-RSBD-Starflow-Brochure-SRV-S-8-1012-Full-version.
pdf (accessed on 1 October 2023).
52. Emerson. Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook; Anderson Greenwood, Crosby and Varec products, Technical publication;
Emerson: St. Louis, MI, USA, 2012; No. TP-V300.
53. LESER. Safety Valve Handbook, Product Catalogue. 2023. Available online: https://www.leser.com/en-us/products/spring-
loaded-pressure-relief-valves/ (accessed on 1 October 2023).
54. SPIRAX SARCO. Safety Valves. 2023. Available online: https://www.spiraxsarco.com/learn-about-steam/safety-valves/safety-
valves (accessed on 1 October 2023).
55. Emerson. Pressure Relief Valves Product Overview, VCPBR-08579-EN 20/04. 2020. Available online: https://www.emerson.com/
documents/automation/product-brochure-pressure-relief-valves-product-overview-europe-anderson-greenwood-crosby-
marston-sempell-en-en-6001990.pdf (accessed on 1 October 2023).
56. PIPING Mart. What Is the Process Of PSV Testing Popping Test Methods and PSV Calibration? 2022. Available online: https:
//blog.thepipingmart.com/other/what-is-the-process-of-psv-testing-popping-test-methods-and-psv-calibration/ (accessed on
1 October 2023).

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.