HOW MEMORY WORKS
Memory is the ongoing process of information retention over time.
Because it makes up the very framework through which we make
sense of and take action within the present, its importance goes
without saying. But how exactly does it work? And how can teachers
apply a better understanding of its inner workings to their own
teaching? In light of current research in cognitive science, the very,
very short answer to these questions is that memory operates
according to a "dual-process," where more unconscious, more
routine thought processes (known as "System 1") interact with
more conscious, more problem-based thought processes (known as
"System 2"). At each of these two levels, in turn, there are the
processes through which we "get information in" (encoding), how
we hold on to it (storage), and and how we "get it back out"
(retrieval or recall). With a basic understanding of how these
elements of memory work together, teachers can maximize student
learning by knowing how much new information to introduce,
when to introduce it, and how to sequence assignments that will
both reinforce the retention of facts (System 1) and build toward
critical, creative thinking (System 2).
Dual-Process Theory
Think back to a time when you learned a new skill, such as driving a
car, riding a bicycle, or reading. When you first learned this skill,
performing it was an active process in which you analyzed and were
acutely aware of every movement you made. Part of this analytical
process also meant that you thought carefully about why you were
doing what you were doing, to understand how these individual
steps fit together as a comprehensive whole. However, as your
ability improved, performing the skill stopped being a cognitively-
demanding process, instead becoming more intuitive. As you
continue to master the skill, you can perform other, at times more
intellectually-demanding, tasks simultaneously. Due to your
knowledge of this skill or process being unconscious, you could, for
example, solve an unrelated complex problem or make an
analytical decision while completing it.
In its simplest form, the scenario above is an example of what
psychologists call dual-process theory. The term “dual-process”
refers to the idea that some behaviors and cognitive processes
(such as decision-making) are the products of two distinct
cognitive processes, often called System 1 and System 2
(Kaufmann, 2011:443-445). While System 1 is characterized by
automatic, unconscious thought, System 2 is characterized by
effortful, analytical, intentional thought (Osman, 2004:989).
Figure 1: A summary of System 1 and System 2. (Source: Upfront
Analytics, 2015)
Dual-Process Theories and Learning
How do System 1 and System 2 thinking relate to teaching and
learning? In an educational context, System 1 is associated with
memorization and recall of information, while System 2 describes
more analytical or critical thinking. Memory and recall, as a part of
System 1 cognition, are focused on in the rest of these notes.
As mentioned above, System 1 is characterized by its fast,
unconscious recall of previously-memorized information.
Classroom activities that would draw heavily on System 1 include
memorized multiplication tables, as well as multiple-choice exam
questions that only need exact regurgitation from a source such as
a textbook. These kinds of tasks do not require students to actively
analyze what is being asked of them beyond reiterating memorized
material. System 2 thinking becomes necessary when students are
presented with activities and assignments that require them to
provide a novel solution to a problem, engage in critical thinking,
or apply a concept outside of the domain in which it was originally
presented.
It may be tempting to think of learning beyond the primary school
level as being all about System 2, all the time. However, it’s
important to keep in mind that successful System 2 thinking
depends on a lot of System 1 thinking to operate. In other words,
critical thinking requires a lot of memorized knowledge and
intuitive, automatic judgments to be performed quickly and
accurately.
How does Memory Work?
In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of
information retention over time. It is an integral part of human
cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon past
events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the
present. Memory also gives individuals a framework through which
to make sense of the present and future. As such, memory plays a
crucial role in teaching and learning. There are three main
processes that characterize how memory works. These processes
are encoding, storage, and retrieval (or recall).
1. Encoding. Encoding refers to the process through which
information is learned. That is, how information is taken in,
understood, and altered to better support storage (which you
will look at in Section 3.1.2). Information is usually encoded
through one (or more) of four methods: (1) Visual encoding
(how something looks); (2) acoustic encoding (how
something sounds); (3) semantic encoding (what something
means); and (4) tactile encoding (how something feels). While
information typically enters the memory system through one
of these modes, the form in which this information is stored
may differ from its original, encoded form (Brown, Roediger,
& McDaniel, 2014).
2. Storage. Storage refers to how, where, how much, and how
long encoded information is retained within the memory
system. The modal model of memory (storage) highlights the
existence of two types of memory: short-term and long-term
memory. Encoded information is first stored in short-term
memory and then, if need be, is stored in long-term memory
(Roediger & McDermott, 1995). Atkinson and Shiffrin argue
that information that is encoded acoustically is primarily
stored in short-term memory (STM), and it is only kept there
through constant repetition (rehearsal). Time and inattention
may cause information stored in STM to be forgotten. This is
because short-term memory only lasts between 15 and 30
seconds. Additionally, STM only stores between five and nine
items of information, with seven items being the average
number. In this context, the term “items” refers to any piece
of information. Long-term memory, however, has immense
storage capacity, and information stored within LTM can be
stored there indefinitely. Information that is encoded
semantically is primarily stored in LTM; however, LTM also
stores visually- and acoustically-encoded information. Once
information is stored within LTM or STM, individuals need to
recall or retrieve it to make use of said information (Roediger
& McDermott, 1995). It is this retrieval process that often
determines how well students perform on assignments
designed to test recall.
Figure 2: The differences between STM and LTM. (Adapted
from: Roediger & McDermott, 1995)
3. Retrieval. As indicated above, retrieval is the process through
which individuals access stored information. Due to their
differences, information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved
differently. While STM is retrieved in the order in which it is
stored (for example, a sequential list of numbers), LTM is
retrieved through association (for example, remembering
where you parked your car by returning to the entrance
through which you accessed a shopping mall) (Roediger &
McDermott, 1995).
Improving Recall
Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction
of memory. This reconstruction becomes necessary when stored
information is lost over time due to decayed retention. In 1885,
Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment in which he tested
how well individuals remembered a list of nonsense syllables over
increasingly longer periods of time. Using the results of his
experiment, he created what is now known as the “Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve” (Schaefer, 2015).
Figure 3: The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve. (Source: Schaefer, 2015)
Through his research, Ebbinghaus concluded that the rate at which
your memory (of recently learned information) decays depends
both on the time that has elapsed following your learning
experience as well as how strong your memory is. Some degree of
memory decay is inevitable, so, as an educator, how do you reduce
the scope of this memory loss? The following sections answer this
question by looking at how to improve recall within a learning
environment, through various teaching and learning techniques.
As a teacher, it is important to be aware of techniques that you can
use to promote better retention and recall among your students.
Three such techniques are the testing effect, spacing, and
interleaving.
1. The testing effect. In most traditional educational settings,
tests are normally considered to be a method of periodic but
infrequent assessment that can help a teacher understand
how well their students have learned the material at hand.
However, modern research in psychology suggests that
frequent, small tests are also one of the best ways to learn in
the first place. The testing effect refers to the process of
actively and frequently testing memory retention when
learning new information. By encouraging students to
regularly recall information they have recently learned, you
are helping them to retain that information in long-term
memory, which they can draw upon at a later stage of the
learning experience (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). As
secondary benefits, frequent testing allows both the teacher
and the student to keep track of what a student has learned
about a topic, and what they need to revise for retention
purposes. Frequent testing can occur at any point in the
learning process. For example, at the end of a lecture or
seminar, you could give your students a brief, low-stakes quiz
or free-response question asking them to remember what
they learned that day, or the day before. This kind of quiz will
not just tell you what your students are retaining, but will help
them remember more than they would have otherwise.
2. Spacing. According to the spacing effect, when a student
repeatedly learns and recalls information over a prolonged
time span, they are more likely to retain that information.
This is compared to learning (and attempting to retain)
information in a short time span (for example, studying the
day before an exam). As a teacher, you can foster this
approach to studying in your students by structuring your
learning experiences in the same way. For example, instead of
introducing a new topic and its related concepts to students in
one go, you can cover the topic in segments over multiple
lessons (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
3. Interleaving. The interleaving technique is another teaching
and learning approach that was introduced as an alternative
to a technique known as “blocking”. Blocking refers to when a
student practices one skill or one topic at a time. Interleaving,
on the other hand, is when students practice multiple related
skills in the same session. This technique has proven to be
more successful than the traditional blocking technique in
various fields (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
As useful as it is to know which techniques you can use, as a
teacher, to improve student recall of information, it is also crucial
for students to be aware of techniques they can use to improve their
own recall. This section looks at four of these techniques: state-
dependent memory, schemas, chunking, and deliberate practice.
1. State-dependent memory. State-dependent memory refers to
the idea that being in the same state in which you first learned
information enables you to better remember said information.
In this instance, “state” refers to an individual’s
surroundings, as well as their mental and physical state at the
time of learning (Weissenborn & Duka, 2000).
2. Schemas. Schemas refer to the mental frameworks an
individual creates to help them understand and organize new
information. Schemas act as a cognitive “shortcut” in that
they allow individuals to interpret new information quicker
than when not using schemas. However, schemas may also
prevent individuals from learning pertinent information that
falls outside the scope of the schema that has been created. It
is because of this that students should be encouraged to alter
or reanalyze their schemas, when necessary, when they learn
important information that may not confirm or align with
their existing beliefs and conceptions of a topic.
3. Chunking. Chunking is the process of grouping pieces of
information together to better facilitate retention. Instead of
recalling each piece individually, individuals recall the entire
group, and then can retrieve each item from that group more
easily (Gobet et al., 2001).
4. Deliberate practice. The final technique that students can use
to improve recall is deliberate practice. Simply put, deliberate
practice refers to the act of deliberately and actively practicing
a skill with the intention of improving understanding of and
performance in said skill. By encouraging students to practice
a skill continually and deliberately (for example, writing a
well-structured essay), you will ensure better retention of
that skill (Brown et al., 2014).
