29-07-2022

Kinematics and Dynamics of

machinery (ME 603)
Instructors:
Prof. Sripriya Ramamoorthy (Vibrations)
&
Prof. Anirban Guha (Mechanisms)

Kinematics and Dynamics

• Kinematics describes motion (position, velocity,

acceleration) without regard for forces that cause it.
• Dynamics describes the causes of motion (forces,
moments) and how they influence the motion.
• A thorough understanding of kinematics is pre-requisite to
solving dynamics problems

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Machine

Gears are a type of mechanism.

Mechanisms
Analysis
Synthesis (Design)

Cam follower mechanism

Source: wikipedia

Rigid bodies

Slider crank mechanism:

interconnected rigid bodies
Particles

Rigid body definition

Between any two points on the body,
the distance is fixed.

No deformation also implies

stress/strain do not exist in a rigid
body (idealization)

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Rigid bodies vs. particles

Particles only undergo translation – no rotation

Rigid bodies undergo both translation and rotation

(but no deformation).

An example of a mechanism

“Four bar mechanism” animations from Wikimedia commons

Double rocker

Crank-rocker

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Four-bar “slider-crank” mechanism

Ref: Norton, Chapter 13

Building Vibrations

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Automobile Crash

slide from Prof. P. Seshu

Finite element model – millions of DoF

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Example: Vehicle dynamics model

Study of how the vehicle will react to driver inputs on a given solid surface.

Lumped mass model for vehicle driving dynamics. a One-dimensional (quarter vehicle) model , b Two-dimensional (4
DOF) model c Three-dimensional (7 DOF) full vehicle model

Yang, S., Lu, Y., & Li, S. (2013). An overview on vehicle dynamics. International Journal of Dynamics and Control, 1(4), 385-395.

Example: biomechanics of lower limb

Apkarian, J., Naumann, S., & Cairns, B. (1989). A three-dimensional kinematic

and dynamic model of the lower limb. Journal of biomechanics, 22(2), 143-155.

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Data collection for vibrations monitoring

https://us.hansfordsensors.com/products/accelerometers/ac-
vibration-sensors-typical-set-up/

Syllabus
Review of single and two DOF systems.
Multi DOF systems vibration
Lagrange’s equation of motion.
Vibrations of continuous systems
 strings
 axial, torsional vibration of bars
 beams.
Introduction to nonlinear and random vibration.

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Evaluation and references

 Grading
 Dynamics in-semester evaluation (2 quizzes) till mid sem: 10 %
 Mid sem (dynamics) : 25 %
 Kinematics in-semester evaluation between midsem and
endsem: 15%
 End Sem : kinematics 35%, dynamics 15%

 Textbooks on Vibrations
• Singiresu Rao “Mechanical Vibrations” 2011.
• Meirovitch “Fundamentals of vibrations” 2001

Free vibrations of single degree

of freedom systems
Prof. Sripriya Ramamoorthy
IIT Bombay

Reference:
“Mechanical Vibrations”, S. S. Rao, 2011 (Chapter 1, Chapter 2)

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Overview
 Basics and the simple pendulum
 Free vibrations of undamped SDOF system
• Deriving the equations of motion
• Characteristic or frequency equation
• Solving the equations of motion
 Free vibrations of a damped SDOF system
• Equations of motion
• Critical damping and the damping ratio
• Underdamped, critically-damped and overdamped
response

A simple pendulum

Kinetic Energy:
θ ½ m L2 𝜃ሶ 2
L
Potential Energy:
mg L (1 – cosθ)
3
2 m 1
L (1 – cosθ)
mg
Motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation. In this process, there is continuous exchange of potential and
kinetic energies, which is a fundamental characteristic of vibrations.

A vibratory system in general would include means of storing potential

energy (such as a spring), a means for storing kinetic energy (such as a
mass), and a means to dissipate the energy (damper).

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Vibration Analysis

Mathematical Model of the

system

Derive governing equations

Loop
for
design
Solve the governing equations
for given initial conditions and
forcing

Interpret the results

Deriving the equations of motion

Newton’s second law of motion

F = ma=-mg sinθ
θ a = L𝜃ሷ
L Therefore, the equation of motion is:
-mg sinθ = mL𝜃ሷ
m
This equation can be simplified as
𝜃ሷ = -g/L sinθ
mg sinθ
For small θ:
mg 𝑑2𝜃 𝑔 “Equation of
+ 𝜃 = 0 motion”
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿

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Spring-mass system / Single degree-of-freedom system

Before we solve the equations in the previous slide, let us consider

another simple example for mathematical model. This is a more
common model than a simple pendulum. This is a spring mass system.
It is also referred to as a ‘single degree of freedom’ system because its
motion can be described by single variable (x here).

x Case 1:
k Free vibrations i.e.,
m No external forces.
Only initial disturbance.

Spring-mass system / Single degree-of-freedom system

x Case 1:
k Free vibrations i.e.,
m No external forces.
Only initial disturbance.

 Select a suitable coordinate (linear or angular)

 Determine the static equilibrium configuration of the system
and measure the displacement from this static equilibrium
position.
 Draw the free-body diagram when a positive displacement is
given to it. Indicate all active and reactive forces acting on the
mass.
 Apply Newton’s second law of motion: rate of change of
momentum of a mass is equal to the net force acting on it.

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Deriving the equations of motion

When the mass is displaced by ‘𝑥’, the FREE BODY DIAGRAM
restoring force of the spring is 𝑘𝑥 in the
opposite direction. 𝑥
Free length = 𝑙0 𝑘𝑥 m
Stretched length = 𝑙0+𝑥
Therefore, the force acting in the direction of x is:
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
From Newton’s second law of motion: 2
𝑑 𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
This can be re-written as:
𝑑2𝑥 “Equation of motion”
𝑚 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

Spring-mass in vertical direction

Additional consideration: weight of the mass m.
At rest, the mass will hang in a position called the
𝑙0 + 𝛿𝑆𝑇 k
“static equilibrium position” where the weight of
the mass is balanced by the upward spring force:
m 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝛿𝑆𝑇 (1)
𝑥
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
Free length of the spring = 𝑙0
𝑘(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑆𝑇 )
length at static equilibrium = 𝑙0 + 𝛿𝑆𝑇
From Newton’s second law of motion:
𝑑2 𝑥 m
𝑚 2 = −𝑘 𝑥 + 𝛿𝑆𝑇 + 𝑊 (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑥
From (1) and (2): 𝑊
𝑑2𝑥
“Equation of motion” 𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡

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Equivalent spring constant

Example: Uniform Rod Stress = force per unit area:
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐹 𝐴
𝑙 𝛿 Strain:
𝜎 𝐹
𝜀= =
𝐸 𝐴𝐸
𝐹
But strain is related to 𝛿 as:
𝑘 𝛿
𝜀 = …. length-change/ original length
Therefore, the equivalent 𝑙
spring constant of a rod is Therefore,
𝐴𝐸 𝛿 𝐹𝑙
given by 𝑘 = 𝛿= 𝑙=
𝑙 𝑙 𝐴𝐸
Spring constant is defined as the ratio of 𝑘 = 𝐹 = 𝐴𝐸
force applied to resulting deflection: 𝛿 𝑙

Equivalent spring constant

Example: Simple pendulum
Restoring moment applied on the mass:
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔𝑙 sin𝜃
𝜃
𝐿
For small 𝜃, sin𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.
Therefore, 𝑇 ≈ 𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
𝑚
If we replace gravitational
restoring force by an
𝑚𝑔 sin𝜃
equivalent TORSIONAL
spring 𝑘𝑡 such that 𝑇 = 𝑘𝑡 𝜃.
𝑚𝑔

Then, the value of 𝑘𝑡 is given by:

𝑘𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔𝑙

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Equivalent spring constant

Springs in parallel Springs in series
𝑘1 𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝛿1 = 𝑘2 𝛿2
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹
𝐹

𝑘2 𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟏 𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟐

𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹
𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐹
𝐹

𝟐𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟏 + 𝜹𝟐
𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹
forces add for springs in parallel lengths add for springs in series
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝛿 + 𝑘2 𝛿 = 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝛿 Total length = 2𝐿0 + + 𝑘 = 2𝐿0 + 𝑘
𝑘1 2 𝑒𝑞
𝑘𝑒𝑞 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 1 1 1
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 𝑘2

Equivalent spring constant

General combination of springs
𝑘1 𝑘3

𝐹
𝑘2
𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟏 𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟐

𝑘𝑒𝑞
𝐹

𝟐𝑳𝟎 + 𝜹𝟏 + 𝜹𝟐

forces add for springs in parallel; lengths add for springs in series
Total length 𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝛿1 + 𝑘2 𝛿1 = 𝑘3 𝛿2
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= 2𝐿0 + 𝛿1 + 𝛿2 = 2𝐿0 + + = 2𝐿0 +
𝑘1 +𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝐹
𝐹
𝛿1 = 𝛿2 =
1 1 1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑘3
= +
𝑘𝑒𝑞 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑘3

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Solving the equations of motion

Recall: 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑔
+ 𝜃=0 EOM for a simple pendulum
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿

𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 EOM for a spring-mass system
𝑑𝑡

Note the similarity in the form of these equations.

These are second order “ordinary differential equations (ODE)” in time.

Discrete mechanical systems have governing equations in the form of

ODE.

Solving the equations of motion

Equation of motion (EOM) for a spring-mass system:
𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The solution can be found by assuming 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡
where C and s are constants (TBD).
Substituting this form into EOM gives:
𝐶 𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0

C cannot be 0 because that will be a trivial solution. Therefore, we have:

𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑘 = 0 Characteristic Equation
for a spring-mass system

Roots are: 𝑘
𝑠 = ±𝑗𝜔𝑛 where 𝑗 = −1 and 𝜔𝑛 = 𝑚
Here, 𝝎𝒏 is the natural / resonance / eigen frequency of the system.

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Solving the equations of motion

Two solutions: Recall:
𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔𝑛 and 𝑠 = − 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑠𝑡

What is the significance of complex (vs. real) roots?

The general solution to EOM can therefore be expressed as:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑡
OR
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 ……… (1)
Here A1 and A2 are new constants.
C1, C2 or A1, A2 can be determined from the initial conditions.

Solving the equations of motion

Initial Conditions:

Second order ODE will have two initial conditions. Here, they are:

𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑥0 …… Initial displacement
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝑥ሶ 0 …… Initial velocity

Substituting into 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

gives:
𝐴1 = 𝑥0
𝑥 𝑡 = 0 = 𝐴1 = 𝑥0
𝑥ሶ 0
𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 0 = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴2 = 𝑥ሶ 0 𝐴2 =
𝜔𝑛

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Solving the equations of motion

The solution is therefore given by:

𝑥ሶ 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝜔𝑛
Free vibrations of a spring-mass system

This solution is a harmonic function of time:

The motion is sinusoidal in time and demonstrates a single

resonant frequency.

So, the spring-mass system is also called a “harmonic oscillator”

Form 1: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑡

= 𝐶1 (cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡) + 𝐶2 (cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡)
= (𝐶1 +𝐶2 ) cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑗(𝐶1 −𝐶2 ) sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

Form 2: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝐴1 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ), 𝐴2 = 𝑗(𝐶1 −𝐶2 )

Form 3: 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜑 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜑 + sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜑

𝐴1 = 𝐴 cos 𝜑, 𝐴2 = 𝐴 sin 𝜑

𝐴 = 𝐴12 + 𝐴22
𝐴2
𝜑 = tan−1
𝐴1

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Review: Basic terminology

x(t )

0 t

2


x(t): Vibration response
Cycle: One revolution, as shown in RED
τ: Time period = time to complete one cycle
ω : Radian or angular frequency = 2πf, where ‘f’ is the frequency
of oscillation; Frequency: Number of cycles per unit time

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