BALASORE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,

SERGARH, BALASORE

Lecture Notes on

Subject- BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(As per the latest syllabus of BPUT, Rourkela, Odisha)

Year-1st Semester-
ST
1

Prepared by-:

Mr. SUSHIL SWAIN, Asst. Professor

Department:-Electrical Engineering

Checked By

(Name and Designation)

 MODULE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

Module Chapter with title Assigned Hour (as Actual Sessions Range of Marks of
per BPUT) Needed Questions to be
asked (BPUT)
1 1:Dc Circuit Analysis 06 Hr 12Hr 10 - 20

2 2: Single Phase 06 Hr 08 Hr 20 - 30
Circuit Analysis
3: Three Phase
Circuits
3 4 Magnetic Circuits 06Hr 10 Hr 20 - 35

4 5: AC Machines 06 Hr 10 Hr 20 - 30

5 6: Introduction to 06 Hr 10 Hr 10 - 20
Power System

Total - 30Hrs 50Hrs 100

 SYLLABUS

Module-I: D.C Networks (6 hours)

Kirchoff’s laws, node voltage and mesh current methods, delta-star and star-delta conversions,
superposition principle, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems, Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem

Module-II: Single phase and three phase ac circuit (6 hours)

Average and effective values of sinusoids, solution of R, L, C series circuits, solution of series
and parallel circuits, series -parallel resonance.
Line and phase quantities, Delta and star connections, solution of the balanced three phase
circuits, measurement of power in three phase circuits.

Module-III: Magnetic Circuits (6 hours)

Review of fundamental laws of electromagnetic induction, Solution of simple magnetic
circuits.
DC machine: Construction, types, emf equation of generator, torque equation of motor, speed
control of DC motors

Module-IV: AC MACHINES (6 hours)

Single Phase Transformer: Construction, emf equation, no load and load operation, voltage
regulation and efficiency.
Three Phase Induction Motor: Construction, principle of working, concept of slip, torque
speed relation.
Principle of operation of Three Phase alternator.

Module-V: Introduction to Power System (6 hours)

General structure of electrical power systems, Concepts of Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, Sources of Electrical Power
ESSENTIAL READING

[1]. G. Rizzoni, Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, TMH , 2017

[2]. Nagrath I.J. and D. P. Kothari, Basic Electrical Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill.

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

[1]. S. Parker Smith, “Problems in Electrical Engineering”, Asia Publications, 10th Edition.

[2]. Edward Hughes (revised by Ian McKenzie Smith), “Electrical & Electronics Technology”, Pearson
Education Limited. Indian Reprint 2002, 10th Edition.
 Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-1

Learning Objectives
1.0 Basic Concepts Of Electricity
1.1 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuit
1.3 Types of Network Elements

1.0 Basic Concepts Of Electricity

Electricity is one of the most important blessings that science has given to mankind. It has also become a part
of modern life and one cannot think of a world without it. Electricity has many uses in our day to day life. It is
used for lighting rooms, working fans and domestic appliances like using electric stoves, A/C and more. All
these provide comfort to people. In factories, large machines are worked with the help of electricity. Essential
items like food, cloth, paper and many other things are the product of electricity.

To understand this, we need to know about atoms. Everything in the universe is made up of atoms but you
can't see them. Atoms are tiny particles that are too small to spot. Atoms are made up of even smaller particles
called protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are tightly packed together in the centre of
the atom called the nucleus.
Surrounding the nucleus there are electrons orbiting around and
around: in the same way that the earth goes around the sun but at a very
high speed.
There is a great deal of empty space between the electrons so the atom
has plenty of room inside it.
An outside force called voltage can push electrons from atom to atom.
This movement of electrons produces electricity. Electricity is created
by electrons that have become loose from their atoms.
Fig.
1.1Diagram of an Atom
1.1 Fundamentals of Electrical Circuit
1.1.1 Charge

The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. Charge is an electrical property of the
atomic particles which is measured in coulombs (C). Charge, positive or negative, is denoted by the letter q or
Q. We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as atoms
and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the charge on an electron
is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602x10-19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same
magnitude as the electron and the neutron has no charge. The presence of equal numbers of protons and
electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.
 1.1.2 Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of
charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
 t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured in
terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal,
whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal. Electron current
is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is obtained due to the
movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Two types of currents:
1) A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
2) An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies with time.

Fig. 1.2 Two common types of current: (a) direct current (DC), (b) alternative current (AC )

1.1.2 Voltage
To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. This
work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery in Fig. 1.3.
This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage 𝑣ab between two points a and b in an
electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b.

Fig. 1.3(a) Electric Current in a conductor, (b)Polarity of voltage 𝑣ab

Mathematically, it can be written as

 Where,
 W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
 Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.

The voltage 𝑣ab or simply V is measured in volts (V). Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required
to move charge from one point to the other, measured in volts (V). Voltage is denoted by the letter v or V.
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb
1.2.3 Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
 t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt
1.2.4 Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work, and is measured in joules (J).
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element is given by
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣i𝑑𝑡
The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (WH) or Kilo watt-hours (KWH
If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage, P = +vi If the current enters through the
negative polarity of the voltage, P = – vi

1.3 Types of Network Elements

We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
 Active Elements and Passive Elements
 Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
 Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements

1.3.1 Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of delivering power.
 Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the
capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
 Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb power.
That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

1.3.2 Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements

We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to obey the
property of linearity.
 Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.

 Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and
current. Examples: Transistor. BJT.

1.3.3 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements

Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction of current
flows through the network elements.
 Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same
impedance in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.

 Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.

1.3.4 Lumped and Distributed Elements

 Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions
takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
 Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for
hundreds of miles.

Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-2
 Learning Objectives
1.4 Electrical Parameters
1.5 Types of Sources
1.6 Source Transformation Technique
1.4 Electrical Parameters
1.4.1 Resistor

The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current. Hence, the
resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage. Let the
current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of resistor
along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.
According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

Fig. 1.4
Circuit diagram of Resistor
From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the
resistor is directly proportional to the applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the
resistance of resistor. Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned
in Equations 3 to 5.
1.4.2 Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when current flows
through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the current, I flowing
through it and they have linear relationship.

Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Ψ is the total magnetic flux
L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The
symbol of inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

Fig. 1.5 Circuit diagram of Inductor

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as
So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
1.4.3 Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If positive
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative
voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge. So, the amount of charge stored in the
capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have linear relationship.

Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
 Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol
of capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.

Mathematically, it can be represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as So, the capacitor stores
the energy in the form of electric field.

1.5 Types of Sources

Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify
these sources into the following two categories
 Independent Sources
 Dependent Sources

1.5.1 Independent Sources

 As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and these
are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the following two
categories −
 Independent Voltage Sources
 Independent Current Sources
1.5.1.1Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

Fig. 1.6 Circuit and V-I characteristics diagram of independent ideal voltage source

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always
equal to the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an
independent ideal voltage source is zero Ohms. Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist
practically, because there will be some internal resistance. Independent practical voltage source and its V-I
characteristics are shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the
V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.

Fig. 1.7 Circuit and V-I characteristics diagram of independent practical voltage source
1.5.1.2 Independent Current Sources
An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of the
voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in
the following figure.

Fig. 1.8 Circuit and V-I characteristics diagram of independent ideal current source
 The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to the
source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent ideal
current source is infinite ohms. Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because
there will be some internal resistance. Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are
shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the
V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source

Fig. 1.9 Circuit and V-I characteristics diagram of independent practical current source

1.5.2 Dependent Sources

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.
Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.11.
Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of dependent
sources, namely:
 A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
 A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
 A current-controlled current source (CCCS
.

Fig. 1.10 Symbols for Dependent voltage source and Dependent current source
1.6 Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We can
transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network problems. The
technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique. Following are
the two possible source transformations

 voltage source into a current source

 current source into a voltage source
1.6.1 Voltage source into a current source

The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the figure.
Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in
series with a resistor (RS). This can be converted into a practical
current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current
source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS). The value of IS
will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can
be represented as the value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS
and RS.
Mathematically, it can be represent Fig.1.11 Diagram of voltage source to current source

1.6.2 Current source into a voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the following figure.
Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be converted
into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (V S) in series with a
resistor (RS). The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS.
Mathematically, it can be represented as

Fig.1.12 Diagram of current source to voltage source

Module-1
Chapter-1
Lecture-
3
Learning Objective

1.7 Ohm’s Law

1.8 Kirchhoff’s Laws

1.7 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the voltage (V) across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through the material.

Mathematical V𝛼I

V=RI

Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the material.

The V-I relation for resistor according to Ohm’s law is depicted in Fig.1.6

Limitations of Ohm’s Law: Fig. 1.13 V-I Characteristics for resistor

 Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-linear elements like diode, transistor etc.
 Ohm’s law is not applicable for non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

1.8 Kirchhoff’s Laws

The most common and useful set of laws for solving electric circuits are the Kirchhoff’s voltage and current
laws. Several other useful relationships can be derived based on these laws. These laws are formally known as
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

1.8.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction or node is zero. The term 'algebraic' means the value of
the quantity along with its sign, positive or negative.

Alternate Statement: Sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the currents
flowing away from the junction.

Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.
m is the number of branches that are connected to a node.

Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure
  In the above figure, the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 are entering at node P. So, consider negative
signs for these three currents.
 In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 are leaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents. . Fig. 1.14 Diagram of KCL
The KCL equation at node P will be

 In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-
hand side represents the sum of leaving currents.
 In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it
enters a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign
when it enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.

1.8.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or mesh is equal to
zero. Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

Where,
 Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
 N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of
voltage sources is equal to the algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in
a loop."
Fig. 1.15 Diagram for KVL

Let us verify this statement with the help of the following example

Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, V S in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The voltage drops
across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively. Apply KVL around the loop.

Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.

Module-1 Chapter-1
 Lecture-4
Learning Objective

1.9 Series Equivalent Circuit

1.10 Parallel Equivalent Circuit

1.9 Series Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through all
these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram
It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having
resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these elements are connected in
series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this
mesh is

Fig. 1.16 Series connection diagram

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we

can replace them with an equivalent resistor. The resistance of this
equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those
multiple resistors.

Fig. 1.17 Equivalent Series connection diagram

 Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C 1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

1.9.1 Voltage Division Principle

When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the
voltage that is available across that entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with

two resistors R1 and R2. The current flowing through these elements is IS .
The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1 and V2
respectively.
Fig. 1.18 Series connection diagram
The KVL equation around the loop will be

Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

1.10 Parallel Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be maintained
across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets
divided.

Consider the following circuit diagram

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1,
R2, and R3. All these elements are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS)
is available across all these elements.

Fig. 1.19 Parallel connection diagram

The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this principal
node (P) is

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the

following figure
That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can
replace them with an equivalent resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of
sum of reciprocal of each resistance of all those multiple resistors.
Fig. 1.20 Parallel connection eqi. diagram
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C 1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

1.10.1 Some Basic Definitions

 Node: A node of a network is an equipotential surface at which two or more circuit elements are
joined.

 Junction: A junction is that point in an electric circuit where three or more elements are joined

 So, we can say that junction is always a node but node may or may not be a junction

 Branch: Each and every element itself is a branch and it is connected between the two node.

 Loop: A loop is any closed path of the electric network.

 Mesh: A mesh is the most elementary form of loop, and it cannot be further subdivided into other
loops.

 So, we can say that mesh is always a loop but loop may or may not be a mesh

Fig. 1.21 Circuit diagram

1.10.2 Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are
connected in parallel, the amount of current that flows
through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves
from the current that is entering the node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

Fig. 1.22 Two resistance connected in parallel

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the resistors R1 and R2 are I1 and I2
respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be
Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-5
Learning Objective

1.11 Nodal Analysis

1.12 Mesh Analysis

1.11 Nodal Analysis

Circuit analysis by this methods are solved by using the KCL at the junction of a particular given circuit.
Suppose, total number of junctions are j in a particular electrical circuit, then total number of node equations
N can be calculated by using the following formula:
Total number of Node Equations 𝑁 = (𝑗 − 1) (i)

Procedure of Nodal Methods of Analysis:

Step1: Draw the electrical circuit in which node voltage or branch currents has to find using this method and
calculate the total number of Node equations using the formula:
𝑁 = (𝑗 − 1) (i)
Step 2: Assume independent node voltages for each junction except reference, because at reference junction
voltage will always be zero.

Step 3: Apply KCL for each junction except reference.

Step 4: Finally solve the equations using different methods.

Example 2: Find the value of the current I flowing through the battery using ‘Node voltage’ method in the
given circuit.
Fig. 1.23 Circuit diagram for nodal analysis
1.12 Mesh Analysis:

Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits that
have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis is also
called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to
only one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference) of two
mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction.

Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh currents.

Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first and then
Ohm’s law.

Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.

Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.

Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Fig. 1.24 Circuit diagram for mesh analysis

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in clockwise
direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh current
I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh currents, I1 and I2,
flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of
two meshes.

Step
3 − In
this
case, we will get two mesh equations since there are
two meshes in the given circuit. When we write the
mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that
particular mesh as greater than all other mesh currents
of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

Fig. 1.25 Circuit diagram for mesh analysis

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same.
Hence, equate the right-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.
Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is 84 V

Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the electric
circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of meshes is less
than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.

Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is equal to the
number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-6
Learning Objective

1.13 Thevenin’s Theorem Statement

1.13 Thevenin’s Theorem Statement

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent
voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking into the terminals(with concerned branch element
removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all sources are replaced by their internal resistors at ideal
condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and current source is open circuit.

(a) (b)
Figure1.26 (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the load
resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Thevenin's equivalent circuit with
VTh connected across RTh & RL .
Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :
 The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a
& b after removing the concerned branch/element

 Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional network
mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .

 Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.

 With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc

  Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all
voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)

 Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or)load

resistance across
the load terminals
(A&B) as shown
in below fig.
Figure 1.27 Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit diagram

Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL resistor as shown in
fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

Solution:
Fig.(a)
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as shown in the
fig. (1)

Fig.(1) Fig (2)

Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now we have
to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a
series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear
across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit,
but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the 8kΩ
resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So, VTH = 12V

All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)
 Fig(3)

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (RTH)We have Reduced
the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure (3) We can see that
8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Fig(4)

Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor.
This is the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ VL= 3.75V VTH

Fig (5)

Find the Vth and Rth at 5kΩ resistor using Thevenin's theorem of the given Fig (i)

What is Thevenin Voltage?

The open-circuit voltage that appears across the two terminals is the Thevenin voltage.
Where is Thevenin’s Theorem used?
Thevenin’s theorem is used in the analysis of power systems.
Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to non-linear circuits?
No, Thevenin’s Theorem is not applicable to non-linear circuits.
Is Thevenin’s Theorem applicable to AC circuits?
Yes, Thevenin’s theorem does not apply to AC circuits consisting of linear elements like resistors, inductors,
and capacitors.

Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-7
Learning Objective
1.14 Norton’s Theorem Statement

1.14 Norton’s Theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the
current source being the short circuited current across the load terminals and the resistance being the internal
resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals.

(a) (b)
Figure1.28 (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the load
resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Norton equivalent circuit with IN
connected across RN & RL .

Main steps to find out IN and RN:

 The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a
& b after removing the concerned branch/element

 Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC
through these two terminals are found out using the
conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are
same as what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

 Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains dependent
sources or not.
  With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc

Figure 1.29Norton's
Equivalent dig.

 Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all
voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)

 Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig

Example:
Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the figure (1) below using Norton’s
equivalent circuit.

Fig(1)
Solution:
To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short the 1.5Ω load
resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current
(IN).

We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N. The 6Ω and
3Ω are then in parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
series with 2Ω.So the Total Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:-
Fig(2)
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
Fig(2)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω RT = 4Ω
IT = V / RT

IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..

 Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)

ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.

ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(4)
Fig(3) Fig(4)

All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal
voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in
fig.(4)

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (R N) We have Reduced the
12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig(4), We can see that 3Ω
resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor.

Fig(5)

i.e.:3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with) RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor.

This is shown in fig (6)

i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor. Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the terminals
A&B.
Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)
IL = 1.5A
IL = 1. 5A

Module-1 Chapter-1
Lecture-7
Learning Objectives
1.15 Superposition Theorem

1.15 Superposition Theorem:

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one current or
voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the circuit by
considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their ideal internal
resistances.
Statement: Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The total current
or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages in the required
branch with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their ideal internal resistances.
(i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)

Steps to Apply Super position Principle:

 Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source.

 Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.

 Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

 Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage
source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is given by
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A :

Fig.1

Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the

current source of 5A alone with voltage source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is
given by :
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A

Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in
Then we get : (V-20)/5 + V/3 =5
3V-60+5V=15×5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V= 16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A.

fig.(2).
Two Mark Short Question and Answer

1.What are conductors ?

Ans : Conductors are those metallic substances which have a large number of free electrons and offer a little
resistance to the flow of electricity through them.

2.What materials are generally used as conductors ?

Ans : Copper, Aluminium, Brass, Iron, Phosphor Bronze, Silver, Zinc, Tungsten, Nickel, etc.

3.What are the properties of a good conductor ?

Ans : A good conductor must have the following properties :-
i) Low resistivity,
ii) Less variation in resistance with temperature,
iii)Good mechanical strength,
iV) Less specific weight,
v) High resistance to corrosion and
vi) High ductility.

4.What are the properties of a good insulator ?

Ans : A good insulator must have the following properties :-
Non-hygroscopic i.e. it will not absorb moisture,
High resistance to corrosion,
Good mechanical strength,
High insulation resistance and
High breakdown voltage.

5.Define Ohm’s law.

Ans : Ohm’s law states that at the constant temperature, the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional
to the potential difference across the circuit

Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-7
Learning Objective
2.1 Single phase EMF generation
2.2 Some impotents terms in A.C
2.3 RMS VALUE:

2.1 Single phase EMF generation

Alternating voltage may be generated

1) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

2) By rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil

The value of voltage generated depends upon

1) No. of turns in the coil 2) field strength 3) speed

Equation of alternating voltage and current

N= No. of turns in a coil
m= Maximum flux when coil coincides with X-axis
= angular speed (rad/sec) = 2f
At =t, = flux component  to the plane
=m cos t
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction e= ω N φ m Si nωt …. (1 )
Now, e is maximum value of Em ,
when Sin = Sin 90 = 1.
i.e Em = Nm…………………………..(2)
From Eqn (1) & (2), e = Em Sin t volt Figure 2.1 Rotating axis diagram
Now, current (i) at any time in the coil is proportional to the induced emf (e) in the coil. Hence, i = Im Sin t
amp
Figure 2.2 Sinusoidal waveform diagram

2.2 Some impotents terms in A.C :

 Cycle:- A complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating quantity is known as cycle.
 Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called time T.
 Frequency: It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. f = 1/T f = PN/120
where, P= No. of poles, N= Speed in rpm
 Wave form: A curve which shows the variation of voltage and current w.r.t time or rotation.
 Peak to peak value: It is total value from positive peak to the negative peak.(2Vm)
 Instantaneous value: It is the magnitude of wave form at any specified time. V(t)
 Frequency
o Frequency is the number if cycles passed through per second. It is denoted by “f” and has
the unit cycle per second i.e. Hz (Herts).
o The number of completed cycles in 1 second is called frequency.
o It is the number of cycles of alternating quantity per second in hertz.
o Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completed in one second or the number of
cycles that occurs in one second.
f = 1/T

2.3 RMS VALUE:

•The RMS (Root Mean Square) value (also known as effective or virtual value) of of an alternating current
(AC) is the value of direct current (DC) when flowing through a circuit or resistor for the specific time period
and produces same amount of heat which produced by the alternating current (AC) when flowing through the
same circuit or resistor for a specific time.

•The value of an AC which will produce the same amount of heat while passing through in a heating
element (such as resistor) as DC produces through the element is called R.M.S Value.
•In short,The RMS Value of an Alternating Current is that when it compares to the Direct Current, then both
AC and DC current produce the same amount of heat when flowing through the same circuit for a specific
time period.

For a sinusoidal wave ,IRMS = 0.707 x IM , VRMS = 0.707 VM

• Actually, the RMS value of a sine wave is the measurement of heating effect of sine wave.
• For example, when a resistor is connected to across an AC voltage source, it produces specific amount
of heat. When the same resistor is connected across the DC voltage source as shown in. By adjusting the value
of DC voltage to get the same amount of heat generated before in AC voltage source .
• It means the RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the DC Voltage source producing the same amount
of heat generated by AC Voltage source.

•In more clear words, the domestic voltage level in US is 110V, while 220V AC in UK. This voltage
level shows the effective value of (110V or 220V R.M.S) and it shows that the home wall socket is capable to
provide the same amount of average positive power as 110V or 220V DC Voltage.

•Keep in mind that the ampere meters and volt meters connected in AC circuits
always showing
the RMS values (of current and voltage).

•For AC sine wave, RMS values of current and voltage are:

IRMS = 0.707 x IM ,
VRMS = 0.707 VM

Let’s see how to find the R.M.S values of a sine wave.

•We know that the value of sinusoidal alternating current (AC) =Im Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

•While the mean of square of instantaneous values of current in in half or complete cycle is:

The Square root of this value is

Hence, the RMS value of the current is (while putting I = Im Sin θ )

Now,
 Therefore, We may find that for a symmetrical sinusoidal current:
IRMS = Max Value of Current x 0.707

Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-8
Learning Objective
2.4 Average Value
2.5 Peak Factor:
2.6 Form Factor:

2.4 Average Value:

If we convert the alternating current (AC) sine wave into direct current (DC) sine wave through rectifiers,
then the converted value to the DC is known as the average value of that alternating current sine wave.

Fig 4 – Average Value of Voltage

Fig 2.3 Average Value of Voltage wave form

If the maximum value of alternating current is “I MAX“, then the value of converted DC current through
rectifier would be “0.637 IM” which is known as average value of the AC Sine wave (IAV).
Average Value of Current = IAV = 0.637 IM
Average Value of Voltage = EAV = 0.637 EM

The Average Value (also known as Mean Value) of an Alternating Current (AC) is expressed by that Direct
 Current (DC) which transfers across any circuit the same amount of charge as is transferred by that Alternating
Current (AC) during the same time.

Keep in mind that the average or mean value of a full sinusoidal wave is “Zero” the value of current in first
half (Positive) is equal to the the next half cycle (Negative) in the opposite direction. In other words, There are
same amount of current in the positive and negative half cycles which flows in the opposite direction, so the
average value for a complete sine wave would be “0”. That’s the reason that’s why we don’t use average value
for plating and battery charging. If an AC wave is converted into DC through a rectifier, It can be used for
electrochemical works.

Fig 2.4 Average Value of Current

In short, the average value of a sine wave taken over a complete cycle is always zero, because the positive
values (above the zero crossing) offset or neutralize the negative values (below the zero crossing.) We know
that the standard equation of alternating current is i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ
Where

Maximum value of current on sine wave = Im

Average value of current on sine wave = IAV

Instantaneous value of current on sine wave = i

The angle specified fir “i” after zero position of current = θ

Angle of half cycle = π radians

Angle of full cycle = 2π radians
(a) Average value of complete cycle:
Let i = Sin ω θ = Im Sin θ

Thus, the average value of a sinusoidal wave over a complete cycle is zero.
 (b) Average value of current over a half cycle

Average Value of Current (Half Cycle)

IAV = 0.637 VM

Similarly, the average value of voltage over a half cycle

VAV = 0.637 VM

Peak value is also known as Maximum Value, Crest Value or Amplitude. It is the maximum value of
alternating current or voltage from the “0” position no matter positive or negative half cycle in a sinusoidal
wave as shown in fig 8. Its expressed as IM and EM or VP and IM.
Equations of Peak Voltage Value is:
VP = √2 x VRMS = 1.414 VRMS

VP = VP-P/2 = 0.5 VP-P

VP = π/2 x VAV = 1.571 x VAV

In other words, It is the value of voltage or current at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks) with
respect to zero. In simple words, it is the instantaneous value with maximum intensity.

Fig 2.5 Peak or Maximum Values of Voltages

2.5 Peak Factor:
Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor.
It is the ratio between maximum value and RMS value of an alternating wave.
For a sinusoidal alternating voltage:

For a sinusoidal alternating current

2.6 Form Factor:

The ratio between RMS value and Average value of an alternating quantity (Current or Voltage) is known as

Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-9
Learning Objective
2.7 Mathematical representation of vectors
2.8 Analysis of Single Phase AC Circuit

2.7 Mathematical representation of vectors

1. Rectangular or Cartesian form : V a  jb

2. Polar form : V  V
3. Trigonometrically form : V=Vcos  j sin
4. Exponential form :  j
V= V e
Note:
 Rectangular form is best suited for addition and subtraction & polar form is best suited for
multiplication and division
 ‘j’ operator: j is a operator which rotates a vector by 90 in anticlockwise direction
j2 = -1, j= -1

2.8 Analysis of Single Phase AC Circuit

2.8.1 Purely Resistive Circuit:
 A purely resistive or a non-inductive circuit is a circuit which has inductance so small that at normal
frequency its reactance is negligible as compared to its resistance.
 Consider an ac circuit containing a non-inductive resistance of R ohms connected across a
sinusoidal voltage represented by v = V sin wt, as shown in Fig.

Fig 2.6 Purely resistive circuit

And instantaneous current may be expressed as: i = Imax sin ωt
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current, it is evident that in a pure
resistive circuit, the applied voltage and current are in phase with each other, as shown by wave and phasor
diagrams in Figs. 2.6 (b) and (c) respectively.

Power in Purely Resistive Circuit:

The instantaneous power delivered to the circuit in question is the product of the instantaneous values of
applied voltage and current .

Where V and I are the rms values of applied voltage and current respectively.
Thus for purely resistive circuits, the expression for power is the same as for dc circuits. From the power curve
for a purely resistive circuit shown in Fig. 2.6 (b) it is evident that power consumed in a pure resistive circuit is
not constant, it is fluctuating.

However, it is always positive. This is so because the instantaneous values of voltage and current are always
either positive or negative and, therefore, the product is always positive. This means that the voltage source
constantly delivers power to the circuit and the circuit consumes it.

2.8.2 Purely Inductive Circuit

An inductive circuit is a coil with or without an iron core having negligible resistance. Practically pure
inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always small resistance. However, a coil of thick copper
wire wound on a laminated iron core has negligible resistance arid is known as a choke coil.
When an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, an emf, known as self-induced emf, is
induced in the coil which opposes the applied voltage. Since coil has no resistance, at every instant applied
voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only.
From the expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a purely
inductive coil it is observed that the current lags behind the applied voltage by π/2 as shown in Fig. 4.2 (b) by
wave diagram and in Fig 4.2 (c) by phasor diagram.

Fig 2.7 Purely inductive circuit

Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-10
Learning Objective
2.8.3 Purely Capacitive Circuit
2.8.4 Resistance - Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit
2.8.5 Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor

Inductive Reactance:
ωL in the expression Imax = Vmax/ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by XL
i.e., XL = ω L If L is in henry and ω is in radians per second then XL will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Inductive Circuit:

Instantaneous power, p = v × i = Vmax sin ω t Imax sin (ωt – π/2)
Or p = – Vmax Imax sin ω t cos ω t = Vmax Imax/2 sin 2 ωt

The power measured by wattmeter is the average value of p which is zero since average of a sinusoidal
quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Hence in a purely inductive circuit power absorbed
is zero.

2.8.3 Purely Capacitive Circuit:

In Fig. 2.8 a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor. During the first quarter-cycle, the applied voltage
increases to the peak value, and the capacitor is charged to that value. The current is maximum in the
beginning of the cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value of the applied voltage, so there is a phase
difference of 90° between the applied voltage and current. During the first quarter-cycle the current flows in
the normal direction through the circuit; hence the current is positive.

In the second quarter-cycle, the voltage applied across the capacitor falls, the capacitor loses its charge, and
current flows through it against the applied voltage because the capacitor discharges into the circuit. Thus, the
current is negative during the second quarter-cycle and attains a maximum value when the applied voltage is
zero

The third and fourth quarter-cycles repeat the events of the first and second, respectively, with the difference
that the polarity of the applied voltage is reversed, and there are corresponding current changes. In other
words, an alternating current flow in the circuit because of the charging and discharging of the capacitor. As
illustrated in Figs. 2.8 (b) and (c) the current begins its cycle 90 degrees ahead of the voltage, so the current in
a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees – the opposite of the inductance current- voltage
relationship. Let an alternating voltage represented by v = V max sin ω t be applied across a capacitor of
capacitance C farads. The expression for instantaneous charge is given as: q = C Vmax sin ωt
 Fig 2.8 Purely capacitive circuit

From the equations of instantaneous applied voltage and instantaneous current flowing through capacitance, it
is observed that the current leads the applied voltage by π/2, as shown in Figs. 2.8 (b) and (c) by wave and
phasor diagrams respectively.

Capacitive Reactance:

1/ω C in the expression Imax = Vmax/1/ω C is known as capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC
i.e., XC = 1/ω C
If C is in farads and ω is in radians/s, then Xc will be in ohms.

Power in Purely Capacitive Circuit:

The energy stored by a capacitor at maximum voltage across its plates is given by the expression:

2.8.4 Resistance - Capacitance (R-C) Series Circuit:

Consider an ac circuit consisting of resistance of R ohms and capacitance of C farads connected in series, as
shown in Fig.2.9 (a).
Let the supply frequency be of f Hz and current flowing through the circuit be of I amperes (rms value).
Voltage drop across resistance, VR = I R in phase with the current.
Voltage drop across capacitance, VC = I XC lagging behind I by π/2 radians or 90°, as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b).

Fig 2.9 Resistive-capacitive circuit

The applied voltage, being equal to phasor sum of VR and VC, is given in magnitude by

The applied voltage lags behind the current by an angle ɸ:

If instantaneous voltage is represented by: v = Vmax sin ω t

Then instantaneous current will be expressed as: i = Imax sin (ω t + ɸ)

And power consumed by the circuit is given by: P = VI cos ɸ

Fig 2.10 RC Circuit Voltage and Impedance Triangle Diagram

Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-11
Learning Objective
2.8.5 Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor
2.8.4 Resistance - Inductance (R-L) Series Circuit

2.8.5 Apparent Power, True Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor:
The product of rms values of current and voltage, VI is called the apparent power and is measured in
volt- amperes or kilo-volt amperes (kVA).

The true power in an ac circuit is obtained by multiplying the apparent power by the power factor and is
expressed in watts or kilo-watts (kW).

The product of apparent power, VI and the sine of the angle between voltage and current, sin ɸ is called the
reactive power. This is also known as wattless power and is expressed in reactive volt-amperes or kilo-volt
amperes reactive(kVAR).

Fig 2.11 Power Trangle Diagram

Notes
 Power factor
Cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current, or the ratio of the resistance to impedance, or
the ratio of true power to apparent power.

The power factor can never be greater than unity. The power factor is expressed either as fraction or as a
percentage. It is usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical value of power
factor to signify whether the current lags behind or leads the voltage.

 Impedance
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow, including both
resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. Impedance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form Z=R+jX

 Admittance
Admittance is also a complex number as impedance which is having a real part, Conductance(G) and
imaginary part, Susceptance (B).(it is negative for capacitive susceptance and positive for inductive
susceptance)

 Susceptance
Susceptance (symbolized B) is an expression of the ease with which alternating current (AC) passes through a
capacitance or inductance.

2.8.4 Resistance - Inductance (R-L) Series Circuit:

(a)
(b) (c)

Fig 2.11 RL (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasore Diagram (c) Waveform Diagram

A circuit that contains a resistance R connected in series with the coil having an inductance L is known as an
RL Series Circuit. When a supply voltage(V ) is applied across the current element I flowing in the circuit. IL
and IR are the currents flowing in the inductor and resistor, but the current flowing across both the elements
are the same as they are said to be connected in the series connection with each other.

The diagram of the RL Series Circuit is as shown avobe.

Where
• VR is the voltage across resistor R

• VL is the voltage across inductor L

• V(t) is the total voltage across the circuit

In the above simple RL Series circuit where the resistor, R and the inductor, L are combined in series
combination with the voltage source having V volts. The current flowing in the whole circuit is I amps and the
current through the resistor and the inductor is IR and IL. Since both the resistance as well as the inductor are
connected in the series combination, the current in both of the elements of the circuit remains to be the same.

Here, IL = IR = I. Consider VL and VR to be the voltage drops across the inductor and resistor.
• By the application of Kirchhoff voltage law (sum of the voltage drops must be the same across the
circuit to apply the voltage) to this circuit we get, V(t) = VR + VL

Thus, this is the equation for the voltage across the RL series circuit.
Since the value of frequency and inductor are known, so firstly calculate the value of inductive reactance XL:
XL = 2πfL ohms.

From the value of XL and R, calculate the total impedance of the circuit which is given by

Calculate the total phase angle for the circuit θ = tan – 1(XL/ R).

Use Ohm’s Law and find the value of the total current: I = V/Z amp.

Calculate the voltages across resistor R and inductor L by using Ohm’s Law. Since the resistor and the
inductor are connected in series, so current in them remains the same.

Power in an RL Circuit
In series RL circuit, some energy is dissipated by the resistor and some energy is alternately stored and
returned by the inductor

1. The instantaneous power deliver by voltage source V is P = VI (watts).

2. Power dissipated by the resistor in the form of heat, P = I2R (watts).
3. The rate at which energy is stored in inductor,

The resistance is independent of frequency; so, if frequency

increases or decreases, resistance remains constant. The formula for
inductive reactance is XL = 2πfL.

So, if frequency increases, inductive reactance XL also increases and if inductive reactance increases, total
impedance of circuit also increases and this leads to variation in phase angle θ with frequency.

So, in series RL circuit if frequency increases,

1. Inductive reactance also increases as it is directly proportional to frequency.
2. Total impedance Z increases
3. Phase angle θ increases.
4. Resistance remains constant.
Module-2 Chapter-2
Lecture-12
Learning Objective
2.8.5 R-L-C Series Circuit:
2.8.6 Module question answer discussion

2.8.5 R-L-C Series Circuit:

(a) (b)

Fig 2.12 RLC (a) Circuit Diagram (b) Phasore Diagram

When a pure resistance of R ohms, a pure inductance of L Henry and a pure capacitance of C farads are
connected together in series combination with each other then RLC Series Circuit is formed. As all the three
elements are connected in series so, the current flowing through each element of the circuit will be the same as
the total current I flowing in the circuit.
When the AC voltage is applied through the RLC Series circuit the resulting current I flows through the
circuit, and thus the voltage across each element will be:

• VR = IR that is the voltage across the resistance R and is in phase with the current I.
• VL = IXL that is the voltage across the inductance L and it leads the current I by an angle of 90
degrees.
• VC = IXC that is the voltage across capacitor C and it lags the current I by an angle of 90 degrees.

The phasor diagram of the RLC series circuit when the circuit is acting as an inductive circuit that means
(VL>VC) is shown below and if (VL< VC) the circuit will behave as a capacitive circuit.
Where,

It is the total opposition offered to the flow of current by an RLC Circuit and is known as Impedance of the
circuit.

Power in RLC Series Circuit

The product of voltage and current is defined as power.

Where cosϕ is the power factor of the circuit and is expressed as

2.8.6 Module question answer discussion

Short Type Question

1. State Thevenins theorem.

It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single current source VTH, in series with single
impedance Zth

2. State Norton’s theorem

It states that any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a single current source, in parallel with single
impedance Zth.

3. Define Real power.

The actual power consumed in an AC circuits is called real power. And P=EI cosθ

4. Define Reactive power.

The power consumed by the pure reactance (Xl or Xc) in an AC circuit is called reactive power. The unit is
VAR. and Q=EI sinθ

5. Define Apparent power and Power factor.

The Apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current. S = Vrms Irms
The Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the
load impedance. And Power factor = cos φ
The pf is lagging if the current lags voltage (inductive load) and is leading when the current leads voltage
(capacitive load).

6. What is meant by Complex power?

Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current
phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real power, P and its imaginary part is reactive power, Q. and S
= P + jQ

7. Define Impedance.
Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow, including both
resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. Impedance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter “Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form Z=R+jX

8. What is the power factor of purely resistance circuit , capacitance circuit, inductance circuit.
Power factor of purely resistance circuit is one
Power factor of purely inductance circuit is zero
Power factor of purely capacitance circuit is zero

9. What is the difference between power and energy?

Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform work. In the context of electric circuits,
energy (w) is related to power by the following relationship P = vi =dw/dt
So the difference is that power is the rate of change of energy.

10. What do you mean by Phasors?

Addition of two out-of-phase sinusoidal signals is rather complicated in the time domain. An example could be
the sum of voltages across a series connection of a resistor and an inductor. Phasors simplify this analysis by
considering only the amplitude and phase components of the sine wave. Moreover, they can be solved using
complex algebra or treated vectorially using a vector diagram.

11. Define Super node?

A super node exists when an ideal voltage source appears between any two nodes of an electric circuit. The
usual way to solve this is to write KCL equations for both nodes and simply add them together into one
equation ignoring the voltage source in question. However, this would mean one less equation than the number
of variables (node voltages) present in the circuit. A constraint equation can be easily specified given by the
magnitude of the ideal voltage source present between the nodes and the respective node voltages. The
following example will help clarify this scenario.

12. What do you mean by dependent and independent voltage sources?

In general, there are two main types of DC sources
Independent (Voltage and Current) Sources
Dependent (Voltage and Current) Sources
An independent source produces its own voltage and current through some chemical reaction and does not
depend on any other voltage or current variable in the circuit. The output of a dependent source, on the other
hand, is subject to a certain parameter (voltage or current) change in a circuit element. Herein, the discussion
shall be confined to independent sources only.

13. What does the term Super-mesh means?

A super-mesh exists when an ideal current source appears between two meshes of an electric circuit. In such a
situation, like super-node, mesh equations are written for the meshes involved and added giving a single
equation. Again, there would be one less equation than the number of variables (mesh currents) and hence a
constraint equation is needed. This would be based on the magnitude of the ideal current source present
between the two meshes and their mesh currents.

14..Differentiate between Real and Apparent Power?

Answer: It is important to highlight that in AC circuits, the product of voltage and current yields the apparent
power which is measured in volt-amperes or VA
KW which is also written ad Kilo-Watt is the real power that is actually converted to the useful work.
KVAR is also termed as Kilo-Volt Reactive this power is used for magnetic field excitation and flows back
and forth between source and load.

15. What is Current Divider Rule ?

Current divider rule provides a useful relationship for determining the current through individual circuit
elements that are connected in parallel.

16..What is Voltage Divider Rule?

Voltage divider rule provides a useful formula to determine the voltage across any resistor when two or more
resistors are connected in series with a voltage source.

Long Type Question

1. Draw the phasor diagram and explain how the RL circuit behave ?
2. Draw the phasor diagram and explain how the RC circuit behave ?
3. Draw the phasor diagram and explain how the RLC circuit behave ?
4. Derive the average and RMS
value of alternating wave
form?
5. What are the different types of
AC power and explain it by using
power triangle?
6. State and explain the
Thevenin's theorem?
7. State and explain the Norton's theorem?
8. State and explain the Superposition theorem?
9. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.13 calculate the current in the 10 ohm resistance. Using Thevenin’s theorem
only.

Fig. 2.13 Fig. 2.14

10. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14 calculate the current in the 5 ohm resistance. Using Norton’s theorem.

11. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.14, calculate the current in the 5 ohm resistance. Using Superposition
theorem.

12. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.13 calculate the current in the 2 ohm resistance. Using KVL analysis.

Module-2 Chapter-3

Learning Objective Lecture-13

3.1 Three phase EMF Generation

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

Three phase EMF Generation:-

If the 3-coil windings W1, W2 and W3 arranged at 120 apart from each other onthe same axis are rotated,
then the emf induced in each of them will have a phasedifference of 120. In other words if the emf (or
current) in one winding (w1) has aphase of 0, then the second winding (w 2) has a phase of 120 and the
third (w3)hasaphaseof240.
Star(Y) connection:-
Phasor diagram:-

Here,ER,EY,EBarephasevoltages andVRY,VYB,VBRareline voltages

VRY E2E2 2EREY cos60
R Y

 E2E2 2ERER cos60

R R

 3ER

Hence,

 Linevoltage=3x phasevoltage
 Linecurrent=phasecurrent
 Linevoltagesarealso120apart
 Linevoltageare30aheadofrespectivephasevoltages
 Theanglebetweenlinevoltageandlinecurrentis(30+)

Power: Totalpower=3x phasepower

=3 xVph xIphxcos
=3VLILcos
istheanglebetweenphasevoltageandcurrent

Example: A balanced star connected load of (8+j6) per phase is connectedto a balanced 3-phase
400 V supply. Find the line current, power factor,powerand totalvolt-amperes.

Ans.
Zph  10
8262
400
V ph 
3
231V

Vph 231
I ph = = =23.1A
Z ph 10
(i)I L =I ph =23.1A
Rph 8
(ii)p.f=cosΦ= = =0.8(lag)
Z ph 10
(iii) PowerP= 3
VLI L cosΦ

= 3×400×23.1×0.8
2
=12,800W[Also,P=3I R =3(23.1) 2×8=12,800W]
ph
(iv) Totalvolt-amperes,
S= 3 VLI L = 3×400×23.1=16,000 VA

Delta-connection:
 Fig.PhasorDiagram

I L =I R -IB
2 2
IR +I B +2I R I B cos60
o
= I R 2+I R +2I
2
R IRcos60
o
IL=
= 3I R

Hence,
 Linecurrent=3phasecurrent
 Linevoltage=phasevoltage
 Linecurrentsarealso120apart
 Linecurrentsare30behindtherespectivephasecurrents
 Angle between line current and line voltage is 30+Power:

Totalpower=3 x phasepower

=3 xVphIphcos

=3 x VLx IL/3 x cos

= 3VLILcos

Note: For both star and delta system:

Active & True power = 3 LIL cos

Reactive power =3 VL IL sin

Apparent power=3VLIL
 Module-2 Chapter-3

Learning Objective Lecture-14

3.2 Three Phase Power

Three Phase Power

1.Determinethetotalpowerdissipatedbythree20Ωresistorswhenconnected
(a)instarand (b) indeltato a440V,3-phasesupply.[(a)9.68kW(b)29.04kW]

2. 10 A balanced delta-connected load has a line voltage of 400 V, a line currentof 8 A and
a lagging power factor of 0.94. Draw a complete phasor diagram of the load. What is the total
power dissipated by the load?[5.21 kW]

3. Three inductive loads, each of resistance 4 Ω and reactance 9 Ω are connectedin

delta.Whenconnectedtoa3-phase supply the loadsconsume1.2 kW. Calculate(a) the power factor
of the load, (b) the phase current, (c) the line currentand (d)thesupplyvoltage.[(a)0.406 (b)10
A(c)17.32 A(d)98.49 V]

4. The input voltage, current and power to a motor is measured as 415 V, 16.4
Aand6kWrespectively.Determinethepowerfactorofthesystem.[0.509]

5. A 440 V, 3-phase a.c. motor has a power output of 11.25 kW and operates at apower
factor of 0.8 lagging and with an efficiency of 84%. If the motor is deltaconnected determine (a)
the power input, (b) the line current and (c) the phasecurrent.[(a)13.39 kW(b)21.96 A(c)12.68A]

6. Two wattmeters are connected to measure the input power to a balanced 3-

phaseload.Ifthewattmeterreadingsare9.3kWand5.4kWdetermine(a)thetotaloutputpower,and(b)th
eloadpowerfactor.[(a)14.7 kW(b)0.909]
 7. 8 kW is found by the two-wattmeter method to be the power input to a 3-phase motor.
Determine the reading of each wattmeter if the power factor of thesystemis 0.85.[5.431
kW,2.569 kW]

8. Threesimilarcoils,eachhavingaresistanceof4.0Ωandaninductivereactance of 3.46 Ω are

connected (a) in star and (b) in delta across a 400 V, 3-
phasesupply.Calculateforeachconnectionthereadingsoneachoftwowattmeters connected to
measure the power by the two-wattmeter method.

9. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a delta connected load, eachphase of

which has a resistance of 15 Ω and inductive reactance 20 Ω. If the linevoltage is 400 V,
calculate (a) the current supplied by the alternator and (b) theoutput power and kVA rating of the
alternator, neglecting any losses in the linebetweenthealternatorand the load.
[(a)27.71A(b)11.52kW, 19.2 kVA]

10. Eachphaseofadelta-connectedloadcomprisesaresistanceof40Ωanda40 µF capacitor in

series. Determine, when connected to a 415 V, 50 Hz, 3-phasesupply (a) the phase current,

(b) the line current, (c) the total power dissipated [(a)4.66 A(b)8.07 A(c)2.605 kW(d)5.80 kVA]

11. Three 24 µF capacitors are connected in star across a 400 V, 50 Hz, 3-phasesupply.
What value of capacitance must be connected in delta in order to take the same line current?
[8µF]
 Module-3 Chapter-4

Learning Objective Lecture-15

4.1 Magnetic Circuits:

Magnetic Circuits:

The Magnetic Field and Faraday’s Law:

Magnetic fields are generated by electric charge in motion, and their effect is measured by the
force they exertion moving charge. As you may recall from previous physics courses, the vector
force f exerted on a charge of q moving a velocity united presence of a magnetic field with flux
density B is given by
f= qu×B

Where the symbol × denotes the (vector) cross product. If the charge is moving at avelocity u in
a direction that makes an angle θ with the magnetic field, then the magnitude of the force is
given by f= qu Bsin θ
And the direction of this force is at right angles with the plane formed by the

Themagneticfluxφisthendefinedastheintegralofthefluxdensityoversomesurfacearea.

φ =
A
B dA in webers B.A

In practical applications, the size of the voltages induced by the changing magnetic
field can be significantly increased if the conducting wire is coiled many times around, so as
to multiply the area crossed by the magnetic flux lines many times over .For an N-turn coil
with cross-sectional area A,
 When N-turn coil linking a certain amount of magnetic flux, then the flux linkage

 N
d
e 
dt

The relation between flux linkage and current is gven byLi

So that the effect of a time-varying current was to induce transformer voltage
across an induct or coil, according to the expression inductance
whichmeasuresthevoltageinducedinacircuitbymagneticfieldgeneratedbyacurrent flowing in the same
circuit.
Self and mutual Inductance:

The figure shown above depicts pair of coils one of which, L1 is excited by a

Current i1and therefore develops a magnetic field and are sultinginducedvoltagev1.

Generated by currenti1 aroundL1 because of its close proximity the first coil. The
magnetic coupling between the coils established by virtue of their proximity isdescribed by aquantity
calledmutual inductanceand defined by the symbol M. The mutual inductance is defined by the
equation.
The dots shown in the two drawings indicate the polarity of the coupling between the coils. If the
dots are at the same end of the coils, the voltage induced in coil 2 by a current in coil 1 has the
same polarity as the voltage induced by the same current in coil 1; otherwise, the voltages are in
opposition, as shown in the lower part of Figure. Thus, the presence of such dots indicates that
magnetic coupling is present between two coils. It should also be pointed out that if a current
(and therefore a magnetic field) were present in the second coil, an additional voltage
Difference between an Electric circuit and a magnetic circuit
Electric Circuit Magnetic circuit

The closed path for electric current is called as The closed path for magnetic flux is called a Magnetic
Electric Circuit Circuit

Current= emf/Resistance Emf=voltage Flux= MMF/Reluctance

Unit of current (I) is measured in amperes Unit of flux (ϕ) is measured in weber (wb)

Electromotive force is the driving force and is Magnetomotive force is the driving force and is
measured in Volts(V). Emf= ∫ E. dl measured in Ampere Turns (AT) mmf=∫ H. dl

The electric line of flux is not closed, they start Magnetic lines of flux are closed lines They flow from N
from a positive charge and end on a negative pole to S pole externally while S pole to N pole
charge. internally.

Reluctance opposes the flow of magnetic flux S=

l/µo µr and measured in Ω S=Reluctance l=length of
magnetic path in meters µo =permeability of free space
Resistance opposes the flow of the current (vacuum) = 4 π × 10-7 henry/meter µr= relative
R=ρ*l/a and measured in (AT/wb) R=Resistance permeability of a magnetic material A= cross sectional
ρ = Resistivity l= Length of wire a=Area of area of square meters Reluctance(S)=mmf/Flux =
cross-section F/Ø

Conductance = 1/Resistance Permeance= 1/Reluctance

Conductivity (σ) The property of a component Permeability (μ) Ratio of the magnetic induction to the
that describes how the electric current in the magnetic intensity. It is used to measure a material’s
component is related to the electrical potential resistance to the magnetic field or measure the degree to
difference (voltage) across it. which a magnetic field can penetrate through a material.

Current density (δ)=l/a I=current a= Area of

cross-section Flux density(B)= Ø/a =Flux, a= Area of cross-section

Electrical Field intensity(E) E= emf/Q emf= Magnetic Field Intensity(H) H=mmf/l MMF
Electromotive force, Q=charges =Magnetomotive force I=Average length of the path (m)
Electromotive force Quantity tends to cause a
movement of charges around a circuit, the
direction is that of movement of positive charges. Magnetomotive force Along any path, the line integral
Emf is measured by the amount of energy of the magnetic field strength along that path, If the path
developed by transfer of unit positive is closed the line integral is equal to the total
charge magnetizing current in ampere-turns.

Mmf drop = ϕS Voltage drop=IR

In an electric circuit, electric current flows in the In a magnetic circuit, molecular poles are aligned, the
form of electrons. flux doesn’t flow but sets up in the magnetic circuit.

In a series circuit Current in all elements is the In a series circuit, the Same flux passes through all
same, but voltage or emf is different across each elements in series, and the sum of MMF’s across the
element in the circuit. elements is equal to the applied MMF.

In a parallel circuit Voltage across all branches is In a parallel circuit, the MMF of each branch is the same
the same and equal to applied voltage whereas the and equal to the applied MMF. Flux in each branch is
current in the branches is different. different and their sum equals the resultant flux.

When current flows, the energy is spent Energy is needed only to create the flux but not to
continuously maintain it.

Number of Electric Insulators, Air is a very good There is no magnetic insulator, Flux can be set up even
insulator and current can’t pass through it in the air.

Kirchhoff current law and voltage law is Kirchhoff MMF law and flux law are applicable to the
applicable to the electric circuit magnetic flux.

Representation of electric circuit Representation of magnetic circuit

 Module-3 Chapter-4

Learning Objective Lecture-16

4.2 Ampere’sLaw:

Ampere’sLaw:

Ampere’s law forms a counter part to Faraday’s law. Both the laws explains therelationship
between electricity andmagnetism.Ampere’slaw statesthatthemagnetic field intensity H in the
vicinity of a conductor is related to the currentcarried by the conductor; thus Ampère’s law
establishes a dual relationship withFaraday’slaw.

In the previous section, we described the magnetic field in terms of its flux
densityBandfluxφ.ToexplainAmpère’slawandthebehaviourofmagneticmaterials,weneed to define a
relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the fluxdensityB.Thesequantities arerelated by
B=µH=µrµ0HWb/m2orT
wheretheparameterµisascalarconstantforaparticularphysicalmediumwhichisthepermeabilityofth
emedium.Thepermeabilityofamaterialcanbefactoredas the product of the permeability of
freespaceµ0 = 4π×10−7 H/m, and the relativepermeability µr, which varies greatly according to
the medium.7 H/m, and
therelativepermeabilityµrwhichvariesgreatlyaccordingtothemedium.Forexample, for air and for
most electrical conductors and insulators, µ r is equal to 1.For ferromagnetic materials, µ r can take
values in the hundreds or thousands.
Thesizeofµrrepresentsameasureofthemagneticpropertiesofthematerial.
Ampère’slawstatesthattheintegralofthevectormagneticfieldintensity Harounda closed pathis

equaltothetotalcurrentlinked bytheclosed path i:

□H.dl i

where dl is an increment in the direction of the closed path. If the path is in thesame direction as
the direction of the magnetic field,
we can use scalar quantities tostatethat

Hdl i
 Direction of the magnetic field intensity H is determined by the familiar right-handrule. This rule
states that if the direction of current i points in the direction of thethumb of one’s right hand, the
resulting magnetic field encircles the conductor inthedirection
inwhichtheotherfourfingerswouldencircleit.

Therefore for the closed-path integral becomes equal to H · 2πr, since the path andthe magnetic
field are in the same direction, andthe magnitude of the magneticfieldintensityis given by

i
H

2r

What is meant by Magnetic Flux?

The Entire quantity of magnetic lines surrounding a magnet is called Magnetic flux. Flux in a magnetic circuit
can be directly compared to current in an electric circuit

What is meant by Magnetic Flux Density?

The number of lines of force per unit area is called flux density and is measured in line per square Inch or lines
per square centimeter

B=Flux.

ɸ= Total number of lines of Flux.

A=cross sectional area of the magnetic Circuit. B = ɸ/A

 Module-3 Chapter-4

Learning Objective Lecture-17

4.3 Magnetic circuit:

Magnetic circuit:

Toanalysetheoperationofelectromagneticdevicestheapproximationistakenthatameanpathforthema
gneticfluxandthatthecorrespondingmeanfluxdensity is approximately constant over the cross-
sectional area of the magneticstructure.Whenacoiliswoundaroundacorewithcross-
sectionalareaAwill
have flux density as
directionofthefluxlines.Thefieldintensityobtainedtobe

mmfofthecoilcanberepresentedbytheproductofmagneticfieldintensityandthelength

ofthemagneticfield

In many magnetic structures and in rotating machines air gaps are very common.The effect of air

gap is to break the continuity of the high-permeability path for theflux, adding a high reluctance

component to the equivalent circuit. The situation isanalogous to adding a very large series

resistance to a series electric circuit.

In is case the basic concept of reluctance still applies, although now two different permeabilities

must be taken into account.

Hence reluctance of the air gap is lg

R g
A 0 g

Where
Rg=reluctanceofairgap

0=permeability

Ag=cross-sectionalareaof theair-gapinthegivenstructure

lg= lengthofair gap Agisdifferentfromtheothercross-sectionalareaofthestructurebecauseofthe

phenomenon known as Fringing as they cross an air gap.
 Module-3 Chapter-4

Learning Objective Lecture-18

4.4 Magnetic materials and B-H curves

Magnetic materials and B-H curves:

The relationship between the magnetic flux density B and the associated
fieldintensityHisexpressed byBH,where= permeabilityof magneticmaterial.

From the above expression flux density increases in proportion to field intensityuptoa
saturationpointreaches. But in generalallmagnetic materialshowsanonlinear B-H curve,
depending upon the value of permeability, which can bebetter explained by eddy currents and
hysteresis. Eddy current caused by any time-varying flux in the core material. It will induce a
voltage , and therefore current. The induced voltage will caused by current, which depends on
the resistivity of the core. Hysteres is another loss mechanism in magnetic materials. Its complex
behaviour related to the magnetization properties of the material whichcanbeshown as

Here the core has been energized for some time ,with a field intensity of H 1 A-turns/m. as the
current decreases curve follow from the point α to the point β. Atthis point mmf is zero to bring
the flux density to zero ,mmf is further deceaseduntil the field intensity reaches to –H 0. As mmf
value is made more negative , thecurve eventually reaches to the pointα’. The excitation current
is now increased,the magnetization curve will follow the path α’ = β’ = γ’= α, and finally returns
totheoriginalpointofB-Hcurve.

Hysteresis loss:-During the complete cycle, the magnets within the magneticmaterial try to align
first in one way and then in reverse way. The tendency to turnaround of elementary magnets give
rise to mechanical stresses in the
magneticmaterial,whichinturnproducesheatwhichisawasteformofenergy.The
dissipitatedheatenergyduringthecycleofmagnetizationisgivenbytheareawithinthehysteresis
loopandis called hysteresisloss.
 Module-3 Chapter-4

Learning Objective Lecture-19

4.5 Permeability:

Permeability: Every substance possesses a certain power of conducting

magneticlinesofforce(ironisbetterconductorformagneticlinesofforcethanair).Permeability of a
material is its conducting power for magnetic lines of force. It istheratioofflux density(B)
producedin amaterialtothemagneticfieldstrengthi.e
= B/H

Absolute & Relative Permeability: For measuring relative permeability, vaccum or free space is
chosen as the reference medium.

Absolutepermeability 0=4x 10-7H/m

Now, take anymediumotherthanvaccum.Ifitsrelativepermeabilityascomparedtovaccumis r,then =0r

Inotherwords,rindicatestheextenttowhichthegivenmaterialisabetterconductorofmagneticfluxthan
air.

Reluctance:(S)isameasureoftheoppositionofferedbyamagneticcircuittothesettingupof
flux.S=MMF/, S=l/ 0rA[unit-AT/wb]

Example:Thehysteresisloopofanironringwasfoundtohaveanareaof10cm2onascaleof1cm=1000AT
/m(X-axis);1cm=0.2wb/m2(Y-axis).
The ring has ameanlengthof100cmandcross-sectionalarea of 5cm. Compute the hysteresis loss in
watts for a frequency of 50Hz.

Ans. Area ofhysteresisloop =10 x0.2x 1000 AT-wb/m3= 2000 AT-wb/m3

Hysteresisloss=2000 x50=10,0000J/m3/s[f=50 cycle/s]

Volume=1 x 5 x10-4m3

Hysteresis loss=100000x1 x5 x10-4 W= 50 W

 Figure:1 Figure:2

A certain magnetic circuit may be regarded as consisting of three parts, A,

Band C in series, each one of which has a uniform cross-sectional area. Part A has
alengthof300mmandacross-
sectionalareaof450mm2.PartBhasalengthof120mmandacrosssectionalareaof300mm
2.PartCisanairgap1.0mminlength and of cross-sectional area 350 mm2. Neglecting
magnetic leakage andfringing, determine the m.m.f. necessary to produce a flux of
0.35 mWb in theairgap.Themagneticcharacteristicforparts AandBis givenby:
H(A/m) 40056080012801800B(T)0.70.851.01.151.25 [1100 A]

A magnetic circuit made of silicon steel is arranged as in Fig. 2. The

centrelimb has a cross-sectional area of 800 mm2 and each of the side limbs has
acrosssectionalareaof500mm2.Calculatethem.m.f.requiredtoproduceafluxof
1mWbinthecentrelimb,assumingthemagneticleakagetobenegligible.[1015A]
A magnetic core made of mild steel has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3.
Thereis an airgap 1.2 mm long in one side limb and a coil of 400 turns is wound on
thecentre limb. The cross-sectional area of the centre limb is 1600 mm2 and that
ofeach side limb is 1000 mm2. Calculate the exciting current required to produce
aflux of 1000 µWb in the airgap. Neglect any magnetic leakage and fringing.
[5.85A]
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-20

5.1 TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER
One of the more common magnetic structures in everyday applications is thetransformer. An ideal
transformer is a device that can step an AC voltage up ordown by a fixed ratio, with a
corresponding decrease and increase in current. Asimplemagnetictransformeris shown asbelow

Here coil L1 represents the input side of the transformer or primary winding of it,where as the coil L 2is
the output coil or secondary winding ; both winding
arewoundaroundthesamemagneticstructure.Theoperationofatransformerrequiresatime-
varyingcurrent;ifatime-varyingvoltageisappliedtotheprimary side of the transformer, a corresponding
current will flow in L1;this current acts asan mmf and causes a (time-varying) flux in the structure.
But the existence of achanging flux will induce an emf across the secondary coil! Without theneed for
adirect electrical connection ,the transformer can couple a source voltage at theprimary to the load; the
coupling occurs by means of the magnetic field acting onboth coils. Thus, a transformer operates by
converting electric energy to magnetic,and then back to electric energy.
When a time-varying voltage source is connectedto the input side, then by Faraday’s law, a
corresponding time-varying flux dφ/dt isestablishedin coil L1:
Definition:

 It is a static device used for the purpose of transferring electrical energy from one circuit
to another at same frequency but at different voltage (or current or both ).
 It is used for raising or lowering the voltage of an a.c. supply with Corresponding
decrease or increase in current.
.

Thewindingconnectedtothea.c.sourceiscalledprimarywindingandoneconnectedtotheloadis called
secondary winding.

V1 is applied to primary. Depending upon N1& N2, E2 is induced in the secondary.This E2 causes
a secondary current I2.consequently terminal voltage V2 appears across the load.

If V1>V2,itis called a step up transformer.

If V1<V2,itis called a step down transformer.

Two types-core type and shell type

Core type: In core type the windings urrounds the steel core. The core consists of two vertical
logs limbs with 2 horizontal section called yokes.
To keep the leakage flux to a minimum , half of each winding is placed on each lagof core. The
low voltage winding is placed adjacent to the steel core and
highvoltagewindingisplacedoutsidetoreducetheinsulatingmaterialrequired.

Shell type: In shell type transformer, steel core surrounds windings.LV and HV windings are
wound over central lump.

Core type is used for high voltage and shell type is used for low voltage.
PRINCIPLEOFOPERATION

Itisbasedontheprincipleofmutualinductioni.e.whenevertheamountofmagneticfluxlinkedwith
thecoil charges,andemfisinducedin thecoil.

Whenever alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding,I0 (excitingcurrent) flows

which sets up ∅ in magnetic core. This flux links with both windingsand E 1&E2areinduced. From
Lenz’s law,E1=-V1
IfN2>N1then E2>E1and it becomesstepup transformer

IfN2<N1then E2<E1and itbecomes stepdown transformerHereE2is in

phaseoppositeto V1.

Ifthe secondary is open circuited, then the terminal voltage V2at secondary isequal inmagnitude and
in phase with the inducedemf atthe secondary, i.e. E2=V2..
Ideal Transformer

An imaginary transformer which has the following properties

1- Primary and secondary winding resistance are negligible, hence no resistive voltage drop.

2- Leakage flux and leakage inductance are zero. The reactive voltage drop in the windings.

3- powertransformerefficiencyis100%i.e.therearenohysteresisloss,eddy current loss or heat loss due

to resistance.

4- permeabilityofthecoreisinfinitesothatitrequireszerommftocreatefluxinthecore .

Power In the primary= power in the secondary .E1I1=E2I2

I1 /I2=E2/E1= N2/N1=K=V2 /V1

1–whentransferringresistanceorreactancefromprimarytosecondary, multiply it by K2

2- whentransferringresistanceorreactancefromsecondarytoprimary,divideitbyK2

3- Transferringvoltageorcurrent,onlyKisused.
a) AnyvoltageVinprimarybecomes KVin secondary.
b) AnyvoltageVinsecondarybecomesV/Kinprimary.
c) AnycurrentIinprimarybecomesI/Kinsecondary.
d) AnycurrentIinsecondarybecomesKIinprimary.
e) AresistanceRinprimaryK2Rinsecondary.
f) AresistanceRinsecondarybecomes R/K2.
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-21

5.2 EMF Equation:

EMF Equation:

φ=φ m sinwt
dφ d
e1=-N 1 =-N 1  φmsinwt 
dt dt
e1=-N 1 wφmcoswt=-N 1 ×2πfφ mcoswt

e=N
1
2πfφ
1 m 
sin wt-90 o  E m1
=2πfNφ 1 m

R.M.SvalueofEis:E= Em1 2πfN 1 φ m
= =4.44fNφ
2 2
E2=4.44fN 2φm

Voltage Transformation Ratio:

E2 N2

E1 N1

• N2/N1is known as voltage transformation ratio and represented by K.

• IfN2>N1orK>1then step up transformer
If N1>N2 or K<1 then step down transformer
• A transformer is said to be on no load if its primary winding is connected to AC
supply and secondary is open. i.e secondary current is zero
• When an A.C voltage is applied to primary, a small current I0 flows inprimary.
• I0=N0-loadcurrent
• Im = magnetizing current. It magnetizes the core and sets flux. So, in phase with
it.
• Imiscalledthereactiveorwattless componentofno loadcurrent

• Iw produces eddy current and hysteresis losses in the core and very
smallcopper loss inprimary. It is called active or wattful component of no
loadcurrent.
• Iwis inphasewith theappliedvoltage(V1)at theprimary.

• No load current I0 is small. So drops in R1 and X1 on primary side are

verysmall.At noload V1=E1.
• No loadprimarycopper loss (I02R1) is very small. So, no load primary input

Power is equal to iron loss

Iw=I0 cosφ0, Im =I0sinφ0 , I0 Im

2
+I2
Iw
=Noloadpowerfactor, cosφ = w
0
I0
No load input power (active power)=V1I0cosφ0,
No load reactive power=V1I0sinφ0
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-22

5.2 Equivalent Circuit of a loaded transformer:

Equivalent Circuit of a loaded transformer:

Example: The primary winding of a single phase transformer is connected to a 220V, 50 Hz

supply. The secondary winding has 2000 turns. If the maximum value
ofthecorefluxis0.003wb,determinei)thenumberofturns ontheprimarywinding
ii) the secondary induced voltageAns.

E1=220V,f=50Hz
N2=2000,φ m=0.003w b
i) E1=4.44fφ mN1
E1
N = = 220
=330
1
4.44fφ m 4.44×50×0.003
ii)E2=4.44fφ mN2 =4.44×50×0.003×2000=1332
 Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-23

5.3 Introduction to electric machines

Introduction To Electric Machines

The operation of the three major classes of electric machines—DC, synchronous,and induction—
first is described as intuitively as possible. The second part of thechapter is devoted to a
discussion of the applications and selection criteria for thedifferent classes of machines. The
emphasis of this chapter is on explaining theproperties of each type of machine, with its
advantages and disadvantages with regardtoother types ;and on classifying these machines in
terms of the irperformance characteristics and preferred fieldof application.

Rotating Electric Machines

The range of sizes and power ratings and the different physical features of
rotatingmachinesaresuchthatthetaskofexplainingtheoperationofrotatingmachinesinasinglechaptermay
appearformidableatfirst.Somefeaturesofrotatingmachines, however, are common to all such devices.
This introductory section isaimed at explaining the common properties of all rotating electric
machines. Webegin our discussion with reference to Figure 14.1, in which a hypothetical
rotatingmachine is depicted in a cross-sectional view. In the figure, a box with a
crossinscribedinitindicatescurrentflowingintothepage,whileadotrepresentscurrentoutoftheplaneofthep
age.
In Figure 14.1, we identify a stator, of cylindrical shape, and a rotor, which, as
thenameindicates,rotatesinsidethestator,separatedfromthelatterbymeansofanair gap. The rotor and
stator each consist of a magnetic core, some electricalinsulation, and the windings necessary to
establish a magnetic flux (unless this iscreated by a permanent magnet). The rotor is mounted
ona bearing-supportedshaft, which can be connected to mechanical loads (if the machine is a
motor) or toa prime mover (if the machine is a generator) by means of belts, pulleys, chains,
orother mechanical couplings. The windings carry the electric currents that generatethe magnetic
fields and flow to the electrical loads, and also provide the closedloopsin which voltages
willbeinduced.

Basic Classification Of Electric Machines

Animmediatedistinctioncanbemadebetweendifferenttypesofwindingscharacterizedbythenatureofthecu
rrenttheycarry.If the current serves the sole purpose of providing a magnetic field and is independent
of the load, it is called amagnetizing,or excitation, current, and the winding is termeda field winding.
Field currents are nearly always direct current (DC) and are of relatively
lowpower,sincetheironlypurposeistomagnetizethecore(recalltheimportantroleofhigh-permeability
coresingenerating largemagneticfluxesfrom relativelysmall currents). On the other hand, if the
winding carries only the load current, it iscalled an armature. In DC and alternating-current (AC)
synchronous machines, separate windings exist to carry field and armature currents. In the induction
motor, the magnetizing and load currents flow in the samewinding, called theinput winding, or
primary; the output winding is then called the secondary. As weshall see, this terminology, which is
reminiscent of transformers, is particularlyappropriateforinduction motors.
It is also useful to classify electric machines in terms of their energy conversioncharacteristics. A
machine acts as a generator if it converts mechanical
energyfromaprimemover,say,aninternalcombustionengine,toelectricalform.Examples of generators are
the large machines used in power generating plants,
orthecommonautomotivealternator.Amachineisclassifiedasamotorifitconverts electrical energy to
mechanical form. The latter class of machines isprobably of more direct interest to you, because of its
widespread application inengineering practice. Electric motors are used to provide forces and torques
togeneratemotionincountlessindustrialapplications.Machinetools,robots,punches, presses, mills, and
propulsion systems for electric vehicles are but a fewexamplesoftheapplication ofelectricmachinesin
engineering.
 Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-24

5.4 DC MACHINE

DC MACHINE

FUNDAMENTAL:

Emf induced in coil e= -Nd/dt volt

Emf induced in a conductor e =Blvvolt
Force developed in a conductor F = BIL N
Electrical energy En = VItW hour
Electrical power (Active)P=VI Watt
Resistance of conductor R=l/a Ohm Eqn. of
current by Ohm’s law,I=V/R
AMagnetizingforce,H=NI/LAT/m
Fluxdensity,B=/A
Electrical field intensity, E=V/d V/m
Current density, J=I/a A/m2

INTRODUCTION:
DC machine is a device which converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy and vice
versa. When the device acts as a generator (or dynamo), mechanical energy isconvertedinto electrical
energy. On the other hand, when the device acts as a motor, electrical energy isconvertedinto
mechanical energy.

ESSENTIALFEATURES:
There is no real difference between a dc. motor and dc generator either fromthe point of
view of the essential components or of the fundamental principlesinvolved.

In the generator there isa conversion of mechanical to electricalenergywhile in the motor

there is the reverse conversion of electrical tomechanicalenergy. The structure difference is
merely one of the enclosure. Most generatorswork in sheltered situations e.g. in power stations
and an open type of constructionis thus possible, the advantage being that all the parts are in
consequence, easilyaccessible.Motors often work in exposed

Situations, where there are dirt as damp, chemical fumes, explosive gases and soon,and it
maythereforebenecessarytoenclosealltheworkingparts.
 CONSTRUCTION:
STATOR ROTOR
Yoke/Frame Armaturecore
Fieldmagnet Armature winding/
conductor(polecore&poleshoe)
Mainfieldwinding Commutator&Brushes
Inter poles/commutating poles Shaft
Inter poles winding Bearings

STATOR & ROTOR

Allconventionalelectricalmachinesconsistofastationarymembercalledthestatorseparatedby
an airgap fromarotating membercalledrotor.

Ind.cmachinesthestatorusuallyconsistsofsalientpoleswithcoilswoundroundthemso as
toproduceamagneticfield.

Therotorisfamiliarlycalledthearmatureandconsistsofaseriesofcoilslocatedinslots
arounditsperipheryandconnectedtoacommutator.

Yoke/ Frame
Yoke is the outer frame dc m/c. It carries the magnetic flux provided by thepole and acts
as a protecting shield for the entire machine. In small generatorsyokesaremadeofcastiron
whereasin largemachinecastsheetisused.

Field magnet:
Itisastrongpermanentmagnet(incaseofasmalldynamo)oranelectromagnet(incaseoflargedyn
amo)ofintensemagneticfield.

Pole core & Pole shoe:

The field magnet has two parts Pole core (pole pieces).
Polecoreismade ofcaststeelorcastironwithlaminatedpole shoesscrewedon to theholes in
theyoke.

Poleshoesspreadoutthefluxintheairgapandreducethereluctanceofthemagneticpathduetoits
largecross -section. Polesshoessupporttheexcitingcoils.
Polecoils(fieldwinding)

 Itisotherwiseknownasexciting winding
 Thesearefinecopperwire(orstrip)wound around thepolepieces
 Thefluxproducedbythewinding iscutbytherevolving armature
Armature Core:

 Ithousesarmaturecoilsin theslots.Itiscylindricalordrumshaped.
 Armatureisplacedinbetweenthetwopolesoffield magnetandis

rotatedaboutitscentralaxismechanically(byaprime mover)
 Itisusuallymadeofcircularsheetsteeldiscorlaminations.

 Thickness of laminations is of the order of 0.5mm. Perforations existin these

laminations to provide axial flow of air through the armatureforcooling purposes.
 Armaturecoreiskeyed totheshaft.
 Duringrotationitcutsthemagneticfluxofthefieldmagnets.
 It also provides a path of very low reluctance to the flux from
northpoletosouthpole.

Armature Winding:

 Itismadeupofcopper.
 Itconsistsoflargeno.ofinsulatedcoils,eachcoil havingone ormoreturns.
 Armatureconductorareplacedinarmatureslots.
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-25

5.4 DC MACHINE

Commutator:

 It converts the alternating current produced in the armature conductorsintodirect

current.
 It consists of wedge shaped copper segments (Insulated from eitherside to form a
ring. The number of segments of commutator equals theno.ofarmaturecoils.
 Itfacilitatesthecollectionofcurrentfromthearmatureconductors.
Brushes

 Theyarefixed on thecommutatorbypressuresprings.

 Theyareusuallymadeofahighgradecarbonorgraphiteandareintheshapeofrectangular
block.
 Thesearehousedin abrush holder.

 TheycollectthecurrentfromthecommutatorandfinallytheypassontheEMFgenerated
toload.

Bearing

 Thearmature shaftissupportedatthe commutator end on ball bearings which are

packed in hard oil.
 Theyprovidequieteroperation,togetherwithreducedwearandtear.

 Ballbearingsarefrequentlyemployedfortheirreliability.

 Rollerbearingsarepreferableforheavyduties.

Inter poles

 Inadditiontothemainpoles,thedcmachinesareusuallyfittedwithauxiliary poles placed

between the main poles and they are called
interpoles,thepurposeofwhichistoprovidebettercommutation.
 Itminimizessparkingatthecommutator.
Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-26

5.5 Types of Armature Winding

Types of Armature Winding

These are of two types :Lap winding and Wave winding

PolePitch
 Itis definedasthenoofarmatureconductorsperpole.
 Ifthereare80conductors and 8poles,polepitchis 80/8 =10.
Conductor
 Itisdefinedasthelengthofawirelyingthemagneticfieldasshowninfig1.

Coil
 Twoconductorswiththeirendconnectionsshowninfig1fromonecoil.
 Coilmaybesingleturncoilormulti-turncoil.
 Endconnectionsarecalledoverhang.

CoilPitch
 Itisdefinedasthedistancebetweentwosidesofacoilintermsofarmatureslots.
 Itis definedastheperipheryofthearmaturebetweentwosidesofacoil.
 Ifthecoilpitchisequaltothepolepitch,thewindingissaidtobefullpitched,otherwiseit ishalf-
pitch

Pitch:
Itis definedas thedistance between the second conductor one coiland
thefirstconductorofthenext coil as shown infig.2&3.
BackPitch:

Itisdefinedasthedistancemeasuredintermsofarmatureconductorsthatacoil
advancesontheback sideofthearmatureasshownin fig.2&3.
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-27

5.6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR

Principle Of Operation Of Dc Generator:

Principle:
Faradayslawofelectromagneticinductionaccordingtowhichemfisinducedintheconductorsw
hichdrives thecurrentthroughtheconductor.
Figbelowshows asingleturn generator.

Thecoilisrotatedinanticlockwisedirectionwiththehelpofprime mover.

Fig. shows the different instants of the induced emf due to different positionsofthecoil.
MagneticfieldisproducedeitherbyapermanentmagnetoranelectromagnetenergisedbytheDC
supply.
When the angle ө = 0o , the coils is perpendicular to the magnetic field andthe
instantaneous component of velocity of conductors aband cd is parallel to themagneticfield .

The flux linked with the coil is maximum but the rate of change of flux isminimum.
Hence emf cannot be generated .Therefore current flows through theconductors.

When 0 <<90, due to the rotation of the coil in the anticlockwise direction, thevelocity of the
conductor has two components that is vsinand vcos .
Thereforetheconductorswillcutthefluxduetovsin.Henceemfisinducedintheconductorsand current
flows intheconductors.
Ifwhen=90o,coilisparalleltothemagneticfieldandtheinstantaneouscomponent of velocity of
conductorsab and cd is perpendicular to the magneticfield. The flux linked with the coil is
minimum but the rate of change of flux ismaximum. Hence emf generated is maximum .
Therefore maximum current flowsthroughtheconductors.

Thefluxlinkedwiththecoilismaximumbuttherateofchangeoffluxisminimum. Hence emf cannot be

generated. Therefore the current flows through theconductor.

When 180o,<𝛳 < 270o due to rotation of the coil in the anticlockwise direction, thevelocity of the
conductors has two components that is vsin 𝛳 and vcos 𝛳 and thedirection is opposite to the case
when 00<𝛳 < 900 . Therefore the conductor havethefluxduetovsin.
Equivalent circuit of a DC Machine

Generated EMF and Electro magneticTorque

VfIfRf VfIfRf
VtEaIaRa VtEaIaRa

Motor:Vt>Ea

Generator:Vt>Ea

Voltagegeneratedinthearmaturecircuitduethefluxofthestatorfieldcurrent:

Types of DCMachines

Boththearmatureandfieldcircuitscarry directcurrentinthecaseofaDCmachine.

Self-excited DC machine:when a machine supplies its own excitation of the

fieldwindings.Inthismachine,residualmagnetismmustbepresentintheferromagneticcircuitofthemac
hineinordertostarttheself-excitationprocess.

Separately-excited DC machine:The field windings may be separately excitedfroman eternal

DCsource.
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-28

5.7 Separately-ExcitedandSelf-ExcitedDCGenerators

Separately-Excitedand Self-Excited DC Generators

Example:A100-kW,250-VDCshuntgeneratorhasan armatureresistanceof
0.05 W and field circuit resistance of 60 W. With the generator operating at
ratedvoltage,determinetheinduced voltageat(a)fullload,and (b)half-fullload.

Ans. (a) At full load,Vt=Ea-IaRaIf=250/60=4.17

AIL_FL=100,000/250=400A

Ia=IL_FL+If=400+4.17=404.17A

Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+404.17*0.05=270.2V

(b) At half load,If=250/60=4.17

AIL_HL=50,000/250=200A

Ia=IL_HL+If=200+4.17=204.17A

Ea=Vt+IaRa=250+204.17*0.05=260.2V
 Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-29

5.8 AC MACHINES

AC MACHINES

ACmachineshavelargeadvantagesoverDCmachines.Theyare,
 Since basic generation of electricity is in the form of AC voltage,
noconvertingdeviceisnecessary.
 Suitableforlargeratings(uptomorethan500MW)

 Cost of an AC machine for same power and voltage rating is less than
thatofDCmachines
 Since transformers are used in AC only, AC generation is must
orcommercialpurposeoperation.
ACmachinesarebroadlyclassifiedas:-
 Synchronousmachine
 Operates at constant speed and constant frequencies under steady statecondition
 Generatorknownasalternator
 Faradayslawsofelectromagneticinduction
 Doesnothavecommutator
 EMF is generated from mutual interaction between conductors
andmagneticflux.
 Asynchronousmachine

 Operateswithvariablespeed
 Inductionmachine
 Inductionmotorapplicationinairconditioning,industrialuse(rollingmills)
 Induction generator application in wind generating system :- convert
windenergytoelectricalenergyatconstantfrequencyirrespectiveofwindspeed
Three phase Induction Motor:

• Three-phase induction motors are the most common and

frequentlyencounteredmachines in industry
– simpledesign,rugged,low-price,easymaintenance
– widerangeofpowerratings: fractionalhorsepowerto10MW
– runessentiallyasconstant speedfromno-loadto fullload
– Itsspeed depends onthefrequencyofthepowersource
 Construction:-
 Stator:-three phasewindinginstar ordelta
 Rotor:- Squirrel cage rotor
 rotorwindingsareshortedinternally

 Slipring orphasewoundrotor
 rotorwindingsareshortcircuitedexternallythroughthreesliprings
 Rotorwindingsareshortcircuited
 Slip (S) :- difference between the speed of rotor (N) and the speed
ofrotatingmagneticfield (Ns).Itis expressed in%as:
S=[(Ns– N)/Ns]x100

 (
 Module-4 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-30

5.8 Rotating Magnetic Field

Rotating Magnetic Field

• Balanced three phase windings, i.e. mechanically displaced 120 degreesformeach

other,fedbybalanced threephasesource
• A rotating magnetic field with constant magnitude is produced, rotating withaspeed

Where fe is the supply frequency and P is the no. of poles and nsyncis called the synchronous speed in rpm
(revolutionsperminute)

Principle of operation:

• This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an inducedvoltagein
therotorwindings
• Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both
squirrelcageandwound-rotor,andinducedcurrentflowsintherotorwindings
• Therotorcurrentproducesanothermagneticfield
Atorqueis producedas aresultoftheinteractionofthosetwomagneticfields
ind
kBRBs

WhereindistheinducedtorqueandBRandBSarethemagneticfluxdensitiesoftherotorand
thestatorrespectively
Slip: The

difference between synchronous speed Ns and actual speed N of the rotorisknown as slip
Introductionto1-phaseinductionmotor:

 Usedfordomesticapplication
 1-phaseIMarefractionalKWmotors
o Rotor– squirrelcage
o Stator–distributed
Typesof1-phaseIM:

 ResistancesplitphaseIM
 CapacitorsplitphaseIM
o CapacitorstartIM
o CapacitorstartcapacitorrunIM
o CapacitorrunIM
Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-31

5.9 Synchronous Machine Construction:

Synchronous Machine Construction:

 Field:-carryingaDCexcitedwinding
 Armature:threephasewindinginwhichemfisgenerated

 Armaturestationaryandrotatingfieldstructure

 Armature winding is built of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner periphery

 Three phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as armature winding.

Connecte dinstar

 Field is connected to an external source through slip rings and brushes orelsereceives
excitation fromrotatingbodies

 Damperbarsontherotor:-dampstheoscillationsduetotransients

 Dependingonrotorconstruction:-

 Roundrotortype

 Highspeedmachinesuchasturbinegenerators

 Salientpoletype
Lowspeedsuchas waterwheelgenerator
Frequency of output voltage:

Let P= no ofrotorpoles
N=Speedofthe rotorinrpm
Number of cycles generated in one revolution = P/2 Time
taken for one revolution =60/N seconds
In 60/ Nsec,no.ofcycles =P/2
In 1 sec, no. of cycles generated = P/2/60/N = PN/120
So, frequency(f)=PN/120 Hz

Emf equation:

Let P = no of poles , N= speed in rpm

Tph = no of concentric turns
Kd=distributionfactor
=fluxproduced perpolein weber
Inonerevolution fluxcutbyonearmatureconductor=P=d
Timetaken foronerevolution =60/Nsec=dt
Therefore average emf induced in the conductor is given
bye=d/dt=p/60/N=PN/60 =2PN/120
e = 2f volts there fore f=PN/120
Forasinusoidalacvoltage,rms value=averagevaluex formfactor
The value of form factor is 1.11 in case of sinusoidal a.cRms
valueofinducedemfperconductor=1.11 x e = (1.11)x(2f)=2.22f
voltsEmfperturn=2x2.22f=4.44fvolts(Two conductorsconstituteoneturn)

Therefore, Induced emf per phase = emf per turn x no of turns per phase = 4.44 fTphvolts
In practice, the stator winding is distributed. So, the actual induced emf will beslightly less
than the calculated value and the induced emf per phase is multipliedby a factor K d, known as
distribution factor. (Generally Kd varies from 0.96 to0.98).
 Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-32

Solved Question:
Q1. A dc shunt generator generates an emf of 520 V at a speed of 1200 rpm. It has2000 armature
conductors and flux per pole is 0.013 wb. The armature winding has4 parallel paths. i) Determine
the number of poles ii) Find the generated voltage, ifthearmaturewindingiswaveconnected
Solution.
Given: E=520 V,N=1200 rpm,Z=2000,=0.013wb,A=4
i) E=PZN/60A
P= 60 AE/ZN= 60x4x520/0.013 x2000x1200=4
ii) E= PZN/60A= 4x0.013x2000x1200/60 x2 = 1040volts
Q2. A DC shunt motor develops 200 V on no load, while running at 1200 rpm. Ifthe machine has
4 poles and 100 lap wound armature conductors, calculate the fluxper pole. Also calculate the
shunt field current if the resistance of the shunt field is200ohms.
Solution:

Given:Eb=200volts,N=1200rpm,P=4,Z=100,A=P=4,Rsh=200 
Therefore, Flux per pole () = 60 A Eb/ZNP = 60 x 4 x 200/ 100 x 1200 x 4 = 0.1wb
Neglecting armature resistance supply voltage, V = Eb = 200 voltsShunt field
current Ish=V/ Rsh=200/ 200=1 A

Q3.A3phase,50Hzinductionmotorhas8poles.Ifthefullloadslipis2.5%,determinei)synchronousspeedii)Rotor
speediii)Frequencyoftherotorcurrent
Solution:
Given: f=50Hz,Pole(P)=8,Fullloadslip =0.025
i) Synchronous speed, Ns = 120 f/P = 120 x 50/8 = 750 rpmii)
Rotorspeed,N=Ns(1-S) =750(1-0.025)=731.25rpm
iii) Frequencyoftherotorcurrent f=sf=0.025x50 =1.25 Hz
 Module-5 Chapter-5

Learning Objective Lecture-33

5.11 Questions Bank

Questions Bank
1. The design requirements of an 11 000 V/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase, core-
typetransformer are: approximate e.m.f./turn, 15 V; maximum flux density, 1.5 T. Finda
suitable number of primary and secondary turns, and the net cross-sectional areaofthecore.
[27 turns,742 turns,44500mm2]

2. The primary winding of a single-phase transformer is connected to a 230 V, 50Hz

supply. The secondary winding has 1500 turns. If the maximum value of thecore flux is
0.002 07 Wb, determine: (a) the number of turns on the primarywinding; (b) the secondary
induced voltage; (c) the net cross-sectional core area ifthefluxdensityhas
amaximumvalueof0.465 T.[523,688 V,4450 mm2]

3. The primary of a certain transformer takes 1 A at a power factor of 0.4 when

connected across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply and the secondary is on open circuit. The number
of turns on the primary is twice that on the secondary. A load taking 50 A at alagging
powerfactor of 0.8 is now connected across the secondary. Sketch,and explain briefly, the
phasor diagram for this condition, neglecting voltage drops in the transformer. What is
now the value of the primary current?[25.9 A]

4. A 3300 V/230 V, single-phase transformer, on no load, takes 2 A at

powerfactor0.25.Determinegraphically,orotherwise,theprimarycurrentandpowerfactorwhen
the transformerissupplyinga loadof 60Aatpowerfactor 0.9leading.[4.26 A,1.0]
5. A transformerhas 600 primary turns and 150 secondary turns.The
primaryandsecondaryresistancesare0.25Ωand0.01Ωrespectivelyandthecorresponding
leakage reactances are 1.0 Ω and 0.04 Ω respectively. Determine
(a)theequivalentresistancereferredtotheprimarywinding,(b)theequivalentreactance referred
to the primary winding, (c) the equivalent impedance referred tothe primary winding, and
(d) the phase angle of the impedance. [0.41Ω, 1.64Ω,1.69Ω,75.96°]

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 6. The output stage of an amplifier has an output resistance of 112 Ω. Calculatethe
optimum turns ratio of a transformer which would match a load resistance of
7Ωtotheoutput resistanceoftheamplifier.[4:1]

7. Determine the optimum value of load resistance for maximum power transferif
the load is connected to an amplifier of output resistance 150 Ω through atransformerwith
aturns ratioof5:1.[6Ω]

8. A single-phase, 220 V/1760 V ideal transformer is supplied from a 220

Vsourcethroughacableofresistance2Ω.Iftheloadacrossthesecondarywindingis 1.28 kΩ
determine (a) the primary current flowing and (b) the power dissipatedintheload resistor.
[10A,2 KW]

9.An a.c. source of 24 V and internal resistance 15 kΩ is matched to a load by a25:1

ideal transformer. Determine (a) the value of the load resistance and (b)
thepowerdissipated in theload.[24Ω,9.6 mW]

10.A load of resistance 768 Ω is to be matched to an amplifier which has

aneffectiveoutputresistanceof12Ω.Determinetheturnratioofthecouplingtransformer.[1:8]

(Rotating Machines)

1. A 24-coil, 2-pole DC generator has 16 turns per coil in its armature winding.The field
excitation is 0.05 Wb per pole, and the armature angular velocity is
180rad/s.Findthemachineconstantandthetotalinducedvoltage.[ka=5.1;Eb=45.9V]

2. A 1,000-kW, 1,000-V, 2,400-rev/min separately excited DC generator has

anarmature circuit resistance of 0.04 Ω The flux per pole is 0.4 Wb. Find: (a) theinduced
voltage; (b) the machine constant; and (c) the torque developed at the ratedconditions.
[(a)Eb= 1,040 V;(b)ka=10.34;(c)T= 4,138 N-m]

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 3. A 100-kW, 250-V shunt generator has a field circuit resistance of 50 Ω and
anarmature circuit resistance of 0.05 Ω Find: (a) the full-load line current flowing
totheload;(b)thefieldcurrent;(c)thearmaturecurrent;and(d)thefull-loadgeneratorvoltage.
[(a)400 A;(b)5 A;(c)405 A;(d)270.25 V]
4. A series motor draws a current of 25 A and develops a torque of 100 N-mFind:
(a)thetorquewhenthecurrentrisesto30Aifthefieldisunsaturated;and
(b) the torque when the current rises to 30 A and the increase in current produces
a10percent increaseinflux.[(a)144 N-m;(b)132 N-m]

5. A 200-V DC shunt motor draws 10 A at 1,800 rev/min. The armature

circuitresistance is 0.15Ω and the field winding resistance is 350 Ω. What is the
torquedevelopedbythemotor?[T=9.93 N-m]

6. A 4-pole, wave-connected armature of a d.c. machine has 750 conductors andis

driven at 720 rev/min. If the useful flux per pole is 15 mWb, determine thegeneratede.m.f.
[270volts]

7. A 6-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with 40 slots with 20 conductorsper

slot. The flux per pole is 25 mWb. Calculate the speed at which the
machinemustbedrivento generateane.m.f.of300V.[15rev/s or900rev/min]

8. A4-polearmatureofad.c.machinehas1000conductorsandafluxperpoleof 20 mWb.
Determine the e.m.f. generated when running at 600 rev/min when thearmatureis (a)wave-
wound,(b)lap-wound.[(a)400volts (b)200volts]

9. A d.c. generator running at 25 rev/s generates an e.m.f. of 150 V. Determinethe

percentage increase in the flux per pole required to generate 180 V at 20 rev/s.[50%]

10. Ashuntgeneratorsuppliesa50kWloadat400Vthroughcablesofresistance 0.2 Ω. If

the field winding resistance is 50 Ω and the armature
resistanceis0.05Ω,determine(a)theterminalvoltage,(b)thee.m.f.generatedinthearmature.
[(a)425 volts (b)431.68 volts]

102
 11. A short-shunt compound generator supplies 50 A at 300 V. If the fieldresistance
is 30 Ω, the series resistance 0.03 Ω and the armature resistance 0.05
Ω,determinethee.m.f.generated.[304.5volts]

12. A d.c. generator has a generated e.m.f. of 210 V when running at 700
rev/minand the flux per pole is 120 mWb. Determine the generated e.m.f. (a) at
1050rev/min, assuming the flux remains constant, (b) if the flux is reduced by one-sixthat
constant speed, and (c) at a speed of 1155 rev/min and a flux of 132 mWb.
[(a)315V(b)175 V(c)381.2 V]

13. A 250 V d.c. shunt-wound generator has an armature resistance of 0.1

Ω.Determine the generated e.m.f. when the generator is supplying 50 kW,
neglectingthe field current of the generator. [270 V]

14. The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of 0.5 Ω and is connected to
a200 V supply. Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it is running (a) as a motortaking50
Aand(b)as ageneratorgiving 70A.[(a)175volts(b)235 volts]

15. Determinethegeneratede.m.f.ofad.c.machineifthearmatureresistanceis
0.1 Ω and it (a) is running as a motor connected to a 230 V supply, the armaturecurrent
being 60 A, and (b) is running as a generator with a terminal voltage of
230V,thearmaturecurrentbeing 80 A.[(a)224V(b)238 V]

16. The shaft torque required to drive a d.c. generator is 18.7 Nm when it isrunning
at 1250 rev/min. If its efficiency is 87% under these conditions and thearmature current is
17.3 A, determine the voltage at the terminals of the generator.[123.1V]

17. A 220 V, d.c. generator supplies a load of 37.5 A and runs at 1550
rev/min.Determinetheshafttorqueofthedieselmotordrivingthegenerator,ifthegeneratorefficie
ncyis 78%.[65.2 Nm]

103