TEGRALS Just as a mountaineer climbs a mountain — because it is there, so good mathematics student studies new material because it is there. — JAMES B. BRISTOL & 7.1 Introduction Differential Calculus is centred on the concept of the derivative. The original motivation for the derivative was the problem of defining tangent lines to the graphs of functions and calculating the slope of such lines. Integral Calculus is motivated by the problem of defining and calculating the area of the region bounded by the graph of the functions. Ifa function f is differentiable in an interval I, ie., its derivative f “exists at each point of I, then a natural question arises that given fat each point of I, can we determine the function? The functions that could possibly have given function as a derivative are called anti derivatives (or GW. Leibnite primitive) of the function. Further, the formula that gives Ome-ae all these anti derivatives is called the indefinite integral of the function and such process of finding anti derivatives is called integration. Such type of problems arise in ‘many practical situations. For instance, if we know the instantaneous velocity of an object at any instant, then there arises a natural question, ie., can we determine the position of the object at any instant? There are several such practical and theoretical situations where the process of integration is involved. The development of integral culus arises out ofthe efforts of solving the problems of the following types: (a) the problem of finding a function whenever its derivative is given, (b) the problem of finding the area bounded by the graph ofa function under certain conditions. These two problems lead to the two forms of the integrals, e-., indefinite and definite integrals, which together constitute the Integral Calculus, Ratonalsed 2023-28226 MATHEMATICS ‘There isa connection, known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, between, indefinite integral and definite integral which makes the definite integral asa practical tool for science and engineering, The definite integral isalso used to solve many interesting problems from various disciplines like economics, finance and probability. In this Chapter, we shall confine ourselves to the study of indefinite and definite integrals and their elementary properties including some techniques of integration. 7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Instead of differentiating a function, wwe are given the derivative of a function and asked to find its primitive, ie.,the original function, Such a process is called integration or anti differentiation. Letus consider the following examples: d We know that yin 2) = c08 © a eee £¢ @ and Lede .G) & We observe that in (1), the function cos.x i the derived function of sin.x. We say 3 that sin xis an anti derivative (or an integral) of cos x. Similarly, in (2) and (3), 7 and ¢* are the anti derivatives (or integrals) of x? and e', respectively. Again, we note that forany real number C, treated as constant function, its derivative is zero and hence, we can write (1), (2) and (3) as follows : dx os, CE HC xto ‘is, ent derives (er ines othe above cfd fection ens nat usign. Actually, there exist infinitely many anti derivatives of each of these functions which can be obtained by choosing C arbitrarily from the set of real numbers, For this reason, C is customarily referred to as arbitrary constant. In fact, C is the parameter by varying which one gets different anti derivatives (or integrals) of the given function. Soinxeoy= d More generally, if there isa function F such that F=f (1), x I (interval, then for any arbitrary real number C, (also called constant of integration) a 2] = so Slo +c]=/0. xe 1 Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 227 ‘Thus, {F-+C,Ce R} denotes a family of anti derivatives of f ‘Remark Functions with same derivatives differ by a constant. To show this, let g and ht be two functions having the same derivatives on an interval 1 Consider the function f= g ~ h defined by f(x) = g(x) - hG), vx eT gL ‘Then ar = 8 -W giving ') = 9’) -W() vel or f (0) = 0, Wxe [by hypothesis, ice, the rate of change of f with respect to xis zero on I and hence fis constant. In view of the above remark, itis justified to infer that the family (F +C, Ce R} provides all possible anti derivatives of f We introduce a new symbol, namely, f(x) d which will represent the entire class of anti derivatives read as the indefinite integral of f with respect to x. Symbolically, we write J f(x) dx =F (a) +C. i ox os = Notation Given that >= / (8) , we writey = Jf@arc For the sake of convenience, we mention below the following symbols/terms/phrases with their meanings as given in the Table (7.1). ‘Table 7.1 Ratonalised 2023-24228 MATHEMATICS We already know the formulae for the derivatives of many important functions. From these formulae, we can write down immediately the corresponding formulae (referred to as standard formulae) for the integrals of these functions, as listed below which will be used to find integrals of other functions. Derivatives ae ® alas Particularly, we note that Se)-1; di. i) (sin) ii) an C ™ F 4 (cot x) =cosee’ (wv) aw - iy) 2. (sccx)=s00 SEA x (wi) 7 : (ii) (il) ay @) @ (xi) Integrals (Anti derivatives) x" dv=*—_+C,n#-1 nel de=x+C ‘cos xd =sin x +C sin x dv =—008.x+C ‘sec? x de= tan x+C ‘coses? xdx=~cot.x+C sec xtan x dx=see.x+C ‘cose x cot x dx =—cosec x+C Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 229 d wii) “(log x Gail) (los fiacetogistac af a xin £525 ]-0" S \ote]In practice, we normally do not mention the interval over which the various functions are defined, However, in any specific problem one has to keep it in mind. 7.2.1 Some properties of indefinite integral In this sub section, we shall derive some properties of indefinite integrals, (The process of differentiation and integration are inverses of each othei sense of the following results : d fe J fede =f00) and [£00 de = fo) + C. where Cis any arbitrary constant Proof Let F be any anti derivative of f.e., Sr =70) ‘Then [fdr =re+c d d ‘Therefore & [forae = F(F+0) = Sre=s09) Similarly, ve note that d sey = £0) and hence [rede =fey+c where C is arbitrary constant called constant of integration, (11) Two indefinite integrals with the same derivative lead to the same family of curves and so they are equivalent. Ratonalsed 2023-28230 MATHEMATICS Proof Let f and g be two functions such that d Shreya = “fe ards or Z[Jrerae—fecoar]=0 Hence J flx)dx—[g(x)de= C, where Cis any real number (Why?) or Jferde = fewdc+c So the families of eurves {J f(x) de-+C,,C,€ R} and {ede +C,,Cy R} are identical. Hence, in this sense, [ f(x) de and f g(x) dx are equivalent. [= Note] iy fLfeo+ geo]ar=f fondest feo de Proof By Property (I), we have A [fires sendr] =s0) + 900 ~@) On the otherhand, we find that Ll frordce feooar] = 2 froar+ facade =f) + 8) = Q) ‘Thus, in view of Property (ID, it follows by (1) and (2) that [100+ eeo)av= J foodr+ feorar. (IV) For any real number &, fk f(x) dx =k [ fo) de Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 231 Proof By the Property (1), She feyde=k fl). abo fk ffepar] 4 freacek foo Therefore, using the Property (II), we have Jk f(x) dv=k f fo) de. (V) Properties (III) and (IV) can be generalised to a finite number of functions Sify of, and the real numbers, k,, ky. k, giving [KAO +f +k, fel] de = hf fi@drth] fp wdr+tk, [foode. To find an anti derivative of a given function, we search intuitively for a function whose derivative is the given function. The search for the requisite function for finding an anti derivative is known as integration by the method of inspection. We illustrate it through some examples. Example 1 Write an anti derivative for each of the following functions using the ‘method of inspection: 1 (cos 2x Gi) 3e 440 Giiy xe Solution (@ We look for a function whose derivative is cos 2x. Recall that &, ~ sin 2x =2 cos 2x de bd E(5sn2s) or cos dee 3 (sin 29 = F[5 1 ‘Therefore, an anti derivative of cos 2x is coe 2x (ii) We look for a function whose derivative is 3x° + 4x’, Note that dea. 4 L(e ext)eae eae Therefore, an anti derivative of 3x7 + 4x° is 3° 4x4, Ratonalised 2023-24232 MATHEMATICS (i) We know that d Combining above, we get Gi logls 1 1 Therefore, ie log |x| is one of the anti derivatives of : Example 2 Find the following integrals 2 2 3 1 [Se Gi for enae (ii) J? +2" Dae Solution (We have = Jxde— fx? dx (by Property V) be x (4 +C +cs); C,, C, are constants of integration x vol Zac Flic 2 arabe! 2 = 1+C where C= C, ~ C; is another constant of integration S \oie]From now onwards, we shall write only one constant of integration in the final answer (i) We have Joe + Nde= fx? de+ ate ay 3 5 =Forrece dv eree st 5 Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 235 Gi) We have fo? +26" x 4+2e" —log|x]+C Example 3 Find the following integral: Jovinx+cos.)de Gin feosee + (cover x+-c0t x) dx Solution (i) We have Jioin x +c0s.x) de in x de + fos x de = cos x+sinx+C (i) We have Jicosee x (cose x + c0t x) de = feosec*xde + [eosec x cot xd = = cot x—cosee x+C (ii) We have losing _ pin ae Vor Tan Jot {Jsec?x dx — fan xsec.x de tan x—secx+C Example 4 Find the anti derivative F of f defined by f(x) = 4x° ~ 6, where F (0) Solution One anti derivative of f(x) is x*— 6x since a (at ~6x) = 48° ~6 ae) ‘Therefore, the anti derivative F is given by F(x) =x — 6r + C, where C is constant. Ratonalised 2023-24234 MATHEMATICS Giventhat F(0)=3, which gives, 3=0-6x0+C or C=3 Hence, the required anti derivative is the unique function F defined by Fly) =x - 60 +3. Remarks (We see that if F is an anti derivative of f, then so is F + C, where C is any constant. Thus, if we know one anti derivative F of a function f, we can write down an infinite number of anti derivatives of f by adding any constant to F expressed by F(x) +C, Ce R. In applications, it is often necessary to satisfy an additional condition which then determines a specific value of C giving unique anti derivative of the given function. ‘Sometimes, Fis not expressible in terms of elementary functions viz., polynomial, logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric functions and their inverses etc. We are therefore blocked for finding J /(x) de. For example, it is not possible to find Je" de by inspection since we can not find a function whose derivative is e~* (i) When the variable of integration is denoted by a variable other than. the integral formulae are modified accordingly. For instance Find an anti derivative (or integral) of the following functions by the method of inspection. 1. sin2x 2. cos 3x 3. e™ 4. (ax + bY 5. sin 2x4 e* Find the following integrals in Exercises 6 to 20: 6 fae nde 7 fr Jarred P43x4+4 12. fee Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 235 15. [vx(3x* +2043) de 16. J(2x—3c0s x+e") de 17. JQx? ~3sin.x+SVx) de 18, Jsee.x (see x+ tan x) de 2-3sin.x 20, (22S a, ar Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22. 1 21. The anti derivative or [ve Trerefore , [EY dy = [sine dt = e081 #C=—cos(tan a) +C Now, we discuss some important integrals involving trigonometric functions and their standard integrals using substitution technique. These will be used later without (Jean x de =toglsee x] +€ We have sin x de= a fan xde=f5%* ae Put cos x= 180 that sin.x dx =~ dt Then fran xd -j£ —log || +C=— log |cos a+ 7 or fran xde=log [see x]+€ Gi) foot x dx =log| sinx|+C cos x dx We hie [ott rdc= Ratonalised 2023-24238 MATHEMATICS Put sin = so that cos x de = dt dt t Then foot xdx=[& = log|t|+C = log|sin x|+C (it) sec x de =log| see x + tan x|+C We have see x (sec x + tan x) sec x tan.x Joce xdx =f de Put see x + tan x = so that see x (tan x + see x) d= dt Therefore, seesxar= [4 tog|o|+C= loge. tan x +C (iv) Jeosee x dv =logcosee x cot x|+C We have cosec x(cosec x + cot. Jeosee x dr = [S28ee HCosee x + cor) (cosee x + cot) Put cosee x + cot x= so that ~ cosee x (cosee x + cot x) dx = dt So Jeosee x ax jf =log|t|=—log|cosec x + cotx|+C sosec? x—cot” x], = ~ log S288 X= 80" 5c cosee x cot = Poses x— cot x]+C Example 6 Find the following integrals: oe sinx 4 i (i fsin’ x0? xd (i) leew Gi) Imax Solution (We have Jsin’ xcos*x d= [sin® xe0s"x (sin x) de = J(l-cos?x) cos*s (sin x) de sinx de Put ¢= cos x so that di Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 239 Therefore, [sin cos?x (sin x) dx = ~f(I-°) fe -y at 1 aya coslx + < costs +C (i) Purta Then dx = dt. Therefore joa feo a sin (+a) sine = cosa far — (cos a) t ~ (sin a) [log|sin 1] +C, ] (Cos a) (x+ a) ~ (sin a) [Jog|sin (x +a)|+C, | 60s a +a cos a — (sin a) log [sin (x +.4)|—C, sina vce, FEB). eG ain tg in cr dx cos xd Seams leecersine 1p (Cos x+sin x +003 a Ratonalised 2023-24240 MATHEMATICS Now, consider I Put cos x + sin x =f so that (cos x — sin x) de = dt Therefore 1-[4 = log |i| + C, = log eos x +sin a] +C, r Putting it in (1), we get (cee ell 202 loglcosx-sn s+ T+tan x Go 2 2 + Flog eos x4 sin a+ + Lioglcos r+sins]+c(c=-S+) [EXERCISE72 Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 3 2x (log x)” 1 * Tee S 3: axles 4. sin xsin(Cos.x) > S._ sin (ax+b) cos (ax +b) 6. faxtb Tart? 8. x fi+20 1 9. (4x42 fxr tetd 10. Ta iM. 1x>0 a fer 12. @ =} x 3. Opa Mopar tO mal 15. > 16. gre3 i. = * ae aG ve 1. vw. 5 mo. $< ne eal ore Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 241 21, tan? Qx -3) 22. sec? (7 - 4x) 24. 2s. 6cos.x + 4sin x ~ cos?x (I= tan x)? cos x 27. sin 2x cos 2x 28. eaine 29. cot x log sin x sin in * L 30 Tr cos.x 31. (1 eosxP 32. Tyeotx 1 an (+k v lox 33. tan x wh sin x cos x 5% x ‘ sein (shed (xt sin (tant 36, SED ext toex) a f N ) as 40 Choose the correct answer in Exercises 38 and 39, 10x? +10 log, 10 dx 38. equals Ia (A) 10°= x +C (B) 10°4+x"+C © doe 4 (D) log (10 +X +E i iF ecg (A) tanx+cotx+C (B) tan x-cotx+C (C) tan xcotx+C (D) tan x-cot 2x+C 7.3.2 Integration using trigonometric identities ‘When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we use some known identities, to find the integral as illustrated through the following example. Example 7 Find (i) foos*x dx Gi) [sin 2xcos3xdx ii) fsin'x dx Ratonalised 2023-24242 MATHEMATICS Solution (Recall the identity cos 2x = 2 cos? x~ 1, which gives Loos 2x ae Therefore, eos*rde = Af 1+e0s2x)dr= + far+4 feos 2x de 2 2a Gi) Recall the identity sin x cos y = 5 [sin (x + y) + sin @—y)] (Why?) Then fsin2xeos3xae = 3 [fsinsx de~ fsin vac] 4| Leos cosx|4C 21S Sach cossx +t cos +C 10 Gi) From the identity sin 3x= 3 sin x4 sin'.x, we find that Therefore, fain'xds = 3 fsin xae— fain andr Deasse heosten Altern: Put cos x= 10 that ~ sin.x dr = dt ey, [sine fsin?sin xr = [(L—c0s"n) sin de Therefore, fsin’xdx = ~f(1-1°) ae =-farsf aes tse i) = 0s r+ comix $C ‘Remark Itcan be shown using trigonometric identities that both answers are equivalent, Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 285 (EXERCISE 7.3 Find the integrals of the funetions in Exercises 1 t0 22: 1. sin? @r+5) 2. sim3xcos4x 3. c08 2x cos dx cos 6x 4. sin’ Qx +1) 5. sin' x eos x 6. sin x sin 2v sin 3x a sind L-cos x 9, £08 aera ® Tcos.x * Treosx sin? x 10, sinéx 11. cos! 2x 2 T+c0s.« x cos x=sin x 13, SS 2e= e024 4 SOFAS 15. tan? De see 2x 08 x— C08 a T¥sin 2x os tan'e 7, Siacteosl xg case $26 sin? xe0s? x cos? x 1 2) 19. ——— 20, SEEN 21 sgin (cos x) sin xcos'e (es=hh) 1 22. 08 (x = a) cos (x= b) Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24, 23, JSF aris equal to sin? x cos" x (A) tanx + cotx + (B) tan x + covee x +C (© ~tanx+cotx+C @D) tanx + secx+C sex) 24, [EE drequats Kose (A) ~ cot(er) +C (B) tan (xe) +E © tan (ey + (D) cot (e) +E 7.4 Integrals of Some Particular Functions In this section, we mention below some important formulae of integrals and apply them for integrating many other related standard integrals: dx xaal xa Sto we +€ a f Ratonalsed 2023-28248 MATHEMATICS @ ) log |r + Va? a3] +€ 6) sin'* 4 a (6) [y= tog eV ea] + ay (a) ara) 1 [etait] [ pal ] ata) | 2alx-a x+a = 2a [pide pide 2a\tx-a fx+a = Eflogi(x—a)i-logix + al] +C 2a de Therefore, > (2) In view of (1) above, we have 1 1 [a+a+a-x) 2a| (a+x)(a—¥) Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 285 dx tector, [ots = 2 jaf] ae st [log la—x1-+logla+ xi]+€ jascow F tan"0+a? =+fav=to+c=* tan 2+e Pele ane ae sec0 fand d®. weer, fp opens . iene a? seca = [seo d0=log [seed + tand|+C, (4) Let.x=a sec, Then dx = log|*+ 1}+c, a = log| + fe |-togle|+c, = log| x+y —a°|+C, where C=C, -loglal (5) Let x=a sind, Then dx = a c0s0 40. ‘Therefore, oe a foe 40. ae {Jsec0 a = log |(seco + tand)| +C, (6) Let.x=a tan0, Then dv =a ‘Therefore, — . Pa Ratonalsed 2023-28246 a (8) 0 log + ¥ a"|-log\a|+C, log | V Paa'l+c, where C= Applying these standard formulae, we now obtain some more formulae which are useful from applications point of view and can be applied directly to evaluate other integrals — log fa ‘To find the integeal [—-— , we wri find the integral fF ——, we write q = alts ees Sfeal(er 2) fe & wesmsee este shales E8) Now, put x-+-2 ro that es = dr and witing © A We find the a 1 integral reduced to the form ae aie al arg depending upon the sign of | 432 and hence can be evaluated. ax ‘To find the integral of the type J———“—— , proceeding as in (7), we Vax’ thxte obtain the integral using the standard formulae. +4 ax +br+e constants, we are to find real numbers A, B such that ‘To find the integral of the type f dx, where p,q, a, b, ¢ are -a4ae - pet q=AE(ae +br+0)+B=AQar+b)+B To determine A and B, we equate from both sides the coefficients of x and the constant terms. A and B are thus obtained and hence the integral is reduced to one of the known forms Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 287 (px q) de (10) For the evaluation of the integral of the type [=O tenes” proceed lax +bx+e as in (9) and transform the integral into known standard forms. Let us illustrate the above methods by some examples. Example 8 Find the following integrals: C [by 74()] Iby7465)] = sin’! (@-)+C Example 9 Find the following integrals ji“ dx J dx J dx 2 ot @ I32 5136 OT Ge ax Solution (@ Wehave 86x 4 13 =~ 6x4 F-34138 =(e-3F 44 de l se dx cS x 6413 Sa +2? Let x= 350 Then de =de Therefore, Iby743)] Ratonalised 2023-24248 MATHEMATICS (ii) The given integral is of the form 7.4 (7). We write the denominator ofthe integrand, 1B Put 4-51. Then di = de Therefore, f——* 1 3x +13x-10 3 I—S}+¢, [by 7.4 1 Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 249 1 dx . 517 Ceompreting te square) [by 7.4 (4)] foe O Ty vers Solution (i) Using the formula 7.4 (9), we express x+2= AT eae +6x45)+B = A(4x+6)4B Equating the coefficients of x and the constant ems fom both sides, we get 4A= land 6A+B=2 or A= 7 andB= >. 7 [a 4x46 dx reretres TD 6x45 ~ 44 2x7 6x45 + 6x45 1 tsk . +h ay) a Ratonalised 2023-24(i MATHEMATICS In I,, put 22 + 6x +5 $0 that (4x + 6) de = dt Therefore, =f Ht tog |r| +c, 7 = logh2x? +6x+51+C, @ and [by7.4@)] ny tar'a(x+3}ec, = tan""(2x+3)+C, .Q) Using (2) and (3) in (1), we get x2 Sa veees log|20*-+6x-+5]+ tan" (20+3)+C where, ‘This integral is of the form given in 7.4 (10). Let us express d 7 x43= AT O-4t-8)4BoAC 4-20 4B Equating the coefficients of x and the constant terms from both sides, we get 1 =2A=Land-4A+B=3,ie,A=—5 and B=1 Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 251 + [poet Therefore, ae () In 1, put 5 — 4x — x =1, so that (4 ~ 2x) di = dt. Therefore, I= joe V5—4x— = W5—4x-7 +C, Q ax Now consider u=f vV5-4x- Putx+2=1,so that de = dt. SHC, [by 7.4 (5)] ‘Therefore, 1 iat = sin S40, @) Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we obtain fo v5-4x- sin" $52 4, where c= EXERCISE 7.4 Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 23. Ratonalsed 2023-28252 MATHEMATICS 2 >——— V1~6x-¥ 1 \O=ay0— 0) Sx-2 14 2e43x) 15. 18 x42 zi 5x43 28 Tear 10 Choose the correct answer in Exercises 24 and 25, — equal oan erecta (A) xtunt ++ (B) wnt @+ +e © (+ Dtan'x+c (D) tank + 25, [A eauals N9x = 4x" “ fain) sc ®) fain" S) 4c 9 Ox-8 doy 4 O53 ( 7 ec (py 58m ( om ie 7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials in the form Pa) <*., where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) #0. If the degree of P(x) w® is less than the degree of Q(x, then the rational function is called proper, otherwise, it is called improper. The improper rational functions can be reduced to the proper rational Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 253 functions by long division process. Thus, if °° js improper, then P. BO), Qa) Tix) + Qe) Qe)” 0G ae is proper rational function. As we know how to integrate polynomials, the integration of any rational function is reduced to the integration of a proper rational function. The rational functions which we shall consider here for integration purposes will be those whose denominators can be factorised into, PO) ae Po) de, where Go QW) Qa) is proper rational function. It is always possible to write the integrand as a sum of simpler rational functions by a method called partial fraction decomposition. After this, the integration can be carried out easily using the already known methods. The following ‘Table 7.2 indicates the types of simpler partial fractions that are to be associated with various kind of rational functions. where T(x) is a polynomial in x and linear and quadratic factors, Assume that we want to evaluate Table7.2 In the above table, A, B and C are real numbers to be determined suitably. Ratonalised 2023-24258 MATHEMATICS (= Example U1 Find |p G3) Solution The integrand is a proper rational function, Therefore, by using the form of partial fraction [Table 7.2 (i)], we write A,B w tl x#2 1 GHDO+2 where, real numbers A and B are to be determined suitably. This gives TSA (x+2)+B (x41). Equating the coefficients of x and the constant term, we get A+B=0 and 2A+Besl Solving these equations, we get A= and B =~ 1. Thus, the integrand is given by 1 1 GD (42) HT XD Theref lee - 1 wretones GD G+ ~Sra1 -1 de x42 Jog |x+1|- log x+2)+C xtl log |= |. xt ‘Remark The equation (1) above isan identity, i. statement true forall (permissible) values of x, Some authors use the symbol *=" to indicate that the statement is an identity and use the symbol ‘=" to indicate that the statement is an equation, i.e, to indicate that the statement is true only for certain values of x. x+l 5x46 Example 12 Find f v4 is not proper rational function, so we divide Oe Solution Here the integrand — 2+ L by = 5x +6 and find that Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 255 5: Poe Seo Pogrs6 7 P-5n46 DEED) Sx-5 B be @-2@-3 x2 ¥3 So that Sx-5= A (x—3)+B(x- Equating the coefficients of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A+ and 3A + 2B = 5, Solving these equations, we get A=—5 and B= pat Thus, Therefore, =x-S log lx 21+ 10 log lx—31+C. 3x-2 Example 13 Find Ps a Solution The integrand is of the type as given in Table 7.2 (4). We write 3; A B c G+ G43) x+1 GHD So that 3x-2=A (+1) (X +3) +B +3) +C Ot 1? =A (+ 4x +3) + B(x + 3)+COt+2x+1) Comparing coefficient of x°, x and constant term on both sides, we get A+C=0,4A4B +2C=3 and 3A + 3B + C-=~2. Solving these equations, we get £11 “Thus the integrand is given by 4 3x nos on (+43) fen nen 4043) jo? de 5 My de ae (rats) 7 4 ast - atx3 u oth xl hog | x43|+€ Gee oe = "Mioe| ##4|4 3 4c 4° | x43|" 204) Ratonalised 2023-24256 MATHEMATICS is a Example 14 Find [ ort Solution Consider ——*—— and put x’ = y. (8 +) GP +4) ‘Then a eon @4+DG7 +4) &+DO+4) Write 2 . O+DO+4) ~ YH yt4 So that Y= AQ+H4+BO4D) ‘Comparing coefficients of y and constant terms on both sides, we get A+ B =I and 4A +B =0, which give A vax Therefore, J ASE In the above example, the substitution was made only for the partial fraction part and not for the integration part. Now, we consider an example, where the integration involves a combination of the substitution method and the partial fraction method. jose 9 =2)c0s9 4 5— cos" —4sin d Solution Let y = sing Then dy = cos do Example 15 Find Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 257 Therefore, Now, we write [by Table 7.2 (2)] Therefore, AQ-2)4B ‘Comparing the coefficients of y and constant term, we get A= 3 and B 2. which gives A=3 and B=4, ‘Therefore, the required integral is given by 3 4 Jdy = Louie a 1 sioe|»-2}e4{-—L sc 4 2-sind = 3log| sin 9—2|+ +c = 3log (2=sin @) + +C (since, 2— sing is always positive) 2=sing vextlde Example 16 Find Spat Solution The integrand is a proper rational function. Decompose the rational function into partial fraction [Table 2.2(5)]. Write Sextl A Bre (+DG+2) 142° O41 Therefore, Peet LSA G4 1) + (Br+C) (+2) Ratonalised 2023-24258 MATHEMATICS Equating the coefficients of 1°, x and of constant term of both sides, we get A+B =I, 2B +C = 1 and A+ 2C = 1. Solving these equations, we get ‘Thus, the integrand is given by Sexe] 3 3 (4) GHDG+2) S042) PHL” S042) SUP aT Btxtl 4 3) de . (Gt Sexe2 SPS Therefore, J 3 Le) 2M antec = Glos] x+2|+stos| x +1 [+ Stan +c [EXERCISE 7.5] Integrate the rational functions in Exercises 1 to 21 x 3x-1 \ GDarD * GDG-26-9 a —* (GC) 5 =D = 2) (e-3) x B42 7 Sey . * Gare ie oN, i * =) Q@r+3) * @H Or -4) a 3x-1 3. Gopaee) MS roy 1 16. [Ge pp [Hints multiply numerator and denominator by x"! and put x" =] 17. ——S* ___yjine : Put si ~ (sin) @=sinay [Mint Putsine=a] Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 259 HD+) 4 2x 1 OF +3)? +4) * GP +N 0? +3) x(t 1 1 21. Geap Min: Pures =] Choose the correct answer in each of the Exercises 22 and 23. 18. xde @-DG-2 22. f equals ee (B) log () logls og (#1) + I 2 (©) tog lal+Fiog ©) Flosls+tog o*1)4+C 72.6 Integration by Parts In this section, we describe one more method of integration, that is found quite useful in integrating products of functions. If wand vare any two differentiable functions of a single variable x (say). Then, by the product rule of differentiation, we have ad dv du ay) = wey dx oD, dx dx Integrating both sides, we get ~@) dy Let u= f(a) and [>= g(0). Then du, eh and v= Jecae Ratonalised 2023-24260 MATHEMATICS ‘Therefore, expression (1) can be rewritten as. Jf@s@ adr = Sef sar- [fea (oar ie, free cde = foofe od dr-fL7’W) fe ariar If we take fas the first function and g as the second function, then this formula may be stated as follows: “The integral of the product of two functions = (first function) x (integral of the second function) - Integral of [ (differential coefficient of the first function) x (integral of the second function)” Example 17 Find [cos x dx Solution Put f (x) = x (first function) and g (x) = cos x (second function). ‘Then, integration by parts gives ad Jrcos.xde = x feos.xde— fI7-09 feos xdrl de = xsinx—fsin rdt =x sinx + cosx+C Suppose, we take f00 = cos x and g(x) = x. Then Jreosxdr = oo. fide — feos» frariae (cos) + Jain ‘Thus, it shows that the integral J x cos x dx is reduced to the comparatively more complicated integral having more power of x. Therefore, the proper choice of the first function and the second function is sig Remarks (@_ Iis worth mentioning that integration by parts is not applicable to product of functions in all cases. For instance, the method does not work for [x sin x de. ‘The reason is that there does not exist any function whose derivative is vr sinx, (i) Observe that while finding the integral of the second function, we did not add any constant of integration. If we write the integral of the second function cos.x Ratonalised 2023-24Gi) INTEGRALS 261 as sin.x + k, where k is any constant, then Jrcosxde = x(sin x+k)~ [isin xk) de x (sin x+k)—[ (sin xde-fk de x(sin x+k)—cos x— kx +C = x8in.x+¢08.x4+C This shows that adding a constant to the integral of the second function is superfluous so far as the final result is concerned while applying the method of integration by parts Usually, if any function is a power of x ora polynomial in x, then we take it as the t function, However, in cases where other function is inverse trigonometric function or logarithmic function, then we take them as first function. Example 18 Find flog rds Solution To start with, we are unable to guess a function whose derivative is log x. We take log.x asthe first function and the constant funetion | as the second function. Then, the integral of the second function is x Hence, Jaoge.yde = tog. fds fog.» faster Example 19 Find [xe%de Solution Take first function as x and second function as ¢*. The integral of the second, function is e* ‘Therefore, fre'de = ret Es le 20 Find }~7—> sample 20 Ba [SE Solution Let first function be sin ~ 'x and second function be First we find the integral of the second function, ie. f Puce I-ede = xe'—e +. xsin7 de xde Vier 28, Then dt = — 2x de Ratonalised 2023-24262 MATHEMATICS f= vie? venes, fF ae «in tof VR) [ph VIP ae Therefore, -¥ sin" 'ytx+C = x-Vi-x sin 'x+C Alternatively, this integral can also be worked out by making substitution sinv!x =@ and then integrating by parts, Example 21 Find fe" sin xdx Solution Take eas the first function and sin x as second function, Then, integrating by parts, we have I= fet sin. xdx =e" (—cos x)+ fetcos xdx =e cos.x +1, (say) é Taking e‘and cos x as the first and second functions, respectively, in I,, we get ‘Substituting the value of I, in (1), we get I=-e'cosx+e'sinx=I or 21=e' (sin x—cos.x) -() e sinx—fe'sin x de Hence, T= fe! sin xdv=<(sin x—coss) +C Alternatively, above integral can also be determined by taking sin.xas the first function and e* the second function, 7.6.1 Integral of the type [e*{ f(x) +f’ (dx We have Is fe [fant salar = fe" fears fe" fade = + Jes) de, where I= fe" fa) de a ‘Taking f(x) and e* as the first function and second function, respectively, in I, and integrating it by parts, we have 1, =/(x) e'~ [ f’@)e'dx+C ‘Substituting I, in (1), we get I= ef Q)-[fwe'des fe" fw) dr+C =e FQ +C Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 263 Thus, JeL f+ £aNde = eF f(x)4C ew @+Det Example 22 Find ) fet(an-bet >) dr Gy [7 ae Solution Lae (We have 1=[e"(tan 'x+ Tex Consider f(x) = tan 'x, then “(0 + ‘Thus, the given integrand is of the form e* [ f (x) +f“()] ‘Therefore, I= fe“(tan-!x+— Jax =e tar'x + ee i Wade 1p lel) We have 1= f&*VE gy = fer SE) Oe +l? ie arn] it 2 ae (ee Gl) col? , be ee Consider FO) = then Lo): er Thus, the given integrand is of the form e* [/(x) + ’@)] Therefore, (2b erde=2be 4c wd xl EXERCISE 7.6] Integrate the functions in Exercises 1 to 22, 1. xsinx 2. xsin3e 3 wer 4, xlogx 5. xlog 2x 6. Plog x 7. x sin lx 8. etn! x 9. x cos! x 10, (sin-'xy? u, 752 12. x sec? x 13. tantx 14, x(logx? 15. (+ I) loge Ratonalsed 2023-28268 MATHEMATICS (ey? 1¥c0s x (et) ee w. elo . Gop 1. sin xe" » { L+sinx 16. €* (sinx + cost) 17. 18. “ltycosx Choose the correct answer in Exercises 23 and 24, 23, fave" dx equals dese @) te" +c 1 sera OF ) fehac 24, fe'seex (1+ tan x) de equals (A) ecosx#C (B) esee x +C (©) esinx+C (D) ertanx+C 7.6.2 Integrals of some more types Here, we discuss some special types of standard integrals based on the technique of integration by parts : @ fra? ax Gi) [ir +a dx Gi) fa? —¥ ae @ Let I= fit 0 for x € [a, bl, the assertion made below is x‘ equally true for other functions as well]. ‘The area of this shaded region depends upon = Y Fig 7.1 the value of x. In other words, the area of this shaded region is a function of x. We denote this function of x by A(x), We call the function A(x) as Area function and is given by Ags [sfonde = () Based on this definition, the two basic fundamental theorems have been given. However, we only state them as their proofs are beyond the scope of this text book. 78.2. First fundamental theorem of integral calculus ‘Theorem 1 Let/be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and let A (x) be the area function, Then A’Gx) = f (x), for all x € [a, b]. Ratonalised 2023-24268 MATHEMATICS 78.3 Second fundamental theorem of integral calculus ‘We state below an important theorem which enables us to evaluate definite integrals by making use of anti derivative. ‘Theorem 2 Let be continuous function defined on the closed interval [a, b] and Fbe an anti derivative of f Then [? f(x)dr = [F(x)]2 = F (6) ~ Fla) Remarks @ (i aii) ww) @ (i Inwords, the Theorem 2tellsusthat J f(x) d= (value of the anti derivative F of f at the upper limit b — value of the same anti derivative at the lower limit a). This theorem is very useful, because it gives us a method of calculating the definite integral more easily, without calculating the limit of a sum. ‘The crucial operation in evaluating a definite integral is that of finding a function whose derivative is equal to the integrand, This strengthens the relationship between differentiation and integration. In J" F() dx. the function fneeds tobe well defined and continuous in [a,b]. Forinstance, he considefaon of denise [x 1) de iseroneus 1 since the function f expressed by/f(x) = x(x ~1)? is not defined in a portion = 1 <.x< 1 of the closed interval [- 2, 3] Steps for ealeulating {” f(x) de. Find the indefinite integral f (+) dv. Let this be F(x). There is no need to keep integration constant C because if we consider F(x) + C instead of F(x), we get J. fo) dr=IF ()+Clf =1F®) +Cl-[F@) + C]= FH) — Fla) Thus, the arbitrary constant disappears in evaluating the value of the definite integral. Evaluate F() ~ Fa) = [F (1), which is the value of f? fa de. ‘We now consider some examples Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 269 Example 25 Evaluate the following integrals: @ [pea w J. 7 30-28) xdx ays lean Gea Gv) J fsin’ 20 e082 dr Gi) J Solution de (@ Let =f x" de. since fx? de ‘Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem, we get 27_8_19 12 F@-FQ) V4. We fist fi the anti derivative ofthe integrand (ii) Let 4 0-7) s 3 Put 30~ x? =1-Then — Vir de dt or Vx dt = 2pdr 2f1]_ 2] 1 us of e5]-|=5| =F tims, -— Eten 252 [i] = 3] Le orn 0-37) 30 - x7). Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have (0-x?) T= F(Q)~F(4)= 2 ee *31G0-27) 30-8] 3|3 22] 99 2 xde Gi) Let faba Ratonalised 2023-24270 MATHEMATICS 2 (FD C2) xt #2 Using partial fraction, we get So JE = - top| x41 |+ 2I09| x42 GDG+D ~ ro Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have 1 = F(2)—F(1) = [- log 3 +2 log 4] — [- log 2 + 2 log 3] =-3log 3+ log 2+ 2 log 4= log {52 =~3log 3+ log 2 +2 log 4= log | = (iv) Let I= f sin’ 27 c0821 dt. Consider Jsin’2¢ cos 2r dt 1 Put sin 21 = 1 so that 2 c0s 2r dt = dor c0s 2r di = 5° die a, So Jsin’ 21 c082r dt= pfede 1 1 lut]=< sin‘ 2¢ = F (say gig (say ‘Therefore, by the second fundamental theorem of integral calculus ™ 1 sin’ 0} @-PO=Lsin" 2 8 [EXERCISE 7.8| Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 1 to 20, 1 fl@ebar 2 3. [iar sx? 46x49) 4, [isinaede 5, [Peosardr 6. fjetae 7 Sande 8. [heosce xa Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 271 dx sf? xdx . ja 2y41 o5y41 17, [i Qsect xt +2)de 18. 2 Sx 6. [= ‘i we e4rt3 6x43 » Nees de 20. ficxet +sin ae Choose the correct answer in Exercises 21 and 22, SB dx 21. {h Tee eas x 2n x x A 5 @> Og Oy fide 22. J Teoge canals ay = B) = Oo = p) = AS Ba Ox MF 7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution In the previous sections, we have discussed several methods for finding the indet integral. One of the important methods for finding the indefinite integral is the method of substit m, To evaluate pe F(x) dr , by substitution, the steps could be as follows: Consider the integral without limits and substitute, y =/(x) or =, the given integral to a known form. Integrate the new integrand with respect to the new variuble without mentioning the constant of integration Resubstitute for the new variable and write the answer in terms of the original variable Find the values of answers obtained in (3) atthe given limits of integral and find the difference of the values at the upper and lower limits, (9) o reduce Ratonalised 2023-24272 MATHEMATICS S Note]in order to quicken this method, we can proceed as follows: After performing steps 1, and 2, there is no need of step 3. Here, the integral will be kept, in the new variable itself, and the limits of the integral will accordingly be changed, so that we can perform the last step. Let us illustrate this by examples Example 26 Evaluate f' Sx*V8 +1 de. Solution Put = x5 + 1, then dt = Sx! dr. Therefore, Joxt'Vit +1 de = [Vea Hence, [ise Vera = Zluren'] [ewe “(co 33 3f-0| Zayy=th Alternatively, first we transform the integral and then evaluate the transformed integral with new limits, Let 2x54 1. Then dt = 5x1 ds. Note that, when x=~1,t=0 and when x=1,1=2 ‘Thus, as x varies from — 1 10 1, ¢ varies from 0 to 2 Therefore fise'VeH ae = [Nia tan’ lee Example 27 Evaluate f/ Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 273 Solution Let r= tan~'x, then dt dx. The new limits are, when x =0,1=0 and ies when x= 1, 1 ort . Thus, as x varies from 0 to 1, t varies from 0 to f van zoel Therefore dx= ‘t dt | — 0 cl (Stave fia [ST | EXERCISE 7.9 Evaluate the integrals in Exercises | to 8 using substitution. dx . 2 5, |. fgsin”'| S| de [eye % J Nbinvow’ ous. sin (2) JoaviF2 Pure 2=e) 2 de 1 de Oxted Choose the correct answer in Exercises 9 and 10. PDS 9, The value of the integral [| dx is ee 6 (B) 0 ©3 (D4 10. If f(a) = Jj sine de, then fe) is (A) cose +x sinx (B) xsinx ©) x cose (D) sine +x cose 7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals We list below some important properties of definite integrals. These will be useful in evaluating the definite integrals more easily. Py fi rendr=[? sear Pf fonde=-f* foods. mparicular J" fo)de=0 J peode= J‘ pooae+f? ponde Ratonalsed 2023-28278 MATHEMATICS © freae=f" asb—nac [jf@dc=[} fa-vde (Note that P, is a particular case of P,) Jp’ fevar= fo pendr+ [“sea-nae Pr J, Fepde=2]" fondrit f0a—9)=f(~) and OiffQa-x)=-f() @ fi food 24) fodder . if fis an even function, ic., if f(—x) =f). Gi) J )de=0, if fis an odd function, ic. ffx) =f. We give the proofs of these properties one by one. Proof of P, It follows directly by making the substitution x= Proof of P, Let F be anti derivative of f. Then, by the second fundamental theorem of calculus, we have f” f(a)dr=F()—F(@)=-[F(@)-F)I=-[" fade Here, we observe that, ia = b, then J." f(x) dx=0 Proof of P, Let F be anti derivative of f. Then [2fe)a = Fw) - Fa) a) [if@dr =F -F@) =O) and [sera = FH - Fe) 8 Adding 2) and (3), we get [‘Pedr+ J" foyde=FO)-Fla)= J" ford This proves the property P, Proof of P, Let 1= a +b —x. Then dt ‘Therefore [pends =f farb—oar dx, When x= a, = b and when x= b,1= 4. Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 275 = J fla+b-nat by Py = J) farb—n ax by P, Proof of P, Put ¢= a—x. Then dt =—dx. When x=0, ¢=a and when x= a, = 0. Now proceed as'in P,, Proof of P, Using P,, we have [." s(a)ae=f* foxy dee [fo de Let 1 = 2a~ xin the second integral on the right hand side. Then dt =~ dx. When x = a, t= a and when x= 2a, = 0. Also.x = 2a ~1 ‘Therefore, the second integral become: JE fede = f° sana = f° fea-nat = [fan ax Hence J" fonder = J" fapdr+ f "fade Proof of P, Using P,, wehave f°" fode=["foodr+]"fea—ode (1) Now, if f(a = x) = f(x), then (1) becomes Je revde = [2 perderf’ poy ae=2f "Fonds, and if fQa — x) == f(x), then (1) becomes Jo rerar= f2pear-f{ feo ar=0 Proof of P, Using P., we have [sends =f) fondrtf £6948, Then Let sin the fist integral on the right hand side. dx, When x= —a,1= a and when .1= 0, Alsox= 1 Therefore [i feoar =f rena] reyae =ffremder[Tfoode by P) Ratonalised 2023-24ne MaTHEMATICS (Now, if fis an even function, then f(-x) = f(x) and so (1) becomes [i forae=["roodes f7 fopde=2]" forde (IF Fis an odd function, then f(-x) = ~ f(x) and so (1) becomes [i ferdr=—-[F podc+ [5 fayde=0 Example 28 Evaluate J Solution We note that x’ — x 2 0 on [= 1, 0] and x°— x < 0 on 0, 1] and that 2° = x20 on [I, 2]. So by P, we write J x|de = [8-2 det fC tan x4 1 Example 38 Find {ls tog2)+ | Solution Let I= {lve (og, ol ae = flee 0089 a + fe In the first integral, let us take 1 as the second function. Then integrating it by parts, we get 1 xlogx dx 1 xlog (log) J i def idee ade 5 5 loge! Gogx? = log (log x) ~f Q Again, consider is take | as the second function and integrate it by parts, logx ah aes (sh Ratonalised 2023-24 (2)INTEGRALS 285 Putting (2) in (1), we get dx +f dx log (logx)-*-{__. [_ eee logx * (logxy * Gogx)? xlog (log x) -—*—+C logx Example 39 Find J [Veotx-+Jianx ] de Solution We have 1 J [Neots+ Jian] as = f Vian(1 cot) a Put tan x = F, so that sec*x dx = 2r dt 5 oe Te 1 2 Then l= fe 1d) dt ; faa V2ianx Fle few (EE Example 40 Find J 9 —cos*(2x) sin 2xcos 2x o— cos! 2x Solution Let 1 dx Ratonalised 2023-24288 MATHEMATICS Put cos? (2x) = #50 that 4 sin 2x cos 2x de =~ dt Therefore tp tain'(Z}c 3 Example 41 Evaluate f * |.xsin(wx) {dx sing xfor-1S.xS1 Solution Here f(a) = Lx sin xe l= aaa ~xsing xforl sx Therefore fous mxlde = Jlssinn deaf? xsingae = [sian de [Fasinzxde Integrating both integrals on righthand side, we get, [Lussine star [= ans) Example 42 Evaluate { * so xde © a? cos? x+b* sin” x (x-x)de Selationtetl= J © @ cos'(R— x) +6" sin" (= 3) (using P,) : ds epee in 98S Rootes Pats Io Femtxa Daas =o Thus = x] Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 285 or (osing P,) Sort] aes] Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 7 Integrate the functions in Exercises | to 23, 1 1 a Veron dere Janae MinePase 7) 1 ves sinx 5, mice “sin (xa) whe _ e2loex i cos* x 1 1 xeos? x By cos (x +a) cos (x +b) eee eee * (+e) Qte") “P40 +4) 15. cos*x elvt 16. eb (xt + Ip! 17. f’ (ax + b) [f(ax + by Ratonalised 2023-24286 MATHEMATICS eve 2+sin 2x 18. Kinxsingrtoy | Vip 20. Treos2x txt] oe 2. apa 72 am ? +1 [log (x? +) 2 logs as, Ve +i[oete? 10-2082] Evaluate the definite integrals in Exercises 24 to 31. 24. fie(ESa 25, [4S CS* gy pg, f2_cos xa = 8 \ eos, © Cost xt sin’ x © cost xt 45h F sin.x + cosx de sinc cos 27, [2 SOREN ae 28, fa, [ Se fin 2x Sora So'sst6sin2x 30, [sin 2ntan"sin) de Bt. fillx-tielx-21+1e—3ilde Prove the following (Exercises 32 to 37) ade 2 2 32. fA =F+los> 33. Siem 3785 34. fx" cost rdr=0 3% 36. JG 2tan? xdv=1log2 37. Choose the correct answers in Exercises 38 to 40 38. JA is equal to ete (A) tart (€) +C (B) tar + © log (ee) +€ (D) log (e+e + 39, [S24 a is equal to (inx+cosx) Ratonalised 2023-24INTEGRALS 287 ry +c (B) logisinx+cosxl+C sin.x+cos (©) logisinx—cos.xl+C ) Ginx+cosn? 10, I fla+b=s) =f(a), then [x fade is equal to 2 po-9 ax @ 2p formar atb « © he fxyde Summary © Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. Inthe differential calculus, we are given a function and we have to find the derivative or differential of this function, but in the integral calculus, we are to find a function whose differential is given. Thus, integration is a process which is the inverse of differentiation, d Let J Fx)= £(2). Then we write J FG) ae=F ()+C. These integrals are called indefinite integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of integration. All these integrals differ by a constant. © Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows: 1. JUPC)+e Wldr= J fO)dr+ fe (a) dx 2, For any real number k, [& f(x) de=kf f(x) de More generally, iff. fi fy = »f, are functions and k,, ky «ok, are real numbers, Then JU AO) +f) +.+k FCO] de Jie derk [peodertk, [fodder © Some standard integrals +C,n#—1. Particularly, fdr=x+C Ratonalsed 2023-28288 MATHEMATICS Gi) feosxde=sins +C ii) fsinx dx =—cosx+C cotx+€ Gi) fce?adr=tms+C Oy eens (vy face rtandr=seex+C dx (it) [oosee xeotxdx=—cosec x+C (vii) irees (xiv) fear loglxl+C. Integration by partial fractions Pox) Recall that a rational function is ratio of two polynomials of the Form Gy ‘where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) #0. If degree of the polynomial P (x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial Q(x), then we P(x) RQ) may divide P(x) by (a) so that ——=T (x)+——, where T(x) is a ~ ue a “a polynomial in x and degree of P, (x) is less than the degree of Q(x). T(x) being polynomial can be easly integrated, eat can be integrated by 5 P expressing eat as the sum of partial fractions of the following type: ees eS G-aG-b) px+q cma = Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 289 5 bearer | Ga G- a= pe tqctr 4 Gab) a , pxitgetr (r=a)( +bx+0e) ~ xa tbxte where x° + bx + ¢ can not be factorised further. @ Integration by substitution A change in the variable of integration often reduces an integral to one of the fundamental integrals. The method in which we change the variable to some ‘ther variable is called the method of substitution. When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we use some well known identities to find the integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following standard integrals, (i franxde=log|seex|+C iy, feorx as log|sinx|+C (iil) seex de=log| seex+tan.x|+C: (iv) Joosecx de-=log|cosee x -cotx|+C © Integrate of aon etal AKBIons O.. a atx de ees ar BL ccaracaG bog] VP =e [+00 Ios logix+ Vx? +4714 Integration by parts For given functions f; and f,, we have Ratonalsed 2023-28290 MATHEMATICS: Jac Aerde= 409 [orae—f[ Lhe Jrcoas|ac, i.e., the integral of the product of two functions = first function x integral of the second function — integral of {differential coefficient of the first function x integral of the second function}. Care must be taken in choosing the first function and the second function. Obviously, we must take that function as the second function whose integral is well known to us. © feLfat folde=fe' fay dr+e © Some special types of integrals +C @ Jira? ax a a fa? ~Ftog| x Vi? a Vira + tg eee Gi) [VP +a? ax en ee de dx (iv) Integrals of the types [——“— or [——“——can be Iga" arse ‘transformed into standard form by expressing pereren [Pbees-o( 8) (2-4) eee (©) Imegrals of the types Jo? she+e” ! Ja epeve cam PE transformed into standard form by expressing peeq=AZ (ar +br+c)+B=AQar+b)+B, where A and B are determined by comparing coefficients on both sides. © Wehave defined [ ° f(x) dy as the area of the region bounded by the curve and x =b, Let.xbe a y= f(), a Sx b, the x-axis and the ordinates x = Ratonalsed 2023-28INTEGRALS 291 Ratonalised 2023-24